STRATHMORE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COMMUNICATIONS SKILLS 1

LANGUAGE
Language as a tool
Language, as a system of acquiring and using complex structures of
communication, is distinguished between two components in theory of knowledge;
language as a tool and language as reality. In this section we are going to consider
language as a tool. There are several manners in which language is used as a tool
and in which aids cognition (understanding); one is memory augmentation, in
which language allows the environment as an extra-cranial memory store such as
physical materials capable of systematically storing large and complex quantities
of information, for example artifactual texts. Secondly, environmental
simplification; which is linguistic labels used to
simplify the human environment. These labels, once
learned reduce the cognitive effort involved in
everyday activities such as names of physical objects English is the most
in our surroundings. For example, instead of taking prevalent language in
time to describe a tall structure with a trunk, branches international business, but
and green items on it we simply use the word tree. dont assume that everyone
The third way in which language is used as a tool is understands it or speaks it
in the same way (Bovee, C.
Co-ordination and the Reduction of on-line & Thill, J., 2008 p. 76)
deliberation. Language in this fashion allows clear
plan coordination of actions. Words allow more
efficient organisation and reduced memory load of
complex representation. An example of this is
instructions for an activity one carries out. Language, through the possibility of
communication, allows for individuals to interact and form contacts with others.
Language in a way allows problem solving to become a communal and cumulative
activity. Lastly, the mangrove effect: language as a tool of communication
becomes responsible for a complex of distinctive features of human thought which
contributes to self-evaluation, self-criticism, and counteractive responses. i

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As Commerce continues to become more and more globalized, the demand for
multilingual communicators continues to grow as well.
Shifts in business patterns can dramatically affect
language learning too. To simplify matters, some The former major barriers to
companies ask their employees to use English when international trade time and
communicating with employees in other countries, distance have diminished. Their
ii
wherever they are located. Certain professions, for decline, however, has emphasized
the presence of two others
instance in the aviation industry, command of English as cultural and language differences.
a language is mandatory. We can therefore conclude that -Clark, L, Zimmer, K, Tinervia, J.
language, and the English language for our intents and (Eds.) Business and English
purpose, is a vital tool of communication. Communication, 2001, p.24

Language and Culture

We have already considered how various cultural differences can constitute
barriers to effective communication. (Encourage students to refer to the cultural
aspects of barriers to effective Communication). Language can also be said to be a
tool for promoting culture. However, two countries speaking the same language
may not speak it in the same way. For example, the French spoken in Quebec and
other parts of Canada is often noticeably different from the French spoken in
France. The differences in the English spoken in the United Kingdom and the
United States are many.
In Kenya, the language of official and business communication, including
grammar and spelling is British English.
Communication styles vary widely from culture to culture. Knowing what your
communication partners expect can help you adapt to their particular style.
Learning the basics of the language in a foreign culture will be of help to one who
intends to communicate successfully in the said culture.
iii
Verbal and Non Verbal Language/Communication

Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent on a number of factors and

cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as non-
verbal communication, listening skills and clarification.

Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite and following some
basic rules of etiquette will all aid the process of verbal communication.

This topic is designed to help you think about how you communicate verbally. It
includes information on the processes involved and the steps you can take to help
ensure that verbal or spoken messages are received as intended.

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Opening Communication

In many interpersonal encounters, the first few minutes are extremely important as
first impressions have a significant impact on the success of further
communication.

Everyone has expectations and norms as to how initial meetings should proceed
and people tend to behave according to these expectations. If these expectations are
mismatched, communication will not be effective or run smoothly, and some form
of negotiation or intervention will be needed if relations are to continue.

At a first meeting, formalities and appropriate greetings are usually expected: such
formalities could include a handshake, an introduction to yourself, eye contact and
discussion around a neutral subject such as the weather or your journey may be
useful. A friendly disposition and smiling face are much more likely to encourage
communication than a blank face, inattention or disinterested reception.

Reinforcement

The use of encouraging words alongside non-verbal gestures such as head nods, a
warm facial expression and maintaining eye contact, are more likely to reinforce
openness in others.

The use of encouragement and positive reinforcement can:

Encourage others to participate in discussion (particularly in group work)

Signify interest in what other people have to say
Pave the way for development and/or maintenance of a relationship
Allay fears and give reassurance
Show warmth and openness.
Reduce shyness or nervousness in ourselves and others.

Effective Listening

Active listening is an important skill and yet, as communicators, people tend to

spend far more energy considering what they are going to say rather than listening
to what the other person is trying to say.

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Although active listening is a skill in itself, it is also vital for effective verbal
communication.

The following points are essential for effective and active listening:

Arrange a comfortable environment conducive to the purpose of the

communication, for example a warm and light room with minimal
background noise.
Be prepared to listen.
Keep an open mind and concentrate on the main direction of the speaker's
message.
Avoid distractions if at all possible.
Delay judgment until you have heard everything.
Be objective.
Do not be trying to think of your next question while the other person is
giving information.
Do not dwell on one or two points at the expense of others.
The speaker should not be stereotyped. Try not to let prejudices associated
with, for example, gender, ethnicity, social class, appearance or dress
interfere with what is being said. In any case it always helps to dress and
behave according to ones duties, position and age.

