First published 1989

Revised from the 1985 Russian edition

Translated from the Russian by

V. Afanasyev

Ha allZAUUCKOM!l3blKe

Printed in the Union

of Soviet Socia/ist Repub/ics

ISBN 5-03-000073-9 @ H3~aTeJIbCTBO He~pa, 1985

@ English translation, Mir Publishers, 1989
 Contents

Preface 9

Chapter One. Subject-Matter of Mine Surveying. Historical Notes 10

I.I. Subject-Matter 10
1.2. Brief Notes on History of Mine Surveying 12

Chapter Two. General Figure of the Earth, Systems of coordina-

tes, Control and Survey Underground Nets and
Surface Surveys 16
2.1. General Figure of the Earth 16
2.2. Geographic System of Coordinates 17
2.3. System of Plane Rectangular Coordinates .18
2.4. National System of Rectangular Coordinates 19
2.5. Geodetic Reference Nets 22
2.6. National Geodetic Nets 23
2.7. Geodetic Bridging Nets 26
2.8. Geodetic Survey Nets 28
2.9. General Data on Surveys 29

Chapter Three. Graphical Documentation in Mine Surveying 33

3.1. General 33
3.2. Classification of Drawings and Rules of Mapping 35
3.3. Drawing Materials. Technology and Rules for Making and Storage of
Mining Graphical Documentation 36
3.4. Mechanization ,of Graphical Work 36
3.5. Processes and Materials for Reproduction of Mining Graphical
Documentation 37
Chapter Four. Connection Surveys 39
4.1. General 39
4.2. Orientation of Underground Survey via Horizontal or Inclined
Adit 41
4.3. Geometric Orientation 41
4.4. Orientation down One Vertical Shaft 42
4.5. Sequence and Organization of Work for Orientation down One
Vertical Shaft 42

4.6. Plumbing Surface Points onto Oriented Mine Level 44

4.7. Connection to Plumb Line Points in Orientation down One Vertical

Shaft 46
4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey via Two Vertical Shafts 49
4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey with Use of Gyrocompasses 58
4.10. Vertical Connection Surveys 7n
6 Contents

Chapter Five. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings 74

5.1. General on Underground Mining Surveys 74
5.2. Horizontal Underground Surveys 7~
5.3. Underground Reference Nets of Plan Control
5.4. Construction of Underground Reference Nets
5.5. Survey Nets 81
5.6. Types of Station Points of Reference and Survey Nets. Their
Fixation 82
5.7. Theodolites 84
5.8. Tests and Adjustments of Theodolites 92
5.9. Centring of Theodolites and Signals 93
5.10. Measurements of Horizontal Angles 98
5.11. Measurements of Inclination Angles 104
5.12. Measurements of Side Lengths of Theodolite Traverses 107
5.13. Distance Measurements by Light Range Finders III
5.14. Detailed Survey of Underground Workings III
5.15. Office Analysis of Results of Underground Theodolite Survey and
Calculation of Point Coordinates 112
5.16. Accumulation of Errors in Underground Theodolite Surveys 116

Chapter Six. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings 121

6.1. General 121
6.2. Levels 122
6.3. Levelling Staffs 133
6.4. Geometric Levelling in Underground Workings 134
6.5. Office Analysis of Results of Geometric Levelling 137
6.6. Errors in Geometric Levelling 137
6.7. Trigonometric Levelling 138
6.8. Errors in Trigonometric Levelling 140

Chapter Seven. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings 142

7.1. General 142
7.2. Instruments for Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings 143
7.3. Surveys of Stope Workings in Coal Fields 148
7.4. Surveys of Underground Chambers and Cavities 150
7.5. Surveys of Preparatory Workings 154
7.6. Surveys of Blast Holes 155
7.7. Orientation of Sublevel Workings 157
7.8. Measurements of Mining Workings and Reserves of Mineral In
Stocks

Chapter Eight. Special Surveys in Underground Workings 167

8.1. Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 167
8.2. Surveying of Workings Driven from Two Ends 181
8.3. Preliminary Estimation of Accuracy of Face Connection 185

Chapter Nine. Surveying in Mine Construction 188

9.1. General 188
9.2. Surveying at Mine Camp 193
9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 195
9.4. Survey Work During Sinking of Vertical Shafts 218
9.5. Survey Work for Arranging of Shaft Equipment 221
 Contents 7

9.6. Survey Work During Driving of Shaft Workings 228

9.7. Survey Work During Driving of Vertical Shafts by Special Methods 229
9.8. Survey Work During Deepening of Vertical Shafts 234
Chapter Ten. Surveying in Quarries 238
10.1. General 238
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 238
10.3. Mine-Surveying Coverage of Drilling and Blasting Work 260
10.4. Survey Work for Transport Servicing 262
10.5. Survey Work in Trenching 263
10.6. Survey Work in Open-Cast Mining with Conveyer Bridges 264
10.7. Calculations of Volumes of Extracted Overburden Rock and
Mineral in Quarries 266
10.8. Reclamation of Land 269
10.9. Survey Work in Open-Cast Mining of Placer Deposits 270
Chapter Eleven. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Surface
Structures 272
11.1. Introductory Notes 272
I 1.2. General Data on Rock Disturbance 274
I 1.3. Rock Displacement Parameters 275
I 1.4. Factors Responsible for Rock Displacement 280
I 1.5. Monitoring Rock Displacement. Observation Stations 283
I 1.6. Calculations of Rock Displacement 287
I 1.7. Measures for Protecting Surface Structures 290
I 1.8. Construction of Safety Pillars 291

Chapter Twelve. Stability of Quarry Flanks 295

12.1. Principal Causes and Kinds of Rock Deformation 295
12.2. Factors Affecting Flank Stability 296
12.3. Mine-Surveying Observations on Rock Mining Deformations in
Open-Cast Mining 300
12.4. Stability of Working Benches and Flanks of Quarries 303
12.5. Measures for Controlling Landslides 305
12.6. Artificial Strengthening of Rock Massif 306

Chapter Thirteen. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety 309

13.I. Role of Mine-Surveying Service in Mining Safety 309
13.2. Control of Mining Work near Old Workings 309
13.3. Examples of Calculation and Construction of Dangerous Zones 311
13.4. Construction of Zones of Elevated Rock Pressure 315
13.5. Construction of Dangerous Zones for Mining Work in Seams
Liable to Coal, Gas and Rock Bursts 318

Chapter Fourteen. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Explo-

ration 324
14.1. Brief Data on Geological Exploration 324
14.2. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Work 325
14.3. Topographic Basis of Geological Exploration 327
14.4. Transfer of Plan of Exploratory Workings into Nature 328
14.5. Layout of Exploratory Ditches 334
14.6. Geodetic Control of Geophysical Prospecting Methods 336
8 Contents

