Biochemistry,

study of the chemical substances and processes that occur in plants, animals, and
microorganisms and of the changes they undergo during development and life.
It deals with the chemistry of life, and as such it draws on the techniques of
analytical, organic, and physical chemistry, as well as those of physiologists
concerned with the molecular basis of vital processes.
All chemical changes within the organismeither the degradation of substances,
generally to gain necessary energy, or the buildup of complex molecules necessary
for life processesare collectively termed metabolism.
These chemical changes depend on the action of organic catalysts known as
enzymes, and enzymes, in turn, depend for their existence on the genetic apparatus
of the cell. It is not surprising, therefore, that biochemistry enters into the
investigation of chemical changes in disease, drug action, and other aspects of
medicine, as well as in nutrition, genetics, and agriculture.
Overview of Metabolism
Introduction:

Metabolism is the sum total of all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the
living state of the cells, and thus the organism. In general metabolism may be
divided into two categories: catabolism or the break down of molecules to obtain
energy; and anabolism or the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells
(examples are DNA, RNA, an protein synthesis). The diagram on the left contains a
summary of all the types of metabolism that will be examined. In this module, the
electron transport chain is examined.

Bioenergetics is a term which describes the biochemical or metabolic pathways by

which the cell ultimately obtains energy.

Nutrition is a science that deals with the relation of food substance to living things.
In the study of nutrition, the following items must be considered: a) bodily
requirement for various substances; b) function in body; c) amount needed; d) level
below which poor health results. Essential foods supply energy (calories) and supply
the necessary chemicals which the body itself cannot synthesize. Food provides a
variety of substances that are essential for the building, upkeep, and repair of body
tissues, and for the efficient functioning of the body.

A complete diet must supply the elements; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, and at least 18 other inorganic elements. The major elements
are supplied in carbohydrates, lipids, and protein. In addition, at least 17 vitamins
and water are necessary. If an essential nutrient is omitted from the diet, certain
deficiency symptoms appear.

Minerals:

The minerals in foods do not contribute directly to energy needs but are important
as body regulators and as essential constituents in many vital substances within the
body. A MINERAL is rather loosely defined as any element not normally a part of the
structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. More than 50 elements are found in
the human body.

About 25 elements have been found to be essential, since a deficiency produces

specific deficiency symptoms. All of the minerals required by the human body are
probably not known at this time. Although minerals may not be part of the
structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, they are mixed in the foods in trace
amounts during the growing process by uptake from the soil.
Major Minerals Include: calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, and chloride
ions.
Other Essential Minerals Include: copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, magnesium,
fluorine, and iodin
Vitamins:

Vitamins are essential organic compounds that the human body cannot synthesize
by itself and must therefore, be present in the diet. The term vitamin (vital amines)
was coined by Casmir Funk from the Latin vita meaning "life" (essential for life) and
amine because he thought that all of these compounds contained an amine
functional group.

Vitamins particularly important in metabolism include:

Vitamin A: The yellow and green pigments found in vegetables are called carotenes
which are pro vitamins and are converted into Vitamin A. The role of vitamin A in
Vision has already been discussed in a previous page.

Vitamin B2 is better known as riboflavin and is widely distributed in many foods.

Riboflavin is used to form a coenzyme FAD important in the utilization of oxygen in
the cells.

Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid, is also in the B complex of vitamins. Nicotinic
acid was first obtained from the alkaloid nicotine in tobacco and was later found in
many plant and animal tissues as niacin.

Nicotinamide is a part of the important coenzyme, Nicotinamide Adenine

Dinucleotide (NAD). This NAD+ coenzyme is important during biological oxidations
and is discussed in detail in a later page.

Pantothenic Acid is art of the structure of coenzyme A.

Carbohydrates:

Foods supply carbohydrates in three forms: starch, sugar, and cellulose (fiber).
Starch and sugar are major and essential sources of energy for humans. A lack of
carbohydrates in the diet would probably result in an insufficient number of calories
in the diet. Cellulose furnishes bulk in the diet.

Since the tissues of the body need glucose at all times, the diet must contain
substances such as carbohydrates or substances which will yield glucose by
digestion or metabolism. For the majority of the people in the world, more than half
of the diet consists of carbohydrates from rice, wheat, bread, potatoes, macaroni.

Proteins:

All life requires protein since it is the chief tissue builder and part of every cell in the
body. Among other functions, proteins help to: make hemoglobin in the blood that
carries oxygen to the cells; form anti-bodies that fight infection; supply nitrogen for
DNA and RNA genetic material; and supply energy.
Proteins are necessary for nutrition because they contain amino acids. Among the
20 or more amino acids, the human body is unable to synthesize 8, therefore, these
amino acids are called essential amino acids. A food containing protein may be of
poor biological value if it is deficient in one or more of the 8 essential amino acids:
lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, valine, and
threonine. Proteins of animal origin have the highest biological value because they
contain a greater amount of the essential amino acids. Foods with the best quality
protein are listed in diminishing quality order: whole eggs, milk, soybeans, meats,
vegetables, and grains.
Fats and Lipids:
Fats are concentrated sources of energy because they give twice as much energy as
either carbohydrates or protein on a weight basis. The functions of fats are to: make
up part of the structure of cells, form a protective cushion and heat insulation
around vital organs, carry fat soluble vitamins, and provide a reserve storage for
energy.
Three unsaturated fatty acids which are essential include: linoleic, linolinic, and
arachidonic and have 2, 3, and 4 double bonds respectively. Saturated fats, along
with cholesterol, have been implicated in arteriosclerosis, "hardening of the
arteries". For this reason, the diet should be decreased in saturated fats (animal)
and increased in unsaturated fat (vegetable).
a) MH + NAD+ ---> NADH + H+ + M + energy

b) ADP + P + energy ---> ATP + H2O

The overall reaction for the combustion of glucose is written:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -----> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy

Although the above equation represents the overall metabolic reaction for
carbohydrates, there are actually over thirty individual reactions. Each reaction is
controlled by a different enzyme. The failure of an enzyme to function may have
serious and possibly fatal consequences. Slightly less than half of the 686 kcal/mole
of the energy produced by combustion is available for storage and use by the cell
with the remaining amount dissipated as heat.