Questioning

Effective questioning is an essential skill. Questioning can be used to:

Obtain information.
Start a conversation.
Test understanding.
Draw someone into a conversation.
Show interest in a person.
Seek support or agreement.

Closed Questions

Closed questions tend to seek only a one or two word answer (often simply 'yes' or
'no') and, in doing so, limit the scope of the response. Two examples of closed
questions are "Did you travel by car today?" and "Did you see the football game
yesterday?" These types of question mean control of the communication is
maintained by the questioner yet this is often not the desired outcome when trying

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to encourage verbal communication. Nevertheless, closed questions can be useful
for focusing discussion and obtaining clear, concise answers when needed.

Open Questions

Open questions broaden the scope for response since they demand further
discussion and elaboration. For example, "What was the traffic like this morning?"
or "What do you feel you would like to gain from this discussion?" Open questions
will take longer to answer, but they do give the other person far more scope for
self-expression and encourage involvement in the conversation.

Reflecting and Clarifying

Reflecting is the process of feeding-back to another person your understanding of

what has been said. Although reflecting is a specialized skill used within
counseling, it can also be applied to a wide range of communication contexts and is
a useful skill to learn.

Reflecting often involves paraphrasing the message communicated to you by the

speaker in your own words, capturing the essence of the facts and feelings
expressed, and communicating your understanding back to the speaker. It is a
useful skill because:

You can check that you have understood the message clearly.
The speaker gets feedback as to how the message is received.
It shows interest in, and respect for, what the other person has to say.
You are demonstrating that you are considering the other persons
viewpoint.

Summarizing

A summary is an overview of the main points or issues raised. Summarizing can

also serve the same purpose as 'reflecting'. However, summarizing allows both
parties to review and agree the communication exchanged between them up to that
point in time. When used effectively, summaries may also serve as a guide to the
next steps forward.

Closing Communication

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The way a communication is closed or ended will, at least in part, determine the
way a conversation is remembered.

A range of subtle, or sometimes not so subtle, signals are used to end an

interaction. For example, some people may avoid eye contact, stand up, turn their
body away, or use behaviour such as looking at a watch or closing notepads or
books. All of these non-verbal actions indicate to the other person that the initiator
wishes to end the communication.

Closing an interaction too abruptly may not allow the other person to 'round off'
what he or she is saying so you should ensure there is time for winding-up. The
closure of an interaction is a good time to make any future arrangements. Last, but
not least, this time will no doubt be accompanied by a number of socially
acceptable parting gestures.

Non-Verbal Communication

Interpersonal communication not only involves the explicit meaning of words, the
information or message conveyed, but also refers to implicit messages, whether
intentional or not, which are expressed through non-verbal behaviour.

Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the
voice, gestures displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical
distance between the communicators (proxemics). These non-verbal signals can
give clues and additional information and meaning over and above spoken (verbal)
communication.

Non-verbal Messages Allow People To:

Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may nod
their heads vigorously when saying "Yes" to emphasise that they agree with
the other person, but a shrug of the shoulders and a sad expression when
saying "I'm fine thanks, may imply that things are not really fine at all!
Convey information about their emotional state.
Define or reinforce the relationship between people.
Provide feedback to the other person.
Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signalling to others
that they have finished speaking or wish to say something.

Many popular books on non-verbal communication present the topic as if it were a

language that can be learned, the implication being that if the meaning of every
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nod, eye movement, and gesture were known, the real feelings and intentions of a
person would be understood.

Unfortunately interpreting non-verbal communication is not that simple. It can be

influenced by the context in which it occurs. For example, a nod of the head
between colleagues in a committee meeting may mean something very different to
when the same action is used to acknowledge someone across a crowded room.

Interpersonal communication is further complicated in that it is usually not

possible to interpret a gesture or expression accurately on its own. Non-verbal
communication consists of a complete package of expressions, hand and eye
movements, postures, and gestures which should be interpreted along with verbal
communication.

The types of interpersonal communication that are not expressed verbally are
called non-verbal communications.

These include:

Body Movements (Kinesics)

Posture
Eye Contact
Para-language
Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics)
Facial Expressions
Physiological Changes

Types of Non-Verbal Communication

When we communicate, non-verbal cues can be as important, or in some cases

even more important, than what we say. Non-verbal communication can have a
great impact on the listener and the outcome of the communication.

There are many different aspects of non-verbal communication including:

Body Language or Body Movements (Kinesics)

Body movements include gestures, posture, head and hand movements or

whole body movements. Body movements can be used to reinforce or emphasise
what a person is saying and also offer information about the emotions and attitudes
of a person. However, it is also possible for body movements to conflict with what

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is said. A skilled observer may be able to detect such discrepancies in behaviour
and use them as a clue to what someone is really feeling.