14.7. Mine-Surveying Work in Geophysical Prospecting 340

14.8. Barometric Levelling of Geological Observation Objects 345

Chapter Fifteen. Mine-Surveying Work for Mineral Extraction in

Water Areas of Seas and Oceans 349
15.1. General 349
15.2. Brief Data on Geomorphology of Ocean Bottom Relief 350
15.3. Characteristics of Some Solid Minerals 351
15.4. Mine-Surveying Service of Geological Prospecting and Mining in
Water Areas 351
15.5. Marine Mine-Surveying Reference Nets 353
15.6. Special Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas 355
15.7. Routine Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas 356
15.8. Determination of Plan Coordinates of Floating Vessels 358
15.9. Depth Measurements 358
15.10. Calculation of Volumes of Extracted Rock 360
Index 362
 Chapter One
Subject-Matter of
Historical
1.1. Subject-Matter
M odern mine surveying is a branch of the
mining science and industry which is concer-
ned with surveys on the land surface and
underground during the prospecting and
extraction of mineral deposits and the const-
ruction of mining plants; the results of
surveys are then used for plotting the plans of
mining workings and bedding conditions of
deposits and also for the solution of various
problems of the mining geometry.
At the early period of its existence, mine
surveying could be characterized simply as
underground geodesy. In some countries, it is
still called in this way (for instance, 'geodesie
souterraine' in France). In the course of its
progress, however, mine surveying has be-
come a complex discipline which includes not
only the methods and techniques of the
survey work (mine surveying proper), but
also the estimation of the accuracy of mea-
surements and calculations based on the
method of least squares and the theory of
probability; geodetic and mine-surveying
instrumentation; mining geometry; studies of
displacements and pressure of rocks (mining
geomechanics),etc. All these aspects of mine
surveying have the same objectives: to ensure
safe and efficient exploitation of mineral
deposits on the bases of the instrumental
measurements performed under particular
mining and geological conditions of a mining
plant.
Modern mine surveying has to cope with
more diversified and complex problems. The
quality and productivity of the survey work
Mine Surveying.
Notes
have increased drastically due to the realiza-
tion of the latest achievements of science and
engineering. There is a trend to form speciali-
zed mine-surveyor teams for making a
particular kind of survey work at a number
of mining plants (for instance, mine-surveying
groups for the orientation of mines with the
use of gyrocompasses or for surveying of
open-cast pits by aerial and ground stereo-
photogrammetry). The prime task of mine-
surveying service, as earlier, is however the
compilation of plans of mining enterprises
which are required for the normal exploita-
tion of mineral deposits and represent the
current state of deposits and underground or
surface workings and structures and buil-
dings on the land surface.
Certain progress has been made recently in
the methods and techniques of mine sur-
veying. New solutions have been proposed
for the orientation and construction of
underground reference nets. High-precision
theodolites and light range finders have come
into use for the construction of reference nets.
New instruments and methods have been
proposed for the surveys of quarries. Serious
investigations have been completed in the
field of mine surveying in the construction
and reconstruction of mines. In particular,
special methods have been suggested for the
survey work during mounting of hoisting
machines on tower head-frames and the
construction of mine shafts. Laser instru-
ments are finding ever wider use for direction
assigning and control in vertical and horizon-
tal workings, arrangement of equipment of
vertical shafts, track laying in horizontal
 1.1. Subject-Matter
workings, mounting of conveyers, laying of
pipelines, etc.
An essential progress has been done in the
methods and instruments for plotting the
mining graphical documentation and in the
materials for making mine-surveying plans
and sections. Field measurements and office
work in mine surveying are now carried out
with the use of diverse and rather intricate
instruments and devices, in particular, high-
precision optico-mechanical systems and
electronic devices. Among many achieve-
ments in this field, it is worth to mention
small-sized mine-surveying gyrocompasses,
optical range finders, devices for measuring
the curvature of boreholes, self-adjusting
levels, apparatus for the stereophotogram-
metric surveys of open-cast pits and under-
ground workings, coded theodolites with
direct input of measured results into electro-
nic computers, special-purpose electronic
computers for mine surveying, desk calcula-
tors, etc.
Mine surveying also has to solve an
important group of problems associated with
the investigation of the configurations of
lodes and their representation in special
graphs and with the determination of the
optimal regimes of extraction of minerals for
obtaining the final product having the speci-
fied concentrations of useful and waste
components. This branch of mine surveying,
called mining geometry, helps the mine
surveyor in controlling measures for the
preservation of mineral deposits and efficient
extraction of minerals.
Another important concern of mine sur-
veying relates to the studies of mechanical
processesin rock massifs and in the elements
of working systems, which are induced by
mineral extraction operations (mining geo-
mechanics).The investigations of rock displa-
cements and rock pressure have been espe-
cially fruitful in the last 20-25 years. Regula-
tions have been worked out for the protec-
tion of surface structures, collieries and ore
11
mines against rock displacements. Methods
have been developed for preliminary calcula-
tions of land surface deformations in under-
ground mining of coal fields, which have
made it possible to introduce certain radical
measures for the protection of structures
against the harmful influence of underground
workings. Conditions have been formulated
for safe extraction of minerals from deposits
beneath water basins. In open-cast mining,
methods for the calculation of inclination
angles of pit flanks and measures for artificial
strengthening of slopes have been suggested.
A division of mining geomechanics is
concerned with the studies of the effects of
rock bursts. The mechanisms of appearance
of rock bursts have been investigated thor-
oughly on the scientific basis and measures
for preventing them have been developed.
Mine surveyors carry out the investigations
of rock pressure in permanent, preparatory
and stope workings in coal and ore deposits.
As an engineering discipline, mine sur-
veying is based on the concepts of fundamen-
tal sciences, such as mathematics, physics,
mechanics, and philosophy.
Measurements and calculations in mine
surveying are carried out by the conventional
techniques adopted in geodesy. Mine sur-
veying is also associated closely with geodetic
instrumentation, geology, mining, production
management, etc.
Mine surveyors have to participate in all
stages of the operation of mining plants from
the exploration of a mineral deposit and up
to the abandonment of a mine after it has
been worked out, and to perform specific
survey work at all these stages. .
Exploration of mineral deposits. In the
exploration of mineral deposits, the mine
surveyor makes land surveys, determines and
transfers into nature the positions of explo-
ring workings (pits, ditches, adits, etc.), makes
the surveys of exploring workings, assaying
points, seam outcrops, bedding elements of
mineral deposits and enclosin2 rock: and
12 Ch. 1. Subject-Matter
compiles (together with geologists) the graph-
ical documentation representing the shape
and bedding conditions of a deposit. Mine-
surveying plans and sections plotted by the
results of geological prospecting are used for
the calculations of mineral reserves and
design of mining plants.
Design and construction of mining plants.
At the stage of mining plant design, the mine
surveyor participates in construction sur-
veying: the determination of the boundaries
of mine fields according to the current
regulations on land allotment; design of
working systems and surface structures;
development of measures for the protection
of surface and underground structures
against harmful influence of underground
workings; compilation of the graphs of work
organization and plans of mining work for
the periods of construction and exploitation
of a mining plant; and the calculations of the
losses and industrial reserves of minerals.
At the stage of mining plant construction,
the mine surveyor is engaged in a wide circle
of problems associated with transferring the
design data into nature (levelling of a pay-out
area, layout of the centres and axes of shafts
and mining complexes, location of roads,
etc.). He performs control on the construction
of hoisting complexes, sinking and equipment
of shafts, driving of permanent workings, etc.
Exploitation of deposits. The role of the
mine surveyor at the stage of exploitation is
extremely important and includes the fol-
lowing operations: surveying of workings;
assigning of directions to workings; compila-
tion of plans by the results of surveys; control
of the mining work in accordance with the
design specifications and safety regulations;
surveys for the connection of surface and
underground reference nets; continuous cont-
rol of the completeness of mineral extraction;
observations on rock displacements and rock
pressure; development of measures for the
protection of structures, natural objects and
mining workings against the harmful effect of
of Mine Surveying
mining operations; reclamation of land;
planning of the preparatory and stoping
mining work; development of quarterly,
annual and perspective plans of the mining
work; and calculations of the balanced and
industrial reserves, losses, and dilution of
minerals.
When a mine is to be abandoned, the mine
surveyor has to determine whether the
mineral has been extracted completely, to
survey underground workings, and to pre-
pare complementary mining plans. He also
arranges the field books of underground
surveys and mine orientations and prepares
the main plans of the mining work for
storage.
1.2. Brief Notes on History
of Mine Surveying
Mine surveying actually appeared as soon
as Man learned to do the underground
mining work. Historical manuscripts, archeo-
logical findings, and other materials have
given evidence that people of the antiquity
were quite familiar with the art of construc-
tion of fairly intricate mines and other
underground objects. It may be referred, for
instance, to a 3500-years old Egyptian
parchment showing a mine, which has been
found in Italy. It is also known that Romans
drove an adit about 6 km long to drain water
from a lake. More than 100 vertical and
inclined shafts were sunk for driving the adit,
some of them being to a depth more than
100 m. This is a clear evidence that Romans
were experienced well in mine surveying.
The first description of methods of under-
ground surveying that has survived to our
times belongs to Heron of Alexandria (lst
century B. C.). These methods included va-
rious measurements, plumbing, and construc-
tion of chains of regular geometrical figures
(for instance, similar triangles) on the surface
and underground, by means of which it was
possible to orient underground workings.
 1.2. Brief Notes
In the 16th century A. D. when the magne-
tic needle compass came into use, mine
surveying became more efficient and accur-
ate. At that time, Agricola (Georg Bauer,
1494-1555),a famous German scientist, pub-
lished the book De re metallica libri XII
where Chapter V was devoted to the surveys
of mining workings by means of a compass
with the circle divided into 12 sectors and by
other methods. In particular, he described the
method of measuring the depth of a mine or
the length of an adit by means of an inclined
cord and plumb bobs.
Mine surveyors of those times still could
not calculate the coordinates of the angular
points of surveys. Initially, there were no
survey plans, and the mine surveyor conten-
ted himself with making the same survey on
the surface as underground (in a mine) and
could decide on the development of the
mining work relative to the boundaries of
allotment by the positions of survey points
on the surface. The plans of the mining work
came into common use in Germany at a
substantially later time, in the 17th century.
At the end of that century, two kinds of the
mining work plans were employed: those
plotted in the plane of a seam or vein and
those made as projections onto a vertical
plane.
The mining work plans of that period were
however oriented by a magnetic meridian.
Only from the mid of the 18th century when
the phenomenon of magnetic declination was
discovered (August Beyer, Von Bergbau
Grundlicher Unterricht, 1749),mine surveyors
were obliged to abandon the use of the
magnetic meridian and change to the orienta-
tion of mine surveys by an astronomic
meridian.
In Germany, the compass with sight vanes
was designed in the 16th century and the
suspension compass, in the 17th century.
These instruments (the latter in combination
with a suspension semicircle) were for many
centuries the most common mine-surveyor's
on History of Mine Surveying 13
instruments and are sometimes used in
modem mine-surveying practice. With the
suspension compass and suspension semi-
circle, it was easier to construct underground
surveying nets; instead of a number of
triangles, it was now sufficient to layout a
broken line in an underground working by
means of a cord.
Practical mine surveying was given a
strong impetus in the 1840's when work was
undertaken to drive long adits near Freiberg
and Harz in Germany. Prof. Weissbach and
mine surveyor H. Borchers, who participated
in the work, proved the applicability of
theodolites and level instruments for mine
surveying. These adits had a large length,
intersected many mines, and were driven
from many points by meeting faces. To
perform this work, a detailed triangulation
was carried out on the surface, which
provided a single coordination network for
all the mines involved. Levelling surveys
carried out together with triangulation made
it possible to relate all points to a single
elevation system.
Roughly at the same time, the methods of
precise orientation of underground surveys
were developed.
In the 19th century, theodolites and
levelling instruments came into wide use in
mine-surveying practice in Germany. New
mine-surveyor's instruments appeared, such
as box compass, mirror compass, projecting
plates, and large-Iength tapes for measuring
the depths of mine shafts.
In the second half of the 19th and the
beginning of the 2Oth century, well equipped
works for ~aking mine-surveyor's instru-
ments were put into operation in Germany
(Hildebrandt, Fennel, Zeiss). New methods of
mine surveying and estimation of observed
results were developed, in particular, the
method of connection surveys with connec-
tion triangles, method of symmetrical junc-
tion, and the method of range lines with the
use of the Weiss sleigh. Studies were carried
14 Ch Subject-Matter
out on the effect of air currents on the
positions of plumb bobs in the orientation of
deep shafts (Wilski's hypothesis).
In the first half of the 2Oth century,
gyroscopic instruments came into use for the
orientation of underground surveying nets.
The first attempts for mine orientation by
gyroscopes were undertaken in 1913-14 in
Poland and Germany. At the beginning of
the 192O's,a mine-surveying gyroscope was
designed and manufactured in Germany, but
turned out to be inefficient. Wide application
of gyroscopic orientation dates to 1947 (Ger-
many). The earlier makes of mine-surveying
gyroscopes had certain drawbacks (large
mass and dimensions, uncertain readings,
etc.). In recent years, successful work on the
design of gyrocompasses, gyrotheodolites
and gyroscopic attachments has been comp-
leted in a number of countries. Gyrotheodo-
lites have been employed efficiently for the
orientation of underground surveying nets.
In the post-war years, many mine-sur-
veying instruments were improved, and new
instruments based on utterly nowel operating
principles were developed, such as high-
precision theodolites, self-adjusting levels,
coded theodolites, optical and radio range
finders, and laser instruments. Much work
has been done on the development of
instruments for stereophotogrammetric sur-
veys which are finding wide use in many
countries for underground surveying.
In recent time, the mine-surveying office
work has been largely mechanized by the
application of desk calculators, electronic
computers, etc. Programs for solving mine-
surveying problems in powerful electronic
computers have been worked out.
Mine surveying is essentially an informa-
tion science,and accordingly it has started to
widely employ various automatic systems for
data collection, storage, processing and
transmission.
In modern mine surveying, there is a
strong trend to increase the observations on
of Mine Surveyin
rock displacements in underground and
open-cast mining. The movements of the
Earth's surface under the effect of under-
ground workings were noticed already in the
15th and 16th centuries, but attracted a keen
interest of mine surveyors in the 18th century
and especially in the 19th century in Belgium
where the mining work began to endanger
surface buildings and water-supply system in
Liege. In the second half of the 19th century,
the investigations of the laws of rock subsi-
dence and caving were started, which resulted
in the hypothesis of normals proposed by
Toilliez in 1838. Another hypothesis was
suggested by Gonot in 1858, according to
which the displacement of a worked-up rock
layer proceeded along the normals to the
seam. In 1885, H. Fayol proposed the hypo-
thesis of cupola based on the idea that the
zone of rock subsidence was confined by a
cupola (dome-shaped) space.
At the end of the last century, J. Jicinsky
marked in his works that the process of rock
displacement should be influenced by the
thickness of a seam, dipping angle, depth of
the mining work, and properties of overlying
rock. Of large significance for understanding
properly the process of rock subsidence was
the hypothesis suggested by R. Hausse (the
end of the 19th century), which considered
two zones of rock subsidence: the cave-in
zone and bend zone. In the first quarter of
this century, the problem of rock displace-
ments was investigated by a number of
researchers. 0. Donahue determined a num-
ber of subsidenceangles. A. Goldreich discov-
ered certain differences in the subsidence of
bed rock and detrital deposits. H. Briggs
found the correlations between the angles of
rupture and the compression and rupture
resistance of rocks and established that
subsidence angles in hard and brittle rocks
are steeper than in those having a lower
strength.
In recent time, much attention has been
given to the methods of prediction of rock
 1.2. Brief Notes on History
deformations. One of the first methods was
proposed by Keinhorst and Bals and based
on the assumption that a portion of work-
ed-out area confined by subsidence angles
acted by a definite law on each point of the
Earth's surface.
The progress of mine surveying owes much
to the contributions of Russian and Soviet
scientists. The first in Russia mining regula-
tions were issued by v. Tatishchev in
1734.
In 1763, M. Lomonosov published his
book On M easurements of M ines, the first
publication in the country which dealt
thoroughly with all aspects of mine surveying
of that time and was a part of the funda-
mental work Principles of M etallurgy or
Mining. Lomonosov gave the descriptions of
the suspension compass and suspension
semi-circle, measuring rod, instruments for
plotting mine-surveying drawings, etc. and
solutions of various mine-surveying prob-
lems, in particular, the method of location of
the surface of a vertical shaft to be connected
to a system of horizontal underground
workings.
In 1773, a mining school was founded in
St. Petersburg (now the Leningrad Mining
Institute). It had a mine-surveying class
where students obtained profound training in
the subject.
A major event in the history of mine
surveying in this country was the publication,
in 1847, of the book The Art of Mine
Surveying written by P. Olyshev, professor of
the St. Petersburg mining school (1817-1896).
The author gave the description of a theodo-
lite with an eccentric telescope and of a
geodetic level, proposed the procedure for the
calculation of the coordinates of theodolite
traverses, and solved the problem of driving
an underground working by meeting faces.
The introduction of theodolite surveys into
the mine-surveying practice and the prepara-
tion of mine plans by point coordinates were
of extreme importance for further progress in
of Mine Surveying 15
the methods and techniques of underground
surveys.
Another important stage in the develop-
ment of mine surveying is associated with the
name of Prof. V. Bauman (1867-1923),author
of a number of fundamental works, such as A
Course in the Art of Mine Surveying (in three
volumes), On the Problem of Faults. Shifts and
Other Types of Displacement of Veins and
Seams. On the Problem of Evaluation of
M ineral and Ore Deposits, etc.
An exceptionally great contribution to the
mine-surveying science was done by I. Ba-
khurin (1880-1940).He worked out a number
of issues in the theory of errors and the
method of least squares and their applica-
tions for the estimation of accuracy and
equation of mine surveys. Bakhurin was
concerned with practically all aspects of mine
surveying: survey control of workings driven
by meeting faces;theory of cumulative errors
in underground polygons; theory of random
errors and method of least squares; theory of
physical (in particular magnetic) and geomet-
ric orientation of mines; errors of orientation
via one or two vertical shafts; mine-surveying
instrumentation; rock displacements; etc. The
results of his studies were~ummarized in the
book A Course of Mine-Surveying Art (1932).
The progress of mine surveying in this
country is also associated with the name of
Prof. P. Sobolevsky (1868-1949) who is
responsible for a new branch of mine sur-
veying which has later formed into an
individual discipline, mining geometry.
The development of mine surveying in
recent time, and especially in the last two or
three decades of the total scientific and
engineering progress, has been associated
with the improvement of existing and design
of principally novel instruments, systems and
techniques of field and office work. The
scientific and applied aspects of mine sur-
veying are being developed intensively. Mine-
surveying problems are solved with wide use of
electronic computers and automatic devices.
 Chapter Two
General Figure of the Earth, Systems
Control and Survey Underground
and Surface Surveys
2.1. General Figure of the Earth
The physical surface of the Earth is far
from having a simple shape. Of the total area
of the Earth's surface equal to 510 mln kIn2,
71 per cent fall on the bottom of seas and
oceans and 29 per cent, on the land. Both the
oceanic bottom and the continents have an
intricate relief, especially the former. As has
been found by investigations, the Ocean in
some places has depths more than 10 kIn.
Some regions of the land reach altitudes up
to 7-8 km. The analysis of the depth of the
Ocean and altitudes of the land on the basis
of l-kIn height intervals has demonstrated
that their distribution has two distinct peaks:
one at altitudes of loo m above the level of
the Ocean and the other at roughly 4.5 kIn
below that level. It has been concluded on
that basis that the surface of the Earth
consists of two sharply distinct morpholo-
gical elements: continents and oceans, the
natural boundary between these elements
being at a depth around 1.5 km below the
level of the ocean.
Further, the local irregularities of the
surface relief make the shape of the Earth's
surface extremely complicated so that the
figure of the Earth can hardly be described
mathematically.
Noting that the surface of water of the
Ocean has a rather simple shape and occu-
pies almost 3/4 of the Earth's surface, it
would be reasonable to assume the figure of
the Earth as the body confined by the water
surface of the Ocean. When determining the
position of a point on the physical surface of
of Coordinates,
Nets
the Earth, this point is usually related to the
general figure of the Earth which is under-
stood in geodesy and mine surveying as the
figure obtained by mental continuation of the
still water surface of the Ocean. The surface
obtained in this way is called the level
surface. Its principal property consists in that
the potential of the force of gravity on that
surface is the same in all points, i. e. the
surface is always perpendicular to an upright
(vertical) line, and therefore, is horizontal
everywhere. In the general case, it is possible
to draw an infinite number of level surfaces at
different distances from the Earth's centre,
but one of these surfaces, i. e. that coinciding
with the mean level of the Ocean and conti-
nued at that level under the continents, forms
a figure that is taken as the general figure of
the Earth and called the geoid.
Since the direction of an upright line may
depend on a number of factors, the geoid has
a complicated structure. The principal among
these factors is that the force of terrestrial
attraction is variable, since the Earth's radius
diminishes at the poles and since the rocks of
the Earth's mantle have different density. The
variations in the force of gravity are mainly
due to the former reason (smaller radii of the
Earth at the poles), though the latter reason
may have an essential effect in some cases.
The geoid has flattened portions (obla-
teness) near the poles, and its shape is too
complicated for mathematical description.
The results of satellite observations have
shown that the oblateness, expressed as the
difference between the lengths of an equa-
torial and polar diameter. attains 42 km
 2.2. Geographic
pI
Fig. 2.1 Ellipsoid of revolution of spheroid
770 m. It has also been established by satel-
lite observations that the Earth has a
pyriform (pear-Iike) shape: the South pole has
turned out to be nearer by 45 km to the
Earth's centre than the North pole. In
addition, the South pole is located 25 m
80 cm below the surface of oblated sphere,
whereas the North pole protrudes by 18 m
90 cm above that surface. Measurements
have also demonstrated that the Earth has
'recesses'and 'ridges' which are traced clearly
against the profile of the complicated figure
of the geoid. The largest 'recesses'are located
to the south-west of India (depth 59 m) and
near the Antarctic continent (30 m). The
highest ridges are located near New Guinea
(57 m) and in France (35 m). It has also been
established that the Earth's equator is not
circular, but elliptical with one of its 'dia-
meters' being larger by 200 m than the other.
In view of these circumstances, the idea of
using the geoid as the basis for geodetic
calculations has been renounced. Among
regular mathematical surfaces, the one that
can approximate most closely the geoid
surface is an ellipsoid of revolution obtained
by the rotation of an ellipse on its minor axis.
This figure is called the Earth's ellipsoid, or
spheroid.
The dimensions of the Earth's ellipsoid
(Fig. 2.1) can be characterized by the lengths
of its major and minor half-axes, a and b, and
by the oblateness a which can be deteri:nined
2-1270
System of Coordinates 17
by the formula:
a=(a-b)/a
When plotting the portions of the Earth's
surface on maps and plans, an important
matter is to choose the proper dimensions for
the ellipsoid which will approximate the
geoid and onto whose surface the physical
surface of the Earth with all its natural and
artificial details will be projected. Many
attempts have been made to determine the
dimensions of an ellipsoid to approximate
most closely the geoid (the first in 1800 by
J.-B.J. Delambre, a French mathematician).
An ellipsoid of particular dimensions and
oriented uniquely in the Earth's body, onto
whose surface the results of topographic,
geodetic and mine surveying work are trans-
ferred in a country, is called a reference
ellipsoid (local ellipsoid).
2.2. Geographic System
of Coordinates
The positions of points on the surface of
the Earth or spheroid are determined by
means of geographic coordinates, i. e. geo-
graphic latitude <pand geographic longitude
A. Geographic coordinates are reckoned
respectively from the equatorial plane and
Greenwich meridian (Fig. 2.2).
Fig. 2.2 Geographic system of coordinates
18 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates,
The longitude is the dihedral angle be-
tween the plane of Greenwich (zero) meridian
and the meridional plane of a point p and the
latitude is the angle made by a vertical line in
a point p to the plane of equator.
The plane passing through the centre of
the Earth and perpendicular to the axis of
rotation is called the equatorial plane. The
plane passing through a vertical line and the
axis of rotation of the Earth (or parallel to
the latter) is the plane of a geographic
( astronomic) meridian. The lines of inter-
section of the planes of geographic meridians
with the Earth's surface are called meridians.
The lines formed by the intersection of planes
drawn perpendicular to the axis of rotation of
the Earth with the Earth's surface are called
parallels of latitudes, or simply parallels.
The network of meridians and parallels
applied on the surface of the Earth ellipsoid
represents the coordinate axes of the geo-
graphic system of coordinates.
If the geographic coordinates are determi-
ned by astronomic observations (indepen-
dently in any point on the Earth's surface),
they are conventionally called astronomic
geographic coordinates p, /I.).The positions of
points on the Earth's surface can also be
determined by means of geographic coordi-
nates obtained by geodetic observations and
related to a normal to the ellipsoid surface;
tt.ese are termed geodetic geographic coordi-
nates and denoted as B (latitude) and L
(longitude).
Since the surface of the geoid does not
coincide with that of the ellipsoid, normals
drawn to the surface of the latter turn out to
deviate from the directions of upright lines.
The magnitude of deviation may be equal to
3-4" on the average. Noting that the differe-
nce of latitudes of 1" on the Earth's surface
corresponds to a linear distance of 31 m, the
positions of points on the Earth's surface,
when given in astronomic and geodetic
geographic Foordinates, may differ by 100 m
on the average.
Nets and Surface Surveys
In the general case, when the deviations of
upright lines are neglected, geodetic and
astronomic coordinates are replaced by the
generalized concept of geographic coordi-
nates.
In geographic coordinates, longitudes can
be reckoned: (I) eastward and westward of
the Greenwich meridian, from 00 to 180, and
are called respectively easterly and westerly
longitudes; easterly longitudes are considered
to be positive and westerly ones, negative or
(2) only eastward of the Greenwich meridian,
from 0 to 360, and are always called
easterly longitudes.
Latitudes may vary from 0 to 90 and are
reckoned north and south of the equator.
The former are considered positive and the
latter, negative.
2.3. System of Plane Rectangular
Coordinates
Geographic coordinates are expressed in
angular values. They are inconvenient for
engineering calculations in geodesy and mine
surveying. Besides, the linear measurements
of angular values turn out to be different in
various portions of the Earth's surface. For
these reasons, a system of plane rectangular
coordinates seemsto be more convenient for
land and mine surveying and solving various
engineering problems when their results
should be plotted on maps and plans. Such a
system can largely simplify topographic and
mine surveying, adjustment of reference nets,
calculations of coordinates of reference
points, processing of the results of surveys,
etc. The plane system of coordinates also
ensures precise coincidence of plans of
adjacent areas, etc.
The initial lines in a system of plane
rectangular coordinates (Fig. 2.3) are two
mutually perpendicular lines xx-yy lying in a
horizontal plane and called respectively the
axis of abscissae (x-axis) and the axis of
ordinates (y-axis}. In contrast to mathe-
 2.4. National System
Fig. 2.3 System of plane rectangular coordinates
matics, the axis of abscissaein land and mine
surveying plans is arranged vertically and
coincides with the direction of a meridian.
The intersection of these axes is the origin of
coordinates (point 0). The coordinate axes
divide the plane of a drawing into four
quadrants which are numbered clockwise
beginning from the guadrant in the north-east
section (see Fig. 2.3).
The abscissax and ordinate y of points are
the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from
these points onto the coordinate axes. The
signs of coordinates depend on the quadrant
in which the points are located. The abscissae
of the points located in the first and fourth
quadrant are positive and of those in the
second and third quadrant are negative. The
ordinates of the points in the first and second
quadrant are positive and of those in the
third and fourth quadrant are negative.
,.
of Rectangular Coordinates 19
In land and mine surveying, the portions of
the Earth's surface measuring up to 10 km in
radius are considered to be flat (distortions
along the length are not more than 1 cm and
angular distortions, not more than 0.1"). The
larger areas of the Earth's surface are
depicted, to minimize distortions, in special
projections in which the Earth ellipsoid is
conventionally developed on a plane. In
addition, the projection on a plane is done in
such a way as to provide the coincidence of
both geographic and rectangular coordi-
nates.
2.4. National System
of Rectangular Coordinates
When the territories of a substantial area
are to be represented in topographic maps,
the surface of the reference ellipsoid must be
20 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates,
developed in a plane. This procedure cannot
however be done without cutting and folding
the spherical surface being developed. The
problem is solved by using an auxiliary
surface which can be easily developed in a
plane, such as a cylinder or cone. The
portions of the reference ellipsoid are projec-
ted onto an auxiliary, geometrically regular
surface (cylinder or cone) and this is then
developed without folds and cuts. For more
convenience, the auxiliary body is supposed
to be tangent to the reference ellipsoid, and
the network of meridians and parallels of the
reference ellipsoid is transferred (projected}
onto the surface of the body to form a
cartographic grid on the map. Mter the
cartographic grid has been transformed onto
the auxiliary tangent figure, the latter is cut
and developed in a plane. The method by
which the image of the Earth's surface is
transferred from the sphere onto the plane is
called a cartographic projection.
Cartographic projections involve certain
distortions of geographic objects relative to
their shape on the reference ellipsoid. By the
nature of distortion, modern cartographic
projections can be divided into equiangular
(equal-angle), equivalent (equal-area) and
their derivatives. In equiangular projections,
angles are not distorted, and therefore,
projected figures retain their similarity to the
original ones. In equivalent projections, the
areas remain equal, but the angles are
distorted, and therefore, the outlines of
figures are distorted too. In derivative projec-
tions, both angles and areas are distorted, but
only moderately.
Cartographic projections are studied by
mathematical cartography where they are
considered on a formalized basis as certain
analytical relationships between the coordi-
nates of points on tM.esurface of a reference
ellipsoid and the coordinates of their projec-
tions on a plane. In the general form, these
relationships can be written as x = f1 p, 1..)
and y = f2 p, 1..);they correlate the rectan-
Nets and Surface Surveys
gular coordinates of points on a plane and
the geographical coordinates on the reference
ellipsoid.
2.4.1. Gauss Conformal Projection
Among many requirements set forth to
cartographic projections for topographic
maps, the principal one is that projection
distortions should not exceed the errors of
corresponding geodetic measurements. This
condition is approached most closely in the
conformal projection proposed in 1820 by
C. F. Gauss of Germany. It is based on the
theory of plane conformal coordinates, which
makes It possible to obtain almost undistor-
ted images of the terrestrial ellipsoid on a
plane.
The essence of the Gauss conformal
projection consists in that the terrestrial
ellipsoid is enveloped by a tangent cylinder
whose axis is perpendicular to the minor axis
of the ellipsoid. With this arrangement of the
cylinder, it touches the ellipsoid along a
meridian which is a common line of both
figures (Fig. 2.4). Other meridians, when
transferred (projected) onto the cylinder, will
be increased in length. With moving father
from the tangent (central) meridian, i. e. from
the centre of zone, lengths will be distorted
more and more, and their distortions can be
determined by the formula:
, y2
L\l=l
2R2
where 1is the length of a section on the Earth
~phere; y is the length of an arc from the
central meridian to the given section; and R
is the Earth's radius.
With the use of the Gauss conformal
projection, the surface of the terrestrial
ellipsoid is represented on a sheet of paper in
the form of individual figures as those shown
in Fig. 2.5, which are called zones. As has
been established, the optimal zone for trans-
ferring onto a tangent cylinder is a spheroidal
 2.4. National System of Rectangular Coordinates 21

dihedron included between two meridians of a zone (see Fig. 2.6). Ordinates calculated
with the longitude difference 6. Thus, the from this new origin are called reduced
surface of the Earth is divided into 60 zones, ordinates. If, for instance, the ordinates of
a tangent cylinder being drawn to the central two points of the eighth zone relative to the
(axial) meridian of each zone. The surface of central meridian are Yl = 23730.00 m and
the spheroid within the limits of a particular Y2 = -102280.00 m, the reduced ordinates
zone is projected conformally onto the will be:
surface of the cylinder. Yl = 23730.00 + 500000.00 = 523730.00 m
Y2 = -102280.00 + 500000.00= 397720.00m
2.4.2. Zonal System
of Rectangular Coordinates Since the same numerical coordinates may
exist in all 60 zones, it has been agreed to
The origin of coordinates in each zone is
relate the coordinates to a particular zone by
taken at the intersection of the central
meridian of that zone with the equator
(Fig. 2.6). The central meridian is the x-axis,
and the image of the terrestrial equator
perpendicular to the central meridian is the
y-axis. The x-coordinates of points to the
north of the equator are considered positive
and of those to the south, negative. The
y-coordinates of points to the east of the
central meridian are positive and of those to
the west, negative.
The longitude of the central meridian is
found by the formula: Lo = 6N -3, where
N is the zone number. The western boundary
meridian of the. first zone coincides with the
Greenwich meridian.
In order to eliminate negative ordinates,
the origin of coordinates is transferred by
500 km to the west from the central meridian Fig. 2.6 Zonal system of rectangular coordinates
22 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates,
writing the number of a zone before a
coordinate.
In the cases considered above, the ordi-
nates of points located, say, in a zone No.8,
should be written as follows:
Yl = 8523730.00 m and Y2 = 8397720.00 m
An important problem in mine surveying is
how to choose properly the directions of
coordinate axes. In the Cartesian rectangular
system, the Z-axis is always vertical and
directed upward, whereas the axes Ox and Oy
are perpendicular to each other and lie in the
horizontal plane. The orientation of these
two axes must not be arbitrary. If the
direction of one of these axes is specified, this
will uniquely determine the direction of the
other axis. In land and mine surveying, the
Ox-direction is usually chosen (oriented in
the horizontal plane) so as to satisfy the
following conditions:
(a) the direction of Ox-axis must be easily
and precisely reproducible and
(b) the direction of Ox-axis at various
mining enterprises must permit the coinci-
dence of plans of individual mines and larger
enterprises.
The following cases of orientation of the
Ox-axis for mine surveying plans are pos-
sible:
(a) orientation by a magnetic meridian;
and(b) orientation . by an astronomic meridian;
(c) orientation by the central meridian
within each zone of the national system of
coordinates.
Orientation by (a) and (b) cannot satisfy
the requirements given above, since the
magnetic azimuth is not constant in time and
space, and the astronomic azimuth is not
constant in space. On the contrary, the
central meridian retains its orientation and
position within the limits of a zone. Thus, the
orientation of the x-axis should be preferably
done relative to the central meridian of a
zone.
Nets and Surface Surveys
In some cases, however, the x-axis can be
temporarily oriented relative to the magnetic
or astronomic meridian. In exceptional cases
when the survey work is carried out in an
uninhabited region, is not large in scope, and
there are no triangulation points, the x-axis
can be oriented by the direction of a
magnetic needle, though orientation by the
astronomic meridian is more preferable in
such cases. Mine survey plans obtained with
this orientation can be used for many years.
In contrast to magnetic declination, meri-
dian convergence remains constant in time. In
some kinds of mine surveying work, a condi-
tional system of coordinates can be adopted,
with the Ox-axis directed arbitrarily, for
instance, along a line fixed by survey points.
The conditional systems of coordinates are
used in the mine survey servicing of construc-
tion of shafts and hoisting complexes, orien-
tation of mines via two shafts, and in a
number of other cases.
2.5. Geodetic Reference Nets
The mine survey servicing of mining
enterprises is unfeasible without a network of
reference points whose positions on the land
are determined with a high precision.
The measurements on the surface and
underground involve errors which are accu-
mulated if surveys are being done on indivi-
dual areas not associated with one another.
When represented on general mine survey
plans or topographic maps, these areas will
then be distorted to such an extent that the
results of surveys become useless. In that
connection, mine surveying is carried out by
the principle 'from the general to particular',
i. e. by providing first a general geodetic net
on the territory of a country and then
reference survey nets for surveying of indivi-
dual small isolated areas.
Points established on the surface and
having precisely fixed coordinates are called
reference (control) points. or base stations.
 2.6. National
Points ensuring the correct horizontal repre-
sentation of the land surface are called plan
(planimetric) control points, or horizontal
control points. Those which can characterize
the vertical relief of the land surface are called
elevation (height) control points. A system of
reference (control) points established on the
territory of a country makes up a geodetic
net.
Geodetic nets can be divided into national
nets, bridging (densification) nets, and survey
nets. Mine survey nets on the territory of
economic interests of mining enterprises
consist of the P9ints of the national geodetic
net and geodetic nets of mine surveying and
topographic surveying carried out for servi-
cing of mineral prospecting and construction
and exploitation of mining enterprises.
Some kinds of geodetic work on the land
surface are carried out by mine surveyors.
They include: the development of the existing
mine survey reference nets as required for the
surveys of mines and quarries; surveys of the
pay-ore areas of mining enterprises; perio-
dical layout, survey and levelling during the
construction of minIng enterprises and exp-
loitation of deposits in order to reflect
current variations on mine survey plans;
surveys of rock dumps and stocks of mineral;
surveys for determining the volume of
earth-moving work, for the reconstruction of
railway tracks and other structures; surveys
for observing rock displacements, stability of
structures, etc.
2.6. National Geodetic Nets
A national geodetic net may consist of
triangulation, trilateration, polygonometric
and levelling nets.
A plan (horizontal) geodetic reference net is
mainly constructed by the method of trian-
gulation, i. e. by laying out triangles on the
land surface. In each triangle, all three angles
are measured, which ensures a reliable con-
trol of angular field measurements. For deter-
Geodetic Nets
mining linear dimensions, the length of one
side of a triangle is measured (taped) and the
lengths of the other two sides are calculated.
The triangles of a net are arranged in a
certain order, and their shape should be close
to equilateral where possible.
The vertexes of triangles are fixed on the
land by special station markers fastened in
the ground. A metallic or wooden beacon
(tower) is constructed above a station mar-
ker. It carries a cylinder at the top whose axis
should be coincident with that of the marker.
The cylinder serves as the sighting target
when making observations from other points.
The triangulation method makes it pos-
sible to determine the horizontal (plan) coor-
dinates for the vertexes of triangles. Triangu-
lation rows which consist of triangles with an
average side length of 20-25 km form first-
class triangulation chains up to 200.km long
(Fig. 2.7). Triangulation chains are laid off in
submeridional and sublateral directions so as
to form the closed polygons of a peripheral
length up to 1000 km. The side lying at the
intersection of several chains (ab in Fig. 2.7)
is a common of these chains and called the
initial side. Initial sides must be measured
with a high accuracy. Since it is practically
impossible to measure lines 20-25 km in
length on the land surface, it is common
practice to measure not an initial side, but a
transverse side around 6 km long (ed in
Fig. 2.7), which is called the triangulation
base. In the base figure adbe, all interior
angles are measured, and the length of the
initial side is calculated by the known angles
and the known length of the base line. In
first-class triangulation, the latitude and lon-
gitude of the points at the ends of the initial
side and the astronomic azimuth of that side
are additionally determined by astronomic
observations.
The territory within polygons of first-class
triangulation chains is filled in with a con-
tinuous network of second-class triangula-
tion triangles with the lengths of sides ran-
24 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates,
(i
.~ /\
,
.0= 11
"
:
la
u
~1
Fig. 2.7 Development of triangulation network: 1, 2, 3. 4-triangulation
second, third, and fourth class
ging from 7 km to 20 km depending on the
pattern of terrain. In second-class triangula-
tion, base lines are measured in one of every
20-25 triangles. As in the first-class tri-
angulation, the latitudes and longitudes and
astronomic azimuth of base lines are deter-
mined by astronomic observations. Further
densification of a plan control geodetic net is
carried out by third- and fourth-class
triangulation. The characteristics of reference
nets constructed by Ist-4th class triangula-
tion are given in Table 2.1.
In poorly accessible regions and densely
Nets and Surface Surveys
Class 1 chain
~2 C!J3 ~4
points of respectively first,
built-up territories, a geodetic net consists of
polygonometric traverses in the form of bro-
ken lines representing closed or open poly-
gons (Fig. 2.8). In that case, field work con-
sists in measuring the angles in turning
(change) points and the lengths of all poly-
gonometric sides. Polygonometric nets are
usually constructed by laying off the main
and diagonal polygons having common
change points (5 and 19 in Fig. 2.8). The
required accuracy of polygonometric nets can
be characterized by the data given in Table
2.2.
 2.6. National Geodetic Nets 25

Table 2.1

Trian- Side Mean angular Permissible Mean measur- Mean measur-

gula- length, error (by triangular ing error of ing error
tion class km triangle misclosure, base (clos- of base
misclosures), s m ing) sides

1
2
3

which have largely facilitated linear mea-

Fig. 2.8 Polygonometry: 5, 19-common
tion points; K, L, M -triangulation points
Polygonometry as a method for the con-
struction of geodetic nets has become popu-
lar in recent years, with the appearance of
high-precision light and ratio range finders,
surements, the most labour-consuming pro-
cedure in land and mine surveying.
Another popular method for the construc-
tion of planimetric geodetic nets is trilatera-
tion. Its essencereduces to the construction
of a network of triangles (as in triangulation)
and measuring of the lengths of their sides
(rather than angles). The latter are calculated
from the known lengths of three sides. With
the known angles and the measured length of
one side (which is taken as the base line), the
lengths of the other sides are calculated, after
which the coordinates of trilateration points
junco are determined. In trilateration, lengths are
measured by means of range finders which
can ensure a high accuracy of linear measure-
ments (up to 1/400000).
The elevation (height) control of various
land and mine survey operations is ensured
by levelling nets which may be of class I, II,
26 Ch. 2. Systems
To be
with
precision
II 500-600
III
150-200
IV 25
20JL
III and IV. First- and second-class levelling
nets are the main basis for establishing the
general system of elevations for the entire
territory of the country. Third- and fourth-
class levelling nets are the basis for topo-
graphic surveys and for the solution of va-
rious problems associated with geodetic and
mine survey servicing of civil and industrial
construction objects. The general characte-
ristics of national levelling reference nets are
given in Table 2.3. The permissible misclo-
sure (mm) of traverses in local geodetic
reference nets constructed by technical level-
ling is equal to 50JL ' where L is the length
of a traverse line, km.
Fundamental bench marks of a natural
levelling net should be established with a
density ensuring that every subdivision map
plotted on a scale 1/5000 include at least one
bench mark. With topographic surveys on a
scale 1/2000, the density of fundamental
bench marks should be such as to allow one
bench mark for one-four map sheets.
First-class levelling is carried on the land
along the directions essential for the national
economy and defence of the country and
relates to the most precise kinds of geodetic
work. Accordingly, it must be carried out
with the use of the most precise instruments.
In modern levelling, random and systematic
of Coordinates. Nets and Surface Surveys
errors do not exceed 0.05 mm per kilometre
of the levelling line.
Second-class levelling is carried out by
running polygons connected to the points of
first-class levelling and attaining a length of
500-600 km. The main object of second-class
levelling is to provide the precise basis for
performed
third- and fourth-class levelling. In levelling
highest
nets of class II, the perimeters of polygons
and the lengths of level lines should not
s.JL exceed 40 km and the lengths of lines be-
IO.JL tween junction points, 10 km. In third-class
levelling lines, the lengths of lines between
higher-class levelling points shoud not
exceed 15 km and of those between junction
points, 5 kill. The lines of levels should be
connected with one another at every 3 km in
built-up territories or at every 5 km in free
territories.
The height marks of triangulation and
polygonometric points of all classes and of
points of local plan reference nets are per-
rnitted to be determined by class IV levelling.
Trigonometric levelling is permissible for the
determination of the heights of reference net
points in exceptional cases,such as in moun-
tainous regions.
The levelling lines of all classesare fixed on
the land by means of ground and wall bench
marks. The bench marks in the levelling nets
of class I, II and III must be spaced at
intervals of 5-7 km. Fourth-class levelling is
done by wall and ground bench marks and
polygonometric stations. Wall and ground
bench marks are established with intervals
not more than 300 ill in built-up areas and
not more than 0.5-2 kill in free territories. In
levelling lines run through settlements, at
least one bench or wall mark should be
established in a settlement.
2.7. Geodetic Bridging Nets
Geodetic bridging (densification) nets are
developed on the basis of geodetic net points
and serve for the surveys of land surface on
 2.7. Geodetic Bridging Nets 27

Table 2.4

Parameter First Second

order order

Triangulation
Side length of triangles, km 0.5-5.0 0.25-3.0
Maximum relative error for base side 1/500000 1/20000
Maximum misclosure of triangle ::!:20" :1:40"
Mean measuring error from triangle misclosures ::!:5" :1:10"
Maximum length of chain of triangles, km 5 3

Trilateration
Side length of triangles, km 0.5-5.0 0.25-3.0
Maximum relative error of side measurement 1/20000 1/10000
Minimum angle of triangles 20 20
Maximum length of chain of triangles, km 5 3
Polygonometry
Maximum length of traverses, km 3
Maximum perimeter of polygonometric traverses in free
networks, km 15 9
Length of side of traverse, km 0.12-0.60 0.80-0.30
Maximum length of traverse from nodal point to highest-class
or highest-order point, km 3 2

Maximum number of sides in traverse 15 15

Maximum relative misclosure of traverse 110000 1/5000

Mean measuring error of traverse :t5" :t10"

scales 1/5000 to 1/500 and for performing
various kinds of mine survey work.
Planimetric geodetic bridging nets can be
constructed as analytical nets or polygono-
metric nets of the first or second order.
Their main characteristics are given in Table
2.4.
Analytical nets can be formed by triangu-
lation as a continuous network or chains of
triangles or intersections (bearings). Analy-
tical bridging nets of the first order can be
developed on the basis of geodetic reference
nets of classes I, 2, 3 and 4; those of the
second order can be developed on the basis
of reference nets of all classes and a first-
order analytical net. The analytical nets of
the first order may have the sides from
0.5 km to 5 km long and those of the second
order, from 0.25 km to 3 km long. The angles
of triangles should be not smaller than 30,
and the number of triangles in a chain should
be not more than 10.
If the territory to be surveyed has no
available points of geodetic plan control
(of any class), it is permissible to develop the
independent survey nets of the first or
second order for land and mine surveying. In
that case, it is required to measure at least
two base sides separated from each other by
at least 10 triangles.
The polygonometry of the first and second
order can be developed in the form of indi-
vidual traverses or a system of traverses with
junction points belonging to the national
geodetic referencenet or first-order analytical
net.
Of special significance are approach mine
surveying points in reference nets. The ap-
28 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates. Nets and Surface Surveys

proach points must ensure the possibility of Table 2.5

running a hanging traverse with the number
of sides not more than three to a mine shaft. Contour Level line Levelline
interval length in length in
Approach points should be located at height, m technical trigonometric
distances not more than 300 m from the levelling, levelling,
collar of a shaft. It is possible to use the km km
points of triangulation, trilateration and po- 0.5 3
lygonometric nets of class 1-4 or of first-order 1.0 10
analytical nets as approach points. The 2.0 15 2
pay-ore area of a mining enterprise should 5.0 5
have at least three elevation bench marks
with their heights measured by levelling of a
class not worse than four.

2.8. Geodetic Survey Nets and on territories where linear measure-

ments are complicated, the base points of a
Planimetric and elevation survey nets are survey net can be deterniined analytically by
constructed on the basis of points of a constructing a chain of triangles; by the
geodetic reference net. In exceptional cases, methods of intersections and resections; or by
when the area to be surveyed is not more constructing a central system of geodetic
than 20 km2 for surveys on a scale of 1/5000 rectangles.
or 10 km2, 1/2000, they can be based on the The angles in triangles should, as a rule, be
points of a survey net only. not smaller than 30. Side lengths should be
Planimetric survey nets are developed by not less than 150 m. A direct intersection is
running theodolite, tacheometric or plane- made from three points and a resection, by
table traverses or can be constructed analy- four initial points. The misclosures of tri-
tically. angles should be not more than I '. The
The number of points of a survey net is relative error of initial sides in triangle chains
determined by the scale of a survey map and should not exceed 1/2000. In closed areas, the
should be equal, together with the points of a base points of a survey net can be deterniined
geodetic reference net, to at least four points conveniently by running individual theodo-
per square kilometre of the territory for a lite traverses or a system of theodolite tra-
scale 1/5000, 10 points for a scale 1/2000 or verses in which the points of a geodetic
16 points for a scale 1/1000. The errors of the reference net serve as junction points.
location of survey net points relative to the Elevation survey nets are constructed by
nearest points of a geodetic reference net geometric, technical and trigonometric
should not exceed the accuracy of a surveying (geodetic) levelling. Geometric levelling is
scale (i. e. should be not more than:!: 0.1 mm usually employed in areas with the height of
on the scale of the map). contour interval of relief up to I m and
Survey nets consist of base points and trigonometric levelling, with greater contour
additional points, i. e. points determined in interval heights. The lengths of level lines
the survey net proper. Each survey sheet supported by the levelling points of class I-IV
should include at least three base points fixed and of closed level lines should not exceedthe
by fundamental marks for a scale of 1/5000, values given in Table 2.5.
at least two such points for a scale 1/2000 or
one point for a scale 1/1000. In open areas
 2.9. General
2.9. General Data on Surveys
The results of survey work on the surface
are used for plotting maps and plans re-
quired for mineral prospecting, solution of
problems of design and construction of mi-
ning enterprises, and for safe and efficient
exploitation of deposits. These plans and
maps, drawn on a scale 1/5000-1/500, should
show all objects specified by the rules of
compilation of topographic maps, as well as
the specific objects of a mining enterprise,
such as fall-throughs and cones of influence
formed owing to mineral extraction; rock
outcrops on the surface; boundaries of mi-
Ding allotments, etc.
The scale of surveying is chosen depending
on the kind of mining work to be carried out
in the area. For instance, for detailed pro-
specting and exploitation of large-sized de-
posits, the surveys of the land surface should
be made on a scale of 1/5000 for a simple
relief with vertical contour intervals of 1 m or
2 m or 1/2000 for an intricate (mountainous)
relief with 2-m contour intervals. For the
deposits of small size and for the large
deposits of an intricate geological structure,
the recommended scale of surveying is
1/2000. The surface of small-sized deposits
and of moderate-sized ore bodies of an
irregular shape should be surveyed on a scale
of 1/1000 or 1/2000 with vertical contour
intervals of 0.5 m or 1 m.
The land surveys for making construction
projects and for the construction of mining
enterprises should be carried out on the
following scales:
(a) 1/5000 with I-m or 2-m vertical contour
intervals, for the development of engineering
projects;
(b) 1/1000 with 0.5-m vertical contour
intervals (or in exceptional cases, 1/500), for
making working drawings; and
(c) 1/1000 or 1/2000 with vertical contour
intervals of 0.5 m or 1 m, for the design and
construction of mining enterprises and
settlements.
Data on Surveys 29
Land surveys must be car:ried out with
such an accuracy that the mean error of
positions of clearcut objects and land
contours on maps and plans is not more than
:1:0.5 mm or, for mountainous regions,
:1:0.7 mm. The mean errors of surveying
should not exceed 1/4 of the height of
contour interval for flat-relief areas (with
angles of dip up to 2) or 1/3 for a rugged
relief. The mouths of shafts, pits, adits and
other mining workings should be shown on
plans and maps with an error of location not
more than 1 m in plan and 0.3 m in elevation
irrespective of the survey scale.
Survey nets serve as the basis for terrestrial
surveys which can be carried out by various
methods and instruments.
Aerophotogrammetric survey (aerial sur-
veying) is a progressive method for making
topographic maps and plans. It is carried out
by making large-sized photographs by means
of a special aerial photographic camera
mounted on board an aircraft. Recently,
special survey aircraft have been employed
for the purpose, which are equipped with
perfect photographic cameras, navigation
instruments, and an on-board computer
which controls automatically the photographic
process, i. e. the frequency of taking pho-
tographs and the exposure. The variations of
the terrain relief are detected by a radar
system.
When taking aerial photographs, the air-
craft flies forth and back along straight
courses (flight lines or strips) so that each
next photograph overlaps the preceding one
(forward overlap) by 60 per cent and the
photographs of adjacent flight lines (side
overlap) by 40 per cent. Aerial photographs
obtained in this way are processed by office
analysis for compiling topographic plans and
maps. To ensure the specified accuracy of
topographic plans, aerial surveying must be
carried out to meet the following require-
ments:
1. The optical axis of a camera must not
30 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates, Nets and Surface Surveys

according to Table 2.6 depending on the kind

of relief and the purpose of topographic plan.
In tacheometric surveying, the instrument
o
is set up at a fixed point called a station
o
"' (Fig. 2.9) to measure the spatial polar coor-
dinates of so-called picket points on the
terrain: an inclination angle v, inclined
distance S to a picket point, and a hori-
zontal angle 13between the initial direction
and the direction onto the picket point. A
staff is set up on picket points for surveying
details. A picket for surveying of details is
called a contour picket and that for relief
surveying; an elevation picket. If the picket is
used both for detailed and relief surveying, it
is called an elevation-contour picket, or staff
point. The distances from the instrument to
the staff points and between the staff points
depend on the scale of surveying and vertical
deviate during exposures from the vertical contour interval (Table 2.7). The instruments
axis by more than 2-3. for tacheometric surveys are called tacheo-
2. The axes of flight lines must be parallel meters.
straight lines. Plane-table surveying is made by means of
3. The flight altitude must not deviate by a plane table and ruler (Fig.2.10). Plane-
more than 3 per cent from the specified value. table surveying differs from other methods in
On-the-ground stereophotogrammetry finds that a topogrgphic plan is plotted directly
wide application for surveying a rugged- during surveying (in the field). At present
relief terrain and open-cast quarries. It is time, plane-table surveying is used only for
perfllrmed by means of a phototheodolite, large-scale surveys of very small areas of
tho: combination of a theodolite and photo- terrain.
graphic camera. The camera is set up succes- A plane table (see Fig. 2.10) has a table 1,
sively at two ends of a photographic base line tripod 4, and a base 3 which connects the
to make two photographs which constitute a table with a tripod head. The table is fastened
stereo-pair. The stereo-pair is examined in a on a metallic base (Fig. 2.11) consisting of a
stereoscope to construct a topographic plan. base plate 1, sighting device (with tangent
Tacheometric surveying is a kind of to- screw 2), three foot screws 3, a clamp 4, three
pographic survey employed on small areas or screws 5 for clamping the plane table, and a
under intricate relief conditions. It consists in base housing 6. The tangent screw 2 serves
determining the elevation and plan locations for rotating the plane table within small
of points of terrain by measuring vertical and limits in the horizontal plane. The table base
horizontal angles and distances between the is attached to the tripod head by means of an
points. The results of tacheometric survey are attachment screw 5 (see Fig. 2.10). The plane
processed for plotting the topographic plan table is levelled (horizontally) by means of
of the terrain in which the relief is depicted by foot screws.
horizontal lines with the vertical contour The ruler (2 in Fig. 2.10) is used for the
intervals between horizontal sections taken graphical construction of horizontal di-
 2.9. General Data on Surveys 31

Fig. 2.9 Scheme of tacheometric surveying

1/5000 2 200 300 350 120

200 300 300 100
150 200 250 70
0.5 150 200 200 50
100 150 200 40
0.5 100 150 150 30
32 Ch. 2. Systems of Coordinates, Nets and Surface Surveys

5
6

4
"--2

Fig. 2.10 Plane table with ruler: I-table; 2-
ruler; 3- plane-table base;4- tripod; 5- attachment
screw; 6-additional ruler; 7-circular level; 8-
cylindrical level; 9-vertical tangent screw;
10-clamp; ll-cylindrical level of vertical circle;
l2-telescope level; 13-telescope; 14-telescope
sighting device; 15-stand
rections on the plane table and measuring
distances and inclination angle in particular
directions.
At present time, nomogram rulers are
employed, which make it possible to cal-
culate elevations and horizontal distances
upon sighting the device (telescope) at a ver-
tical staff.
In plane-table surveying, it is essential to
determine the elevations of summits, water
3
Fig. 2.11 Plane-table metallic base: 1- base plate;
2-tangent screw; 3-foot screws; 4-clamp;
5 -plane-table clamp screws; 6 -plane-table
housing
sheds, basins, etc. and all points where the
steepnessof slope changes. The elevations of
the characteristic points of precipices,
caverns, dip pits, etc. should be indicated
rounded-off to 0.1 m. In addition to the
horizontal lines of the relief, each square
decimetre of a plan on a scale 1/5000 should
also give the elevations of at least five cha-
racteristic points of the topography (summits
of hills, road crossings, rock outcrops, etc.).
The elevation marks of each plan sheet
should be copied on tracing paper; if a plan is
plotted in the office, its contour lines
should also be copied on tracing paper.
 Chapter
Graphical Documentation
3.1. General
For proper functioning of a mining enter-
prise, it is essential to have a file of graphical
documents, in particular, mine-survey draw-
ings compiled by the results of geological,
topographic and mine surveys.
A characteristic feature of mining graphical
documentation is that the information
contained in it varies continuously in time
and space, which is caused by the dynamics
of mining production, variations of geolo-
gical conditions, and some other circum-
stances.
Mine-survey drawings are used in the
design, construction and exploitation of mi-
ning and associated enterprises. In parti-
cular, they are used in the design of geolo-
gical prospecting and mining operations,
underground and surface structures, compi-
lation of plans of aeration, power supply,
water drainage and haulage in underground
workings and OI) the surface, solution of
problems of protection of structures and
natural objects against harmful effect of
mining activity, problems of safety, account-
ing for the motion of mineral reserves,mining
output, mineral losses, and many other
problems of interest in mining.
In that connection, mine-surveying draw-
ings must have the required completeness
and accuracy. Besides,they must be clear and
easily readable and measurable. This is en-
sured by the application of modern drawing
materials and instruments, advanced me-
thods of preparation and complementation of
Three
in Mine Surveying
graphical documents, and high skill of
draftsmen.
Mine-surveying service plays the major
part in the compilation of mining graphical
documentation since this is based on the
measurements and calculations made by
mine surveyors. .
In mining practice, the following defi-
nitions and concepts associated with mining
graphical documentation are in use.
Projections are graphical representations of
particular spatial objects on the plane of
drawings. In mine surveying, orthogonal
projections are preferably used, especially
their variety, projections with numerical
(hypsometric) data. Orthogonal projections
may be made on horizontal, vertical or
inclined planes. For more clear represen-
tation, axonometric and affine projections are
also employed.
Plans are drawings of orthogonal pro-
jections of objects onto a horizontal plane.
They are widely used for the representation
of the Earth's surface and mining workings.
Survey plans usually contain the elevation
marks (height coordinates) of particular
points or are constructed in isohypses; in the
latter case, they are essentially projections
with numerical data.
Vertical projections are drawings of objects
projected onto a vertical plane. Such do-
cuments are often compiled for steeply dip-
ping seems(veins) and similar elements when
horizontal projections would involve large
distortions. If the strike of a deposit varies
sharply, it can be projected onto a number of
34 Ch. 3. Graphical Documentation
vertical planes each of them being arranged
parallel to the strike of individual portions of
a deposit.
In some cases, projections onto the plane
of a seam are employed.
Sections are the representation of the de-
tails of an object, which are located in a
certain section plane. In mine-surveying
practice, the most common types of sections
are geological sections and sections of mi-
ning workings which depict the enclosing
rock, some details of a working, supports,
and other objects.
In sections, objects and details may be
projected onto vertical, horizontal or inclined
planes.
Vertical geological sections are most often
confined to the lines of exploratory or mi-
ning-production workings.
Profiles are graphs depicting, in a vertical
section, only the contour or part of the
contour of an object considered, for instance,
the terrain relief, rocks in the roof or foot of a
working, haulage tracks, etc.
Sketches are rough drawings of objects
which are made by hand, i. e. without the use
of rules and other drawing instruments. For
instance, a mine surveyor makes sketches in
the field book when carrying out instru-
mental surveys or taping of mining workings,
measuring the reserves of a mineral in store,
etc.
Scales. Objects are depicted in mine-sur-
veying plans by diminishing the results of
natural (field) measurements. The degree of
diminution of a line in a plan is determined
by the scale, i. e. a dimensionless fractional
number in which the numerator is unity and
the denominator shows how many times a
line depicted in the plan Can be laid off along
the corresponding horizontal distance in the
terrain. This is what is called the numerical
scale of lengths, or simply numerical scale.
Consequently, s/S = I/M, where M is the
denominator of the numerical scale.
In plans, numerical scales are written as
in Mine Surveying
simple fractions, for example, 1/500, 1/1000,
1/2000, 1/10000, etc. Thus, if a numerical
scale 1/1000 has been adopted for a plan, this
means that horizontal distances on the ter-
rain will be diminished on the plan to one-
thousandth. It is distinguished between large
and small scales: the larger the denominator,
the smaller the scale. A plan drawn on a
larger scale can depict more details of the
locality. The scale of a plan or map is chosen
according to specifications and depending on
where the plan will be used.
Using numerical scales, horizontal distan-
ces on the terrain can be transformed into
lines on a plan and vice versa. For instance,
if the horizontal distance of a line on the
terrain is equal to 174.30 ill and the scale of
plan is 1/2000, the length of the correspon-
ding line on the plan will be 174.3: 20 =
= 8.71 cm; if a line on a plan made on a scale
1/5000 is equal to 10.2 cm, the horizontal
distance on the terrain corresponding to that
line will be 10.2 x 50 = 510 ill.
Distances on plans can be measured with
an accuracy permitted by the resolving power
of man's eye, which is usually taken equal to
0.1 mm (with the critical angle of vision 60"
and the distance of best vision to an object
250 mm, the resolution is equal to 0.073 mm,
or roughly 0.1 mm). The corresponding ho-
rizontal distance in nature (on the terrain) is
called the accuracy of scale. For the scales
1/500, 1/1000, 1/2000, 1/5000, and 1/10000,
the accuracy is respectively equal to 0.05 ill,
0.1 ill, 0.2 ill, 1 ill, and 2.5 ill.
The scale of a plan is chosen according to
the dimensions of an object in nature and by
considering the accuracy of the scale so that
the finest details on the plan can be by a
factor of 5-10 larger than 0.1 mill. For in-
stance, if individual derails of construction
objects on the site of a mining enterprise have
sizes of an order to 1 ill, the mOSt suitable
scale for their depiction will be 1/2000 or
1/1000.
 3.2. Classification
3.2. Classification of Drawings
and Rules of Mapping
As regards their compilation, all mine
surveying drawings can be divided into pri-
mary (originals) and secondary (copies, du-
plicates, and reproductions).
Primary drawings are mapped directly by
the results of a survey, which are recalcu-
lated to a single coordinate system. If a
particular object cannot be surveyed di-
rectly (this mainly relates to underground
workings), it is permissible to map it on an
original drawing on the basis of descriptive
information or another graphical documen-
tation; an appropriate note should then be
made on the drawing.
Original (primary) drawings are the main
technical and juridical documents for sol-
ving various problems of. mining geometry.
They are prepared on a special base in a
system of plats, which ensures their pre-
servation and non-deformability and prov-
ides certain convenience in use.
Original graphical documentation should
have an accuracy characterized by the data of
Table 3.1.
Table 3.1
Error in:
Mutual arrangement of intersection
points of a rectangular coordinate
grid
Position of stations of a control or
survey net relative to the coordinate
grid
Mutual arrangement of the nearest
stations of a control or survey net
Position of conspicuous points
relative to the nearest stations of
a control or survey net
Mutual arrangement of the nearest
conspicuous points
of Drawings and Rules of Mapping 35
Survey objects are depicted on maps and
plans in their actual shape and in a size
according to the map scale. Conventional
signs are used in mining graphical docu-
mentation for objects which cannot be drawn
in their actual shape on the drawing
scale.
In cases when a drawing contains the
elements of terrestrial surface and under-
ground workings and their geological cha-
racteristics, terrestrial elements are drawn in
the flfSt place, then the elements of under-
ground workings, and lastly the elements of
geological characteristic are drawn.
The contours of the elements of an object,
which lie in the plane of a drawing are drawn
in solid lines and those which are beyond
that plane, in dotted lines. The contours
of elements determined on the basis of
description information are drawn in dotted
lines.
Secondary drawings are prepared by
reproducing (copying) the original drawings.
They must be complemented and corrected
when a need arises and can be used for
various practical purposes, for instance, for
the compilation of exchange and calendar
plans of mining work development, special
plans for accounting the reserves,mines stock
and loss of a mineral, plans of mine venti-
Maximum
lation, plans for the prevention of accidents,
value, etc.
mm
The main requirements to secondary
graphical documents are that they should
contain all the essential information as re-
:to.2 quired by the purpose and that this informa-
tion should be drawn clearly.
Graphical documentation should pre-
ferably be drawn on the scales: 1/500, 1/1000,
1/2000, 1/5000 or 1/10000; the scale 1/25000
::1:0.6 is recommended for cartograms and general
charts, and scales 1/5, I/lO, 1/20, 1/50, I/lOO
and 1/200, for small objects.
36 Ch. 3. Graphical Documentation
3.3. Drawing Materials.
Technology and Rules
for Making and Storage
of Mining Graphical
Documentation
Up to a recent time, all mining graphical
documentation was made on a paper base:
original plans of mining workings on high-
quality drawing paper glued on a reinforcing
substrate (aluminium plates, cloth, etc.) and
secondary plans, on light-sensitive paper
(copy paper) or tracing paper. At present,
synthetic drawing materials (based on lavsan
or therylene) are being used widely for ma-
king mining graphical documentation.
They have a higher durability and strength,
can withstand multiple corrections, retain
stable dimensions under atmospheric
influence, and possess a better transparency.
Synthetic drawing films are manufactured
in a number of varieties with different
physico-mechanical properties of the drawing
surface, depending on their application and
the method of fixation of the image (by ink,
graphite or synthetic pencil, engraving,
diazotype copying, printing, etc.).
Polyethylene terephthalate (1avsan) film
(glossy, double-oriented) is employed for
making various copies with the application of
silverless light-sensitive layers. Mechanically
matted lavsan is widely used in drawing. The
glossy drawing surface of the lavsan film
requires no matting additives if special inks
are used for drawing. The film is highly
transparent and ensures a high quality of
copies. On the other hand, its white surface
ensures a high contrast of drawings.
An offset lavsan film is suitable for making
offset plates by electrographical and pho-
tomechanical methods or by drawing. A plate
made by the photomechanical method can be
used for making up to 10000 copies.
A templet drawing film possessesthermo-
adhesive properties, which makes it possible
to mount various templets on it.
in Mine Surveying
Reinforced paper is a combination of lav-
san and conventional paper, i. e. a lavsan film
is sandwiched between two paper layers. It
combines favourably the drawing properties
of paper and high physico-mechanical pro-
perties of lavsan. Reinforced paper is manu-
factured in various versions with various
kinds of paper and different thickness of
lavsan film and has a number of applic-
ations.
The matter of storage of originals made on
plastic materials deserves special attention.
They should be kept in an isolated room at a
temperature within + 16 to + 20C and
air humidity 50-80 per cent. The best method
of storage of originals (plats) is to keep them
in the suspended state. General charts made
on plastics can in exceptional cases be
kept in rolls (rolled together with spacing
paper where possible).
3.4. Mechanization
of Graphical Work
In modern practice, graphical work is
largely facilitated and made less labour-con-
suming by the use of principally novel
engineering means which make it possible to
'mount' drawings from unified standard
prefabricated graphical elements.
The first to be named among these means
are decalcomania means (decals),i. e. multiply
repeated paint images of alphabet letters,
digits and conventional signs applied onto a
film material. The draftsman chooses the
required sign, places the film on the drawing,
and rubs at the other side of the film with a
hard object. In this way, the paint image is
detached from the film and transferred onto
the drawing. Decals can be restored multiply
by repeated rolling with a special paint.
Decals are used widely for making inscrip-
tions on drawings, compiling plans from
conventional symbols, schemes of electric
circuits, for marking of documents, catalogue
cards, etc.
 3.5. Processes
As has been shown by experience, decals
can be used both in specialized and non-
specialized production of graphical docu-
ments. They can be manufactured in any
design institution or enterprise provided with
photoprocessing laboratory equipment.
Templets, i. e. applications of standard
elements, conventional signs, inscriptions, etc.
have also found wide use in modern drawing
practice. The method of templets has many
advantages and largely accelerates the draw-
ing process, since drawings are compiled
from individual standard elements. Templets
are produced in a number of varieties
differing from one another in the type of
substrate (paper, thin cardboard, film, foil,
etc.), the method of application of the image,
and the principle of fixation of templets on a
substrate. Adhesive templets are the most
popular; they have an adhesive layer on the
back side, which is protected by non-sticking
paper. The latter must be removed before
applying a templet into its place in a draw-
ing. Such templets have however certain
drawbacks: they can be used only 4-5 times; it
is difficult to move a templet on the sub-
strate in the case of variation design; templets
taken off from the substrate are liable to
twisting; etc.
These drawbacks have been eliminated in a
new method of templet mounting which uses
templets prepared on a polyethylene tere-
phthalate film base with the working
(contact) layer made of a material fusible at
80-120C. As the fused layer solidifies, it fixes
firmly the templet on a substrate (paper or
film). Templets are mounted by means of a
thermal handle. For temporary fixation of a
templet on a drawing, it suffices to touch the
templet with the handle in a single point. For
final fixation of a templet, the handle is
applied in four or more points. Mter mounting
the templets, the required textual and gra-
phical additions are made in the drawing by
using decals. The final original drawing is
checked and reproduced by diazotype co-
and Materials 37
pying; microfilm copies can also be made
when needed.
All used templets and substrates can be
restored. Templets are detached from the film
base and the latter is cleaned from the traces
of a pencil and ink, and from decals. Re-
stored materials can be used anew.
3.5. Processes and Materials
for Reproduction of Mining
Graphical Documentation
The principal processes for the repro-
duction of drawings of mining graphical
documentation are diazo type copying, elec-
trophotography, and offset printing.
Diazotype copying is the most popular
processfor the reproduction of original draw-
ings made on transparent materials. The
originals are reproduced on diazo-paper and
diazo-film. Light-sensitive diazotype mate-
rials are manufactured industrially in a wide
range and differ from one another in the kind
of a light-sensitive layer and base and me-
thods of development. Diazotype copying is
performed in rotary copying machines and
copying frames.
Electrophotography is among the most
advanced modern processes of reproduction
of graphical images. It is distinguished
favourably by high productivity, facsimile
reproduction of images, simple technolo-
gy, and possibility of copying of opaque
originals.
Electrophotographic process is based on
the use of certain semiconductors whose
conduction changes under the effect of light.
When a layer of photosemiconductive ma-
terial is exposed to light, there forms a latent
electrostatic image in it, which is developed
by a powder material whose particles are
attracted to the portions of the selenium
layer, that carry induced electrostatic char-
ges.
Offset printing is the most efficient and
simple process of the reproduction of docu-
38 Ch. 3. Graphical Documentation
ments and has been for a long time in use in
cartographic engineering. Offset printing en-
sures a higher quality of printed graphical
documentation than is possible in diazotype
copying on map paper and is well suitable for
making multicolour prints. In addition, it
requires much less labour for manual pain-
ting and offers the possibility for making
multicolour composite prints, for printing in
or eliminating some graphical elements, etc.
Offset printing of maps at map-making
agencies is carried out from colour-separated
originals (separation drawings or simply se-
parations) which are prepared directly at
mining enterprises. Colour separations, as the
name implies, describe the graphical situation
in a single colour, for instance, red, black, etc.
and are used for making corresponding
colour-separated printing plates.
Colour-separated drawings should meet
very high requirements:
(a) they are drawn on synthetic transparent
materials 70-100 ~m thick; thinner films are
preferable, since they diminish the parallactic
effect during copying onto printing plates;
(b) the films must be without dents, folds,
scratches, etc. and have no spots, marks,
pencil lines, etc.;
(c) line elements, especially inscriptions and
shadings, should be well filled with ink,
without clearances and breaks; the shaded
in Mine Surveying
elements of a large area should be filled with
ink at least three times and checked on an
illuminated screen so that their optical den-
sity is sufficiently high; and
(d) linear dimensions in colour-separated
drawings should not differ from the originals
by more than :to.15 mm at sides and
:to.20 mm along diagonals; the arrangement
of the whole situation in a plan should satisfy
the same accuracy standards.
The process of preparation of colour-se-
parated originals by illumination drawings
consumes much time and labour and is
insufficiently accurate. In a novel process,
colour-separated originals are prepared by
diazotype copying of contour images made
on tracing paper, synthetic drawing films, etc.
Synthetic drawing materials are finding
ever wider use and accordingly, in various
novel technological schemes and processes.
For instance, transparent materials with
thermo-adhesive properties have largely
simplified the process of preparation of ge-
neral charts at mining enterprises. Transpa-
rent plats of the original documentation are
diazo-copied on the film and mounted by the
thermotemplet method on a base as frag-
ments of a general chart. The latter is diazo-
copied on cartographic paper or diazo-film.
Later, the obsolete fragments of the general
chart can be replaced by new ones.
 Chapter
Connection
4.1 General
The object of connection survey (orienta-
tion) is to ensure underground surveying in
the coordinate system adopted on the Earth's
surface. Connection survey is essential for
mining work expansion, correct location of
underground workings relative to objects on
the surface, protection of surface structures,
determination of the depth of mining work,
construction of boundaries for safe mining,
combined working of adjacent seams, and
connection of underground workings. Con-
nection surveys are carried out rarely, mainly
before constructing a new mine and later, for
preparation of new mining levels. Connection
survey belongs to the most critical kinds of
surveying work and must be done with the
highest accuracy and under reliable control.
A distinction is made between the hori-
zontal and vertical connection surveys.
Horizontal connection survey has to tackle
two problems: (a) orientation of underground
;surveys, i. e. determination of the direction
angles of the initial sides of an underground
survey net and (b) centring, or plumbing, of
an underground survey, i. e. determination of
the coordinates x and y of the initial points of
an underground survey net. Vertical connec-
tion survey is carried out for transferring a
height mark from the Earth's surface down
into the mine.
Depending on the method of opening a
deposit, connection surveys can be run via
horizontal, inclined or vertical workings or
shafts.
Four
Surveys
Connection survey via horizontal or incli-
ned workings is carried out by running
polygonometric traverses or geometric or
trigonometric levelling traverses through the
workings.
Connection surveying (orientation) via ver-
tical workings is done by special methods
which can be divided into geometric and
physical.
The geometric methods of orientation of
underground survey employ plumb bobs
(plummets) sunk into vertical shafts of mines.
The coordinates of plummets and the di-
rection angles of plumb:-connecting lines are
determined by'measurements on the Earth's
surface.
The physical methods include the magnetic,
gyroscopic, and optical method.
The magnetic method utilizes the ability of
a magnetic needle to line up along a line of
the magnetic field of the Earth. Though being
rather simple, it has an essential disadvan-
tage; owing to local magnetic disturbances,
the orientation of the magnetic needle is
subject to unpredictable variations in parti-
cular places. For that reason the magnetic
method is not popular and employed only in
rare cases when its low accuracy is sufficient
for orientation of underground workings.
The gyroscopic method uses a pendulum
gyroscope (gyrocompass) whose axis per-
forms harmonic oscillations about an equi-
librium position which coincides with the
plane of astronomic meridian on the station
point of the instrument. Modern high-pre-
cision gyrocompasses are reliable instruments
40
for gyroscopic orientation of underground
sides of reference survey nets, because of
which the gyroscopic method has found wide
use as being the most precise and least
labour-consuming.
The optical method of orientation of
underground survey is not very popular,
since the available instruments have an insuf-
ficient resolving power in deep mines where
the atmosphere may often be moist and
dust-laden, and thus fail to ensure the re-
quired accuracy of measurements.
In modern mine surveying practice, orien-
tation of underground workings is mainly
performed by the gyroscopic or geometric
method (via one or two vertical shafts).
Errors incurred in connection surveys
cause subsequent errors in the determination
of points of underground survey nets.
If the coordinates x, y of an initial point 1
are found with errors (Fig. 4.la), these will be
carried over without change into the co-
ordinates of all subsequent points of an
underground survey net. Therefore, an error
1-1' of the planimetric position of the initial
point which has appeared on centring, will
result in a parallel displacement of points 1-6
into positions 1'-6'. An error in the deter-
mination of the height mark (z) of an initial
point gives a similar effect.
(a) :-1=::$;~' 2'
f:; 3' 4'
~2 04 ,
1
~
3
"'0--
5 6
(b)
~ a=C~~---~
---,
2' 3 4'
,
m(X '0- ---0
2 3 --0--
4
Fig. 4.1 Effect of centring error (a) and orienta-
tion error (b) on positions of points of underground
theodolite traverse
Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
An angular error of orientation (orien-
tation error) gives a different effect. If the
direction angle of the initial side is found with
an error m" (Fig. 4.1b), the net 1-5 will be
turned into the position 1-5'. The root-mean
square displacement of the last point will be:
M = (mJp')s (4.1)
where m" is the rms error of orientation,
minutes; p' is the number of angular minutes
in a radian (p' = 3438'); and s is the length of
the closing side of a traverse.
This formula shows that the effect of an
orientation error on the planimetric posi-
tions of points increases in proportion to the
distance from the initial point. For that
reason, orientation is the most critical part of
connection survey and must be performed
with the highest accuracy.
In order to avoid appreciable errors, orien-
tation must be done twice by the same
method or different methods.
Discrepancies in the results of orientation
of one and the same side of a traverse should
not exceed the following permissible values:
(a) 3' for direction angles in geometric
orientation;
(b) 2' for direction angles in gyroscopic
orientation; and
(c) 5 cm for planimetric position of the
initial point in the plumbing of a survey net
via vertical workings.
In order to satisfy these requirements, the
5' 6,
root-mean square error m" of a single orienta-
tion must not exceed l' in the geometric
method and 40" in the gyroscopic method of
5'
orientation. To minimize the effect of an
orientation error on the positions of distant
points in underground survey nets, it is
recommended to make gyroscopic orienta-
,...0
5
tion of intermediate sides of nets in mines
where field wings exceed two metres in
length. Thus, the maximum rms displacement
M of a point of an underground survey net,
as calculated by formula (4.1) with due con-
sideration of the error of orientation
 4.3. Geometric Orientation
41

(carried out twice), will be: If a mine is entered by two adits, the
theodolite traverse must be run to closure.
M= x 2000 m= 0.4 m In mines opened by inclines with the
fi x 3438'
dipping angle of more than 70, direction
angles must be transferred only by using
4.2. Orientation of Underground gyroscopic orientation.
Survey via Horizontal
or Inclined Adit
4.3. Geometric Orientation
If a deposit is opened by a horizontal entry
(adit) or an inclined entry (incline), the under- Connection survey with the use of plum-
ground survey can be oriented by running a mets can be performed via one, two or more
polygonometric traverse from the surface vertical shafts. In any case it has to handle
into the mine (Fig. 4.2). two problems: the problem of projection and
If only one adit or incline is available, the that of connection (junction).
traverse is run from an approach station on The procedure of projection consists essen-
the surface, say, B, to the first side of the tially in that a straight-Iine segment is tran-
underground survey net. A back traverse line sferred by means of two plumb bobs from the
is run usually through other, temporarily surface onto the mine level to be oriented.
established points. The polygonometric tra- The projection procedure should be carried
verse run to a side CD in the figure makes it out so that the line segments on the surface
possible to calculate the direction angle aCD and in the mine lie in the same vertical plane.
of the side and the coordinates of a point C: The junction procedure includes two steps:
aCD= a AB+ 131+ 132+ ...+ 13n:!: 180.n connection on the surface and connection in
the mine. The former determines the coor-
Xc = xB + /1 cos aB1
dinates of the plummets and the direction
+ 12cosa12 + ...+ IncosanC angle of the line that is projected from the
Yc = YB + /1 sin aB1 surface, and the latter is done to transfer the
+ 4sina12 + ...+Insinanc direction angle and plumb-line coordinates
to the first (fixed) side of an underground
where 131'132'..., 13nare the measured angles; theodolite traverse.
n is the number of measured angles; aB1' ..., There are several methods of junction
anCare the direction angles of sides; and /1, 4. which differ from one another in the shape of
In are the measured lengths of sides. junction figures at plumb-bob lines. With all

:~ //I D
ri %,
ri ?:1
~
""~ ~2~~,(/////////////
B 11
~~---0-- 1 ' 2 13 3 ---0--- ~n-~ n In C

~ ~.
~ //j

Fig. 4.2 Orientation via adit

42 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

methods of junction, however, the matter of nection survey via a vertical shaft. This
projection is tackled essentially in the same method is the most labour-consuming and
way. requires certain special techniques, but the
instruments and appliances employed in it, as
4.4. Orientation well as some of the operations described
down One Vertical Shaft below, are typical for all kinds of geometric
This kind of orientation is carried out by orientation, in particular, for connection
means of two plummets hung from the sur- surveys via two or more vertical shafts.
face through the shaft onto the mine level to The preparatopy stageincludes the following
be oriented. The procedure requires careful operations.
preparatory work, long-term outage of hoi- I. Approach points are established on the
sting vessels in the shaft, and certain special surface at a distance not more than 300 m
safety measures. The procedure must be per- from the shaft collar. Existing stations of a
formed in a clearly correlated sequence and geodetic net of class I to 4 in the vicinity of
with coordinated actions of all the specialists the shaft can be used as approach points. The
engaged in it. For that reason, the chief coordinates and direction angles of approach
mining surveyor has to work out a detailed points must be determined with an accuracy
plan of the organization and methods of corresponding to analytical or polygonomet-
surveying work which specifies, in particular, ric nets of the first order. The approach
the required outage time of hoisting means in points should be established so that the
the shaft and the essential safety measures; hanging polygonometric traverse of the se-
the plan is to be approved by the chief cond order to be run immediately to the shaft
engineer of the mining enterprise. Before collar between the initial point for direct
starting the work, all members of the survey connection of plumb lines and an approach
team are instructed by the chief mining point contains not more than three sides.
surveyor in their duties and in details of the This traverse should be run twice or be
closed or else be tied to higher-order station
plan.
The survey work of orientation down one points.
vertical shaft can be divided into two stages: 2. A number of (at least four) permanent
(I) the preparatory stage which includes station points (marks) are established in the
the operations and steps that should be workings of the mine level to be oriented, so
performed before stopping the hoist in the that the coordinates x, y and direction angle
shaft and transferred into the mine can be fixed to
(2) the main stage which covers the ope- them.
rations of centring and orientation to be 3. A set of instruments, appliances and
carried out when the shaft hoist is stopped. fixtures is prepared for accomplishment of
As a rule, the main fan of the mine is switched connection survey work with the specified
off for the time when observations of plum- accuracy. The survey instruments and ap-
met oscillations are to be carried out. pliances must be tested and adjusted before
starting the work. The mass of plummets and
4.5. Sequence and Organization the type and diameter of wire are chosen
of Work for Orientation depending on the depth of the shaft and the
down One Vertical Shaft speed of air in it.
4. The points are chosen for hanging the
This section will describe in detail the plumb bob lines in the shaft so as to obtain
sequence and organization of work for con- the largest distance between the plummets
 4.5. Sequence and Organization of Work 43

and the most favourable figures for solving 3. Small plumb bobs (of a mass of 3-5 kg)
the connection problem. Places are assigned on wires are passed through the holes in the
for the construction of platforms for winches, top platform along the shaft to the level to be
scales, guide pulleys, projection and centring oriented so as to avoid large swings. Practi-
plates, plummet dampers (dash-pots), etc. so cally both plumb bobs are sunk simultaneous-
as to ensure the stability of plummets during ly with a speed of 1 mjs. It should be checked
the entire time of observations. If there is that the wires have no -knots, bends, etc. along
enough place in the underground workings the entire length.
near the shaft and the mining operations in 4. Upon sinking the plumb bobs, the team
the shaft will not be interfered, some of these underground replaces them by the main
procedures (construction of platforms for larger plummets and places these into dash-
winches, arrangement of winches and guide pots.
pulleys, closure of the sump, etc.) can be 5. Centring plates with scales, mirrors and
carried out at an earlier stage. other devices are placed on the platforms on
5. Building materials are prepared for the the underground level to observe the oscilla-
closure of the shaft, construction of plat- tions of plummets. If the strings of freely
forms, attachment of fixtures in the shaft and hanging plummets are stable (their oscilla-
on the mine level to be oriented. Vessels with tions do not exceed 0.4 mm), the centring
viscous liquid for plummet damping and plates can be aligned immediately with the
other devices are prepare,d for the work. plummets.
6. Auxiliary workers (shaft fitters, carpen- 6. It is checked that the plummet strings
ters, hoist operators) to be engaged in the do not touch the shaft walls. This can be
connection survey work are instructed in the done by two methods: (a) a light ring cut out
job, and a reliable telephone service is estab- of cardboard or another available material is
lished between the working teams on the 'mailed down' along the wire, i. e. is let to
surface and in the mine. slide down to the bottom or (b) the distances
At the beginning of the main stage of between the plummets as measured on the
survey work, the performers and the auxiliary surface and in the mine are compared; the
personnel in the shaft and at the hoist are discrepancy between them must not exceed
placed under the authority of the survey 2mm.
work supervisor, usually the chief surveyor of 7. Observations of plummet oscillations
the mine. Persons not engaged in survey are carried out to determine the central
work are strongly prohibited to be present in positions of the plummets, after which the
the underground workings and shaft building plummets are fixed in the centring plates and
and on the platforms. The performers are the free positions of the plummet wires are
divided into two teams or groups: one for checked again by comparing the distances
work on the surface and the other, on the between the plummets as measured on the
level to be oriented. surface and in the mine.
The operations at the main stage are 8. All linear and angular parameters of the
carried out roughly in the following sequence. connection triangles are measured on the
I. Wood platforms are constructed on the surface and in the mine.
shaft collar and in the shaft proper. Small 9. Upon finishing the cycle of observa-
holes are provided in the platforms for pas- tions, a check measurement of the distance
sing through plummets. between the plummets on the surface and in
2. Winches, guide pulleys, centring plates, the mine is made again. If the discrepancy is
etc. are fastened on the platforms. within the permissible value, it is now pos-
44 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

level being oriented do not usually lie in the

same vertical plane with the plumb line
points 01, O2 on the surface (Fig. 4.4). In
other words, it is impossible to form a
vertical plane in a shaft that would pass
through all four points indicated. The root-
mean square error for this case can be found
by the formula:
Au" = p'e/c (4.2)
where e are the rms linear deviations of the
points of both plummets on the level being
oriented from the respective points on the
surface and c is the distance between the
plummets.
~ Since the permissible discrepancy between
two independent orientations is not more
than::!: 3', the rms error of an orientation
should be not more than 1'. If the rms error
of surface connection and connection in the
mine is taken to be not more than::!: 30", the
rms error of projection, Au, should not
///////////;"J;!;;;///////////////////; exceed the following value:
Fig. 4.3 Plummet arrangement for orientation
Auperm= J Au; + Au; ~ 42"
through vertical shaft: 1 -hand winch; 2- guide
pulleys; 3 -centring plates; 4- guard platform; To ensure this accuracy of projection, the
5-plummet; 6~dash-pot rms linear deviations e should not exceed 0.4,
0.6, 0.8, I, and 1.2 mm for the distances
sible to start disassembling of .the surveying between the plumb lines respectively 2, 3, 4, 5,
equipment. The main plummets are replaced and 6 m.
by lighter plumb bobs and these are lifted to This accuracy can only be attained by
the surface. During lifting the plumb bobs, observing the rules listed in Sect. 4.7. It is
the work of all kinds in the shaft and near it essential to choose the distance between the
and on the platforms is prohibited. plumb lines as close as possible to the shaft
With properly organized work and good diameter.
coordination between the working teams, the For handling successfully the problem of
main stage of surveying can be completed in projection, of special importance is the obser-
8-12 hours. The principal scheme of arran- vation of mean (central) positions of plum-
gement of plummets for orientation via a mets on the oriented level. Observations of
vertical shaft is shown in Fig. 4.3.

4.6. Plumbing Surface Points

onto Oriented Mine Level
Owing to the effects of various external
forces, plumb line points 0'1, o~ on the mine Fig. 4.4 Determining angular projection error
 4.6. Plumbing Surface Points onto Oriented Mine Level 45

N plummet oscillations can be made by two

5. ".I ~
~" linear scales, a centring plate (Fig. 4.5.), eye-
piece scales, and other devices.
.4 Irrespective of the type of instrument used
for the purpose, the problem consists essen-
'5 tially in observing the motions of oscillating
~
plummets in two vertical planes and deter-
::;:::
mining their mean positions in each plane.
2 These points are then fiXed. Figure 4.6 shows
-3 the scheme of observation of a plummet 01
4.
by using two theodolites. The extreme points
of positions of plummets are fixed by reading
off on the scales at the exterior or interior
5. edge of the plummet wire. The number of
A readings to fix the extreme position of the
wire shou)d be not less than 11-13. The
7 4 '5 reading on the scale N 1 corresponding to the
Fig. 4.5 Centring plate with scales: 1- body; mean position of the plummet is calculated
2-mirror socket; 3-pyramid; 4-clamp screws; by the formula:
5- pyramid-adjusting screws; 6- slit for plumb bob N 1mean = 0.5 (I;IN./n + I;rN./n) (4.3)
string; 7- plate-fastening sockets; 8 -plumb bob; I I
9-plug; M, N -scales where IN. is an extreme left reading on the
scale N; for the first plummet; rN. is an
extreme right reading on the scale N ;; and n
is the number of observations of extreme
positions of the plummet 01 on the scale N 1.
Similar observations and calculations are
done on the scale M l' Observations of the
mean position of the second plummet O2 are
carried out simultaneously by using two
other theodolites. The plumb line points are
fixed according to the calculated data on
their mean positions, the distance between
them is measured as accurately as possible
and compared with the distance between the
plumb line points as measured on the surface.
The observers should try to place the inst-
ruments and scales so that the angle y will be
close to 90, The accuracy in the determina-
tion of the mean position of a plummet will
not be worsened if the angle y ranges between
45 and 135. If the space available is too
restricted, it is recommended to observe the
oscillations of a plummet by means of a
Fig. 4.6 Observation of pl~mmet oscillations on mirror and theodolite.
scales by means of two theodolites This method is more intricate and time-
 46
o Scale N
~ oc ~ ~Ni.
, ...
" W
~ ~
III
Fig. 4.7 Observation of plummet oscillations
two scales by using mirror and theodolite
consuming. The principal scheme of deter-
mining the mean position of a plummet by
means of a mirror and theodolite is shown in
Fig.4.7.
The reading on the scale N I corresponding
to the mean position of a plummet is calcu-
lated by the formula
N1mean= (N1 + N2 + ...+N1)/i
where
N1 = (IN + 2,N + IN )/4
I I 2 the underground triangle do not exceed 2-3
N 2 = (IN + 2,N + IN )/4, etc.
2 2 3
i = (nr -I) + (n, -1)
In these formulae, IN. IN. IN. and 'N ' 'N .
'N. are the left ind fight readings 6fth~
extreme positions of the plummet O Ion the
scale N I; and nr and nl is respectively the
number of right and left readings.
In order to observe the oscillations of the
plummet on the scale M I' the theodolite is
sighted on the mirror which is arranged at an
angle of 45 to this scale. Then a reading
M I meancorresponding to the mean position
of the plummet on the scale M I is taken.
According to the readings N I mean !and M I mean'
the plummet 0 I is fixed rigidly in the centring
~
Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
plate by means of two mutually perpendi-
~
cular pairs of screws 5 (see Fig. 4.5).
4.7. Connection to Plumb Line
Points in Orientation
Down One Vertical Shaft
The root-mean square error of transferring
the direction angle from the initial side of a
traverse to the plumb-connecting line and
from the latter to the traverse side of an
underground reference net on the mine level
being oriented, should not exceed 30" for
each of these two procedures. Considering
on this requirement and the possibilities of ar-
rangement of plummets in a shaft, one choo-
ses the connection method that is most
suitable for the purpose. Among these meth-
ods, the method of connection triangle is
most popular (Fig. 4.8.). Two points fixed
earlier on the surface and in the shaft, say, A
and C. and two points projected by plum-
mets, 01 and O2, form two connection triang-
les: AO1O2 on the surface and CO1O2 in the
shaft.
(4.4) The connection triangles will have a fa-
vourable form and ensure the specified accu-
racy of connection if the angles a and 'Yof the
surface triangle and the angles P1 and 'Y1of
and the ratios a/c and, b1/C1 are as small as
possible. The connection procedure is started
upon finishing the projection, and the obser-
vations and measurements on the surface and
in the shaft are usually carried out concur-
rently. Before making the connection work, it
is required to determine the expected errors
in calculated angles, m and m{i1 by the
formulae:
m = (a/c)m1" m{i1= (b1/cJm1'1 (4.5)
It is then permissible to solve the connec-
tion problem by the method of connection
triangle if the expected errors of angles a and
Pi do not exceed :t20". It is required to
measure all the three sides a, b, and c of a
 4.7. Connection to Plumb Line Points

Fig. 4.8 Junction by method of connection triangle

triangle AO1O2 and the angles 0, E, and yon approximate formulae:

the surface at a point A and the sides a1, b1, a = (a/c)y, 13 = (b/c)y
and c1 ofa triangle CO1O2 and the angles 01,
El and Yl at a point C in the shaft.
The rIllS errors of the measured angles at
at = (a1/C Pi = (b1/c
points A and C must not exceedm = 7". The Iyl'

differences of the measured angles1 points A If a or ~l exceeds 20and ~ or al is smaller

and C (see Fig. 4.8), -(E -Y) and 01 -
than 160, the angles can be found by the
-(El -YJ, must not exceed :!:20". These formulae of sides:
angles are adjusted by distributing the discre- for the surface triangle:
pancies, obtained by the reiteration method,
equally between all the angles. tan {a/2) = J(P -b)(P -c)/[jJ(P -a)]
Each side of connection triangles is mea- tan (~/2) = J"iii=--a)(P -c)/[jJ(P -b)]
sured at least five times by a steel tape at a
constant tension, taking readings with an and for the underground triangle:
accuracy of up to a miliimetre. The arithme- tan {afl) ,(4.8)
tic mean of these measurements is taken as
= J(Pl --bJ(P CJI[P1 (Pi aJ]
the final result. The discrepancy between the
individual readings must not exceed:!: 2 mm tan (fil/2)
and the root-mean square error of the final = J(P1 -aJ(p1 .'.'.CJI[P1 (P1 -hJ]
length of a side must be not more than
:!: 0.5 mm. The results of these field mea- where
surements are then used for calculations in P = (a + b + c)/2 and P1 ~ (a1 + b1 + cJ/2
office analysis.
The solution of connection triangles and Mter the angles have been calculated, a
the calculations of the direction angle and the check is done by. adding the angles for each
coordinates of the points of the initial side triangle, The sum of angles must not differ by
CD in the mine are carried out as follows. more than 10" from 180, The discrepancy
If the acute angles a and ~1 do not exceed (within the permissible value) is distributed
20, use can be made of the sine fofIllulae: evenly between the calculated angles.
Before solving the connection triangles, the
sin a = (a/c) sin Y, sin ~ = (b/c) sin Y
linear measurements are checked by colilpa-
(4.6) ring the measured distance between the
Sin~l = (b1/cJsin Yl
sinal =(al/cJsiny plummets to its value calculated by the
formula:
If a or 131is less than 2and 13or a1 is more
than 178, the angles can be calculated by the c= Ja2 +b2 2abcos'Y
48 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

Table 4.1. Solution of Connection Triangle with Angles a < 20 and p > 160'
Survey place

m
2
= (tana )
-m 2 +
tan ap"
m
--.!!.
) 2

Ot .tany y
a b

{3~
A
/1 b
+

2 a 5.0313 12 a 1047'45" 22 tan a 0.031

3 b 8.0510 II 13 17707'31" 23 tan a/tan y 1.63
4 c 3.0220 5 y 104'00" 24 tan a
-m ,
3.8
tany

a
sin a ~ -siny 13 ~ 180000'00"
c
t2.4"
25 ( ~m ):
tany y 14.44

ma :to.29 mm
26 tan ap'
b m.
sin 13 = -siny 18 0.000060
a
27
tanap"~ 0.38
a

6 siny 0.018826 16 mb :!:0.3 mm 28

( tanap"~)2 0.14

siny m"
tan ap" -=-
m
0.006229 19 0.000040 29
c b C
8 sinn 0.031341 17 mc :!: 0.23 mm 30
( tan ap"~)2 0.41

9 sin 13 0.050150 20 mc
0.00010 31 m; 14.99
c
10 131 252'29" 21 tany 0,019 32 m, :1::3.8"
 4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey via Vertical Shafts 49

Table 4.1 (Continued)

Calculation of length of line c

.;.,c = a2 + b2 -2abcosy

1 y 104'00" 8 02 25.3140
2 cosy 0.999827 9 b2 64.8186
3 a 5.0313 10 2
Ccalc 9.1326
4 b 8.0510 II 3.0220
Ccalc
5 ab 40.5070
6 2ab 81.0140 12 Cmeas 3.0220
7 2ab cos y 81.0000 13 0.0000
Ccals--Cmeas

The permissible discrepancy is not more as the arithmetic mean of two connection
than 3 mm for the surface triangle and 5 mm surveys.
for the underground triangle. The calculations for connection triangles
The direction angle of an underground side are made in table sheets. A table sheet for a
(see Fig. 4.8) is calculated by two polygons case when the angles a are smaller than 200
(one through plummet 01 and the other, and 13are larger than 160 is shown in Table
plummet O2) using the following formulae: 4.1.
aCD= aBA + I: + (a + aJ + 1:1-3 x 180 The method of connection triangle is simp-
ler in measurements and calculations than
(4.10)
aCD= aBA + 0 -(P + PJ + 01 -3 x 180 the other methods available, ensures a high
accuracy if the triangles are stretched, and for
(4.11) these reasons has found wide practical appli-
The coordinates of the initial point C in cation.
the shaft are calculated by two polygons (see Other methods of connection through a
Fig. 4.8): single shaft, for instance, the method of
x'c=xA+hcosaAO 1 +h1cosao 1c (4.12) connection rectangle with two- or single-sided
connection schemes,the method of symmet-
Yc=YA+hsinaAo
1
+hlsinao.c
1
(4.13)
rical connection, etc., will not be discussed
Xc = xA + acosaAo + a1cosao c (4.14)
2 2 here, since they are substantially more la-
Yc=YA+asinaAo
2
+a1sinaoc
2
(4.15)
bour-consuming and therefore came out of
use a few decades ago.
The direction angles of the initial under-
ground side CD, as transferred by two poly-
gons, should be fully coincident, and the 4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey
coordinates of a point C may have discre- via Two Vertical Shafts
pancies within the accuracy of side measu- The analysis of the total error of connec-
rement, i. e. up to 2 or 3 mm. If it is impos- tion survey, including the projection and
sible to make a check by a different connec- connection errors, shows that with the con-
tion survey, orientation through one vertical nection through a single vertical shaft the
shaft is repeated upon placing the plummets projection error, which is the principal error
into new positions. The final result is found in this kind of survey and depends mainly on
4-127(!
50
Fig. 4.9 Orientation via two vertical
the distance between the plummets, cannot
always be diminished to the permissible va-
lue. In the orientation via two vertical shafts,
however, the angular error of projection is
not as critical, since the distance between the
plummets is substantially greater. For that
reason, the connection survey via two vertical
shafts is the most accurate and reliable among
all kinds of geometric orientation. For in-
stance, with the distance between the plum-
mets of 50 mm and a linear error of projec-
tion of 2 mm, the angular error, according to
formula (4.2), will be:
l1a" = p".: = 2 x 206265 = 8"
c 50000
i. e. is substantially smaller than the errors
caused by other factors.
In view of this circumstance, with the
distance between the plummets of 50 m or
more, it is permissible to perform connection
on an underground level to freely hanging
plummets.
In the scheme of orientation via two ver-
tical shafts, as shown in Fig. 4.9, the geomet-
ric connection between the sui:face and un-
Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
shafts
derground survey nets is effected by means of
the plummets hung in two shafts.
Connection survey via two vertical shafts
contains the following main stages:
(I) projection of plumb line points 01 and
O2 from the surface onto the mine level to be
oriented. The main instruments and applian-
ces, the order to plummet hanging in shafts,
etc. are essentially the same as in the orien-
tation via a single vertical shaft;
(2) connection to the plummets on the
surface and in the mine. The connection on
the surface can be performed by one of the
two schemes as follows:
(a) if the distance between the shafts is not
large, theodolite traverses with the number of
sides not more than three (A-I-01 and A-
11-02) are run from one and the same point
(A) to the plummets;
(b) if the shafts are at a large distance from
each other, an approach point is established
at each of them, so that theodolite traverses
with the number of sides not more than three
can be run from these points to the plum-
mets.
The connection to the plummets in the
 4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey via Vertical Shafts 51

mine is performed by running a theodolite 4.8.1 .Estimating the Accuracy

traverse between the plumb line points (01-
1-2-3-4-5-02).
The accuracy of theodolite traverses oil the
surface must correspond to first- or second-
order polygonometry and that on the level
being oriented, to the accuracy of underground
reference n(;ts. The underground traverse
between the plummets should be stretched
where possible, i. e. be of the least feasible
length, and include as few points as possible.
In Soviet practice, technical instructions on
mine surveying specify that the root-mean
square error of the direction angle of a
plumb-connecting line relative to the nearest
side of the reference net on the surface should
be not more than 20". That is why, before
making the connection survey, it is essential
to estimate preliminarily the accuracy of the
direction angle of the plumb-connecting line
and that of the direction angle of the side of
the underground reference net, so that the
rillS error of the underground direction can
be within the permissible limit of 1'.
of Direction Angle
of Plumb-Connecting Line
on the Surface
Let side 1-1' be the initial side from which
a polygonometric traverse with a junction
point 2 has been run (Fig. 4.l0a). The root-
mean square error of the direction angle of a
plumb-connecting line can be found by the
formula: .
M~o o =
1 2
v (4.16)
where mp = 10" is the rms error of angular
measurements; 11is the coefficient of influence
of random errors in length measurements; Si
are the lengths of sides of a polygonometric
traverse from the junction point to plumb
line points 01 and O2 (in the case considered,
the side lengths S2-01'S2-3'and S3-0J;<Piis the
angle made by a side i and direction 0102; c

(b)

Fig. 4.10 Preliminary estimation of accuracy of survey work: (a) for direction angle of plumb-colJnecting
line on surface; (b) for direction angle of side of underground survey net
52 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

Table 4.2 provided that ~ = 0.001 m1i2, mfl = 20", and

c=115m.
Si-
.2 Ipi
Sism
Ver- R, R: The calculation is done in the following
texes des
sequence.
2 7 49 2-01 18 I. The root-mean square errors Ma of
fl
2 82 6724 2-3 1 direction angles of traverse sides incurred by
3 12 144 3-02 26
the errors of angular measurements are de-
termined by the formula:
[R;iJ = 6917 [sisin2<p;J = 45
Ma = (mfl/c)J[Ji"!] (4.17)
fl
where mfl is the rms error of angular mea-
surements; Ry is the projection onto the line
is the distance between the plummets (here 0102 of the distances from each plummet to
c = 75 m); Ry. are the projections onto the the points of the traverse section which
line 0 102 of 'the distances from the plumb connects the plummet with the side in ques-
line points 01 and O2 to the points of tion (including one point of that side). The
traverses run from the junction point to these values of Ry are determined on the survey
plummets (here: Ry , Ry .and Ry ); p" = plan (Table 4.3).
= 206265"; and n is the nfImber ofrJeasured Substituting the numerical values into for-
angles between the approach point and mula (4.17), we obtain:
junction point (here n = 2). for the first side of connection traverse
The magnitudes of Ry. are taken from the (I-II):
survey plan; the terms s; sin2 <Piare determi-
ned on the plan by double projection of side
lengths.
The calculation of [R; .J and [Si sin2 <PiJis
shown in Table 4.2. I
Substituting the numerical values into
formulae (4.16), we have: M
20J23650 = 27'
"pVIl-VIlI 115
M~0,02
--
102 x 6917 4 x 1010 x I x 10-6 x 45

752+ 752
\I
-+-
2 x 102 = 25" 2. The root-mean square errors M~ of the
direction angles of traverse sides incu;red by
errors in linear measurements of side lengths
4.8.2. Estimating the Accuracy are found by the formula:
of Connection
by Connecting Polygon Ms = (J.1/c)
p" j;;"Sj;;;-;p-; (4.18)

Suppose that a polygonometric traverse where Si are the lengths of traverse sides and
has been run through points I, II, III, IJ-: J-: <Piare the angles between the sides and the
n, nI, and nII (see Fig.4.10b). It is re- line 0102.
quired to find the error of direction angles of The values of Sisin2 <Piare found by double
the first, last, and middle side of the traverse graphical projection of individual sides of the
 4.8. Horizontal Connection Survey via Vertical Shafts 53

Table 4.3

traverse (Fig. 4.11 ): for the first side of traverse (I-II):

Side 01-1 I-II II-III III-IV IV-V M ~1-II= V /362
:Ju +
T 202
~v = 42"
sisin2<pi 0 52 8 0 0
for the last side (VII-VIII):
V-VI VI-VII VII-VIII VIII-O2 [sisin2<pJ
12 60 5 0 137
M ~VII-VIII
= V /272
~I +T 202
~v = 34"

M. = 0.001/115 x 2 x 105 Jill = 20"

and for the middle side (IV -V):
M ~IV-V= V /122
l~ +T 202
~v = 23"
3. The root-mean square errors of the
direction angles of traverse sides relative to On the basis of these preliminary calcula-
the p1umb-connecting line 0102 are calcula- tions of errors, the work superviser (chief
ted by the formula: surveyor) chooses the techniques and inst-
ruments which can ensure the specified accu-
M = JM;. + M; (4.19)
.. racy of mine surveying.
The entire complex of angular and linear
observations on the surface and in the mine is
carried out before hanging the plummets into
the shafts. Mter hanging the plummets, their
points are connected by measuring the angles
at the first and last points of the connecting
polygon and the distances from these points
to the plummets.
The coordinates x, y of the plummets O 1
and O2 on the surface are determined by the
results of measurements of the approach
polygons (seeFigs. 4.9 and 4.10a). All lengths
measured on the surface and in the mine are
corrected for calibration, temperature, angle
Fig. 4.11 Double projection of side length of of dip, tape sag, and reduction of lengths to
connecting polygon the surface of reference ellipsoid and the
54 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

plane of Gauss projection. The last two the conventinnal system in the mine (c'). The
corrections are found by the formulae: discrepancy A c = c' -c must not exceed the
ASel= (y/2R)s, Aspr = -(H/R)s permissible value A Cpermwhich can be found
by the formula:
where y is the mean ordinate of the connec-
tion survey region; R is the mean radius of Acperm
the Earth; H is the absolute elevation; and s is = 2 (mi/p2/[R~;J + ~2(SiCOS2<pJ
+ 1..2c2
the measured length of the traverse side. (4.24)
The calculated coordinates are used for
where Rx. are the distances from the points of
determining the direction angle of a plumb- ,
connecting line, Qo 0 and the distance be- the underground polygon to the plumb-
l 2 connecting line 0102; I.. = 5 x 10-5 is the
tween the plummets, c, by the formulae:
coefficient of influence of systematic errors of
tanaOlO2 = (Y2 -YOl)/(XO2 -XOl) (4.20)
linear measurements; and mfJ is the root-
c = (XO2 -XOl)/COS UOlO:
mean square error of angular measurements.
Other terms are the same as in the preceding
= (yO -Yo )/sin Uo O
2 1 1 2 formulae. The values of R x. are determined
on the surveying plan. ,
or (4.21)
1,
(X X ),22 +.,--(y y--'2 )2 If the discrepancy is within the permissible
02 -01 02 -01 value, all lengths of the underground con-
nection polygon are corrected according to
In calculations by formula (4.20), the value the formula:
of c obtained for the larger increase of
Asi = -(AC/C)Si (4.25)
coordinates is taken as the final value,
whereas that calculated for the smaller Then, corrections are determined for the
increase is used as a check value. direction angles of the underground connec-
Then the coordinates of points of the tion polygon in order to recalculate this
underground connection polygon are calcu- polygon into the coordinate system on the
lated in the conventional system of coordi- surface. These corrections are found by the
nates. As a rule, the point 01 is taken as the formula:
origin of the conventional coordinate system
and the axis of abscissaeis directed.along the Aa = ao
1
o
2
-a' o
1
o
2
(4.26)

first side, 01-1. In that case, x'o = y'o = 0

d ' 0 1 1 The direction angles of the sides of an
an ao1-1= . underground connection polygon will be:
After that the direction angle of a
plumb-connecting line, a' o o , and the dis- ai=ai+Aa (4.27)
1 2
tance between the plummets ID the mine, c',
are determined in the conventional coor-
It is now possible to calculate the coordi-
nates of all points of the underground
dinate system:
connection polygon from the measured
tana'o o = y'o jx'o (4.22) lengths of sides, corrected lengths of sides,
1 2 2 2
c,o o = Yo ., a o o = x ,o
, j sm j cos a,o o and corrected direction angles. The coor-
12 2 12 2 12 dinates of a plummet 01 on the surface are
(4.23) taken as the initial coordinates. The r;oordi-
It is now essential to compare the plummet nates of a plummet O2 obtained by the
distances as calculated by the coordinates of recalculation of the underground connection
the unified system on the surface (c) and in polygon and on the connection on the surface
Table 4.4. Calculation of Direction Angle and Length of Plumb-Connecting Line in the Coordinate System
Adopted on the Surface and in the Conventional Coordinate System

Surface coordinate system

tan a = Y02 -Y01 L\y Ay I1x

0102 =c = =
Xo -X L\x sina cosa
2 01

a b c

1 13211.868 9 77810.278 18 Ay -113.549

YO2 YO2 +XO2
2 13325.417 10 77938.922 20 sin a 0.991279
YO1 YOl +XOl
5 A.y -113.549 11 dx+dy -128.644 22 c 114.548
12 dx+dy -128.644
3 XOl
64 598.410 13 L\x -15.095 19 ~x -15.095
4 64613.505 14 dy -113.549 21 cosa 0.131781
XOl
6 dx -15.095 15 L\x-dy 98.454 23 c 114.546
7 tan a 7.522292 16 tan (a + 45' 1.306641 24 Cc 114.548
8 a 26225'39" 17 a+45 30725'39"

Conventional coordinate system

y' ,
tana' = 02- Y01 dy'
.ix' + .iy'= (Y~2 + X~2)
x ' -X , A ,
, 0, uX cosa'
-(y' + x' )
01 01

Ax' + Ay'
tan(a' + 45) = ., .-,

25
YO2
2.224 33 YO2 + XO2 -112.291 42 Ay' 2.224

26
YO1
0.000 34 YO1 + XOl 0.000 44 sina' 0.019416

29 Ay' 2.224 35 dx' + dy' -112.291 46 c' 114.545

36 dx' + dy' -112.515

27
XO2
-114.515 37 dx' -114.515 43 d.x' -114.515
28
XOl
0.000 38 dy' 2.224 45 cosa' 0.999812
30 ':\X' -114.515 39 dx' -dy' -116.739 47 c' 114.537
31 tan a' 0.010421 40 tan (a' + 45) 0.981898 48 c'c 114.537
32 a' 17853'15" 41 a' +45 22353'15"
da=
=a-a'
49 a 26225'39"

50 a' 17853'15"

51 da 8332'24"
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58 Ch. 4. Connection
can be used for checking. The discrepancy
between them must be within the accuracy of
calculations.
If other methods have not been used for
orientation, connection survey via two verti-
cal shafts must be carried out twice. The final
result is taken as the arithmetic mean of two
procedures. It is recommended to make the
connection survey via two vertical shafts in
combination with gyroscopic orientation of
the sides adjoining the plummets. An exam-
ple of calculation for orientation via two
vertical shafts is given in Tables 4.4 and 4.5.
If a mine field is opened by three or more
vertical shafts connected by underground
workings, it is recommended to make con-
nection survey through the shafts with the
use of redundant measurements.
4.9. Horizontal Connection
Survey
with Use of Gyrocompasses
The wire of a plummet hanging in a shaft is
subject to the action of a number of factors
which tend to deviate it from the vertical
position. The most important among these
factors are air currents in the shaft and
underground workings, and abundant water
drip (downpour). These factors have been
investigated and can be accounted for by
special formulae.
These factors have however become less
important with the appearance of gyroscopic
instruments which can determine the direc-
tion angles of any traverse side in a mine with
an accuracy to 10-20". In that connection,
geometric methods of orientation now have
only a limited application, mainly in the
construction of new mines. Repeated orienta-
tions in exploited mines are mostly carried
out by means of gyrocompasses. Further, the
essential disadvantage of geometric orienta-
tion via a single shaft by means of two
plummets is that the distance between the
plummets is too short and a direction angle
Surveys
cannot be transferred underground with a
sufficiently high accuracy. A practical merit
of gyroscopic orientation is that the direction
angle of one or several sides of an under-
ground survey net can be determined with a
high accuracy in any place of the mine field
and at any distance from the shafts. These
circumstances have predetermined wide po-
pularity of the connection survey method in
which the coordinates x. y of an initial point
of an underground polygon are determined
by means of a plummet sunk into the shaft,
(the problem of projection), and direction
angles are then measured by the gyroscopic
method.
Under production conditions, the prob-
lems of centring and projection are tackled
separately and in the following sequence.
The projection problem is solved by means
of a plummet hung in the vertical shaft. The
method and equipment in this case are essen-
tially the same as in orientation via a single
shaft by means of two plummets. It should be
noted, however, that, since the direction
angle of the initial traverse side will then be
determined by the gyroscopic method, the
projection can be carried out in a simplified
way without spending time for the stabiliza-
tion of a plummet, determination of its
central positions on scales,etc. on the surface
and in the mine.
A polygonometric traverse of an accuracy
of not less than second-order is run on the
surface from the initial side 31-32 to the
centring point, i. e. the plummet point
(Fig. 4.12). The angle ~A at a point A and the
distance from that point to the plumb line 0,
IAO' are measured in the shaft; the direction
angle of a side A-B (IlAB) is then determined
by the gyroscopic method.
The direction angle of a side O-A is
calculated by the formula:
IlAO = IlAB -~A :J: 180 (4.28)
and the coordinates of the first point (A) of an
underground side, by the formulae:
 4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 59

4.9.1. Theoretical Principles

Level950 m
Fig. 4.12 Solving projection problem for deter-
mining initial point coordinates of underground
polygon
XA = Xo + loAcosuoA
(4.29)
YA = YO+ loAsin aoA
This method is used especially widely at
mining enterprises with large mine fields and
block-type vertical shafts located at a dis-
tance of 5-6 km from the main shafts. The
connection survey made by this method
increases substantially the accuracy and
reliability of the survey reference net in the
entire wing of a mine.
of Gyroscopic Orientation
Mine surveying has in recent time become
less labour-consuming and more accurate
due to the appearance of reliable small-sized
and explosion-proof gyrocompasses.
The operating principle of a mine-sur-
veying gyrocompass is based on the daily
rotation of the Earth and the property of a
free gyroscope to rotate freely in three
mutually perpendicular planes (Fig. 4. 13). A
gyroscope is called balanced if its centre of
gravity coincides with the suspension point O
(the point of intersection of the three axes).
Balanced gyroscopes in which there is no
friction in the suspension supports are called
free. Free gyroscopes can exist only theoreti-
cally. Practically, the centre of gravity is
always displaced somewhat relative to the
suspension axis and there always is friction,
though slight, in suspension supports.
A free gyroscope (Fig. 4.13a) comprises a
massive spinning disc, or rotor 2, which is
suspended in two gimbals. The rotor is
mounted in the inner gimbal 4 and outer
gimbal 7 on bearings 1,3, and 5. This system
allows the rotor to rotate freely on the

(a)

Fig. 4.13 Free gyroscope (a) and pendulum gyrocompass (b)

60 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

principal (spin) axis x, rotation axis of the

inner gimbal y (sensitivity axis), and rotation
axis of the outer gimbal z (precession axis). As
the disc is rotating simultaneously on the
three axes, the suspension point O remains
immobile, and the x axis acquires stability
and do~s not react to rotation of a base 6, in
other words it retains a stable orientation in
space.
If the moment of an external force is
applied to the x axis of a quickly rotating E ,x
gyroscope, this axis turns (precesses)in the
plane perpendicular to the force applied. The Fig. 4.14 Components of Earth's rotation
angular velocity of precession, O>pr'is directly
proportional to the moment of external force
M ex and inversely proportional to the rota- The principal axis x of a gyrocompass set
ting velocity H of the gyroscope: up to a point O at a latitude <Pand at an
angle (1 to the meridian will change its
O>pr,=M ex/H (4.30)
position continuously relative to the horizon
If one of the degree of freedom of a plane under the action of Earth's daily
gyroscope is restricted, the centre of gravity, rotation, so that its north end will rise
which develops an additional pendulum load continuously above the horizon. The princi-
on the sensitivity axis y, will displace down- pal axis is acted upon by the moment of the
ward along the z axis into a point O 1. This force of gravity of the pendulum weight,
system is called a pendulum gyrocompass which is applied in a vertical plane and tends
(Fig. 4.13b). A weight Q causes the x axis to to turn the axis in the horizontal plane
adopt a position parallel to the horizon towards the meridian.
plane. With quick rotation of the system, the The angular velocity of rotation of the
x axis is arranged in the meridional plane. horizon plane, 0)3' around the sensitivity axis
The daily rotation of the Earth, when obser- y, which underlies the operating principle of a
ved from the North pole, is seen to occur gyrocompass, is called the useful component
anticlockwise (Fig. 4.14). As the Earth rotates of Earth's rotation and can be determined by
with an angular velocity 0>,the horizon plane the formula:
rotates in space with an angular velocity 0>1 0)3 = O)cos<psin(1 (4.32)
around the local meridian and at the same
time the meridional plane rotates with an If the gyrocompass axis lies in the horizon
angular velocity 0>2 around a vertical line. plane at (1= 00, then 0)3 = 0. At (1 = 90, 0)3
The angular velocities 0>1and 0>2depend on has the maximum value. The angular velocity
the local latitude <p: 0)3 also depends on the latitude of the station
0>1= o>cos<pand 0>2= o>sin<p (4.31) point which is determined by angle <p. At
<P= 90, 0)3 = 0, i. e. the gyroscope cannot be
The horizontal component of Earth's oriented at Earth's pole. At the equator, 0)3
rotation, 0>1, determines variations in the attains a maximum.
height of the Sun and stars above the horizon In all positions, except for that at (1 = 0,
line and the vertical component 0>2,varia- the principal axis x of a pendulum gyro-
tions of their azimuthal positions. compass develops a moment of the gravity
 4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 61

force (guide moment of gyrocompass): external force, M ex' and the maximum guide
Mg = H 0) cos <psin a (4.33) moment Mg (at a = 900) and can be found
m~x
by the formula:
In all station points of a gyrocompass, the
E = Mex/ M
guide moment M 9 overcomes the forces of g
max
(4.36)

inertia and friction in the gimbal supports The correction E is introduced with a
and tends to turn the principal axis towards proper sign when calculating the gyroscopic
the meridian. The gyrocompass axis moves azimuth of a side being oriented.
relative to the meridian with the total angular
velocity of two oscillations in space: with a 4.9.2. Mine Surveying Gyrocompasses
constant angular velocity 0)2 in the meri-
dional plane and with a variable angular There are several types of gyrocompasses
velocity of precession of the axis under the which can be divided into three groups by the
action of the gravity force, O)p.., which
depends on the pendulum moment M of a
gyrocompass and the angle of inclination e of
its axis to the horizon (see Fig. 4.13):
O)p..= (M//l) sine (4.34)

If the gyromotor is brought into rotational

motion, the gyrocompass axis will perform
continuous harmonic oscillations about an
equilibrium position coinciding with the
meridional plane. The axis of symmetry of
harmonic oscillations relative to the meri-
dional plane is called the axis of the equilib-
rium of a gyrocompass and the positions in
which the velocity of motion of the axis is
equal to zero and the motion is reversed are
called the points of the gyrocompass axis.
The time during which the gyrocompass
axis performs a single elliptic oscillation and
returns into the initial position is called the
period of continuous oscillations of a gyrocom-
pass which is expressed by the formula:
T= 21t.JH/MO) cos<p (4.35)
Under the action of friction forces, how-
ever\ the oscillations of the gyrocompass axis
are gradually attenuated, the amplitude of
oscillations A i decreases,and the pattern of
motion of the axis changes from elliptical to
Fig. 4.15 General view of gyrocompass type
that along a twisting helix. This results in a MVT2: l-angle-measuring unit; 2-rotatable hous-
deviation of the gyrocompass axis by an ing; 3- base; 4- foot screws; 5 -connecting cable;
angle E from the meridional plane. The 6-power supply unit; 7-instrument casing; 8-
magnitude of E depends on the moment of an gyro attachment; 9-endless micrometer screw
 ",,'
-2

4
4~ 59 ~1 5.2
5

I
~.y
II /9
c-I0
!
.11
~

--12
:~
---13
~
45- 1-14

-15

43-

42-
41- -18
40- ---19
39
-20
-21
38-
37- -22
36
-23
24
35 -25
34- -26
-27
33- -28
32- -29
-30
-31 ---
Fig. 4.17 Gyrocompass type MVT4: 1-explo-
sion-proof glass;2- illuminating lamp; 3- illumina-
ting mirror; 4 -illuminating prism (upper); 5 -il-
luminating prism (lower); 6-eyepiece; 7-hair
cross; 8-upper rectangular prism; 9-lower rectan-
gular prism; 10- objective; 11- worm screw;
Fig. 4.16 Gyrocompass type MVT2: 1- autocol- 12-rhombic prism; 13-protective glass; 14-sensi-
limator; 2-illuminating unit; 3-illuminating lamp; tive element; 15-torsion suspension; 16-locking
4-illuminating prism; 5-eyepiece; 6-upper rec- device; 17-lower clamp of torsion suspension;
tangular prism; 7- objective; 8 -lower rectangular 18-locking clamp pin; 19-top of locking device;
prism; 9-rectangular prism; 10-upper clamp of 20-current lead; 21-transducer; 22-damper;
torsion suspension; 11- connector assembly; 12 - 23-top cover of gyro unit; 24-operating mode
fixed mirror; 13-SE mirror; 14-protective glass; switch; 25-switch cam; 26-lock; 27-gyro unit;
15-torsion suspension; 16-cable; 17-brushes; 28-storage battery; 29-battery fastening; 30-ba-
18-collector; 19-cable coupler; 20-1ocking de- lance weights; 31-lower damper; 32- magnetic
vice; 21- gyro attachment fastening; 22- band-type screen; 33- bottom cover of gyro unit housing;
current lead; 23-sensitive element; 24-magnetic 34- gyro unit housing; 35- button spring;
screen; 25- gyromotor; 26 ~ gyro unit casing; 36, 37 -connecting ring of gyro unit housing;
27~arrester head; 28-base; 29-base-tuming mech- 38 -lower nut of arrester; 39- SE rod; 40- upper
anism; 30-fixed bisector; 31-central hair line; cover of gyro unit; 41- tripod leg; 42, 43- tripod
32-scale; 33-movable bisector; 34-theodolite head; 44-locking device sleeve; 45-SE mirror;
46, 47-fixed casing of base; 48-control device and
upper clamp of suspension; 49- scale; 50- fixed
bisector
 4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 63

design, method of centring, and suspension of the SE mirror. The sensitive element can be
a sensitive element. fixed in the non-working state by an arrester.
I. Gyrocompasses with liquid suspension The observations of forced oscillations
and electromagnetic centring. consist essentially in taking readings on the
2. Gyrocompasses with liquid suspension circle in the points of reversion and determi-
and electromagnetic centring on needle, in ning the actual position of equilibrium.
explosion-proof or common embodiment. The design of a gyrocompass type MVT2
3. Gyrocompasses with torsion suspension, may be seen in Fig. 4.16.
such as types MVT2, MVT4, and MVB4M The gyrocompass MVT 4 (Fig. 4.17) has
developed in this country, which are small- been developed on the basis of type MVT2
sized, reliable and high-precision instruments and has principally the same design.
relatively simple in manufacture and In recent time, a mine surveying gyrocom-
operation. pass type MVB4M (Figs. 4.18 and 4.19) has
The gyrocompass type MVT2 (Fig. 4.15) is been developed in this country. The designers
intended for the orientation of underground have managed to reduce the mass and dimen-
sides in connection surveys and especially for
measuring the direction angles of traverse
sides in the construction of mine survey
reference nets. It belongs to the best instru-
ments in the world designed for mine sur-
veying. The mass of the instrument together
with the power supply unit and tripod is
33 kg. The time of start is 30 minutes and the
accuracy of measurement of direction angles
is 20-30". The gyrocompass is positioned by
means of a base 3 having a housing 2 which
can be rotated around the vertical axis by
means of an endless micrometer screw 9. The
rotatable housing carries at the top an
angle-measuring unit 1 which is essentially an
optical theodolite, and at the bottom a gyro
attachment 8 in which a sensitive element
with gyromotor is suspended from a torsion.
The instrument is power supplied from an
electric storage battery arranged in an
explosion-proof casing.
The torsion is made of three strips connec-
ted together at flat sides, which makes it
possible to obtain a low specific torque. The
oscillations of the axis with the sensitive
element (SE) about the meridional plane are
observed by means of a mirror mounted in
the top portion of SE and rigidly fixed to the
axis.
The standards