Research work has identified the different categories of body movement that are
detailed below with each category describing the purpose they commonly serve:

Emblems: Gestures that serve the same function as a word are called
emblems. For example, the signals that mean 'OK', 'Come here!', or the hand
movement used when hitch-hiking. However, be aware that whilst some
emblems are internationally recognised, others may need to be interpreted in
their cultural context.
Illustrators: Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal
message are known as illustrators. For example, the common circular hand
movement which accompanies the phrase 'over and over again', or nodding
the head in a particular direction when saying 'over there'.
Affect Displays: These are facial expressions or gestures which show the
emotions we feel. These are often unintentional and can conflict with what is
being said. Such expressions give strong clues as to the true emotional state
of a person.
Regulators: Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called
regulators, for example head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm',
and expressions of interest or boredom. Regulators allow the other person to
adapt his or her speech to reflect the level of interest or agreement. Without
receiving feedback, many people find it difficult to maintain a conversation.
Adaptors: Non-verbal behaviours which either satisfy some physical need
such as scratching or adjusting uncomfortable glasses, or represent a
psychological need such as biting fingernails when nervous. Although
normally subconscious, adaptors are more likely to be restrained in public
places than in the private world of individuals where they are less likely to
be noticed. Adaptive behaviours often accompany feelings of anxiety or
hostility.

Posture

Posture can reflect people's emotions, attitudes and intentions. Research has
identified a wide range of postural signals and their meanings, such as:

Open and Closed Posture: Two forms of posture have been identified, open and
closed, which may reflect an individual's degree of confidence, status or
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receptivity to another person. Someone seated in a closed position might have
his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be positioned at a slight angle from the person
with whom they are interacting. In an open posture you might expect to see
someone directly facing you with hands apart on the arms of the chair. An open
posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone and a
readiness to listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or
disinterest.

Mirroring: Notice the way a loving couple relate to each other. You might like to
observe a close relationship in person or on television. You will see that the
partners' postures will match, as if one partner is a mirror reflection of the other.
For example, if one partner drapes an arm over the back of a chair this might be
replicated in the other person's position. If one partner frowns, it could be reflected
in the other partner's facial expression. This 'mirroring' indicates interest and
approval between people and serves to reassure others of interest in them and what
they are saying.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is an important aspect of non-verbal behaviour. In interpersonal

interaction, it serves three main purposes:

To give and receive feedback: Looking at someone lets them know that the
receiver is concentrating on the content of their speech. Not maintaining eye
contact can indicate disinterest. Communication may not be a smooth
process if a listener averts their eyes too frequently.
To let a partner know when it is their 'turn' to speak: This is related to
the above point. Eye contact is more likely to be continuous when someone
is listening, rather than speaking. When a person has finished what they have
to say, they will look directly at the other person and this gives a signal that
the arena is open. If someone does not want to be interrupted, eye contact
may be avoided.
To communicate something about a relationship between people: When
you dislike someone, you tend to avoid eye contact and pupil size is often
reduced. On the other hand, the maintenance of positive eye contact signals
interest.

Para-language

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Para-language relates to all aspects of the voice which are not strictly part of the
verbal message, including the tone and pitch of the voice, the speed and volume, at
which a message is delivered, and pauses and hesitations between words.

These signals can serve to indicate feelings about what is being said. Emphasising
particular words can imply whether or not feedback is required.

Closeness and Personal Space (Proxemics)

Every culture has different levels of physical closeness appropriate to different

types of relationship, and individuals learn these distances from the society in
which they grew up.

In today's multicultural society, it is important to consider the range of non-verbal

codes as expressed in different ethnic groups. When someone violates an
'appropriate' distance, people may feel uncomfortable or defensive. Their actions
may well be open to misinterpretation.

In Western society, four distances have been defined according to the relationship
between the people involved. The study of personal space is termed proxemics.

The Four Main Categories of Proxemics

Intimate Distance (touching to 45cm)

Personal Distance (45cm to 1.2m)
Social Distance (1.2m to 3.6m)
Public Distance (3.7m to 4.5m)

These four distances are associated with the four main types of relationship -
intimate, personal, social and public.

Understanding these distances allows us to approach others in non-threatening and

appropriate ways. People can begin to understand how others feel about them, how
they view the relationship and, if appropriate, adjust their behaviour accordingly.

Non-verbal communication is an extremely complex yet integral part of overall

communication skills. However, people are often totally unaware of the non-verbal
behaviour they use.

A basic awareness of non-verbal communication strategies, over and above what is

actually said can help to improve interaction with others. Knowledge of these signs

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can be used to encourage people to talk about their concerns and can lead to a
greater shared understanding - the purpose of communication.

References
i. www.studymode.com/essays/Language-As-a-Tool-And-Language-
43917430.html
ii. Bovee, L. Courtland & Thill, V. John, Business Communication Today 9th
Ed, Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey, (2008) p. 75 -77
iii. http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/nonverbal-communication.html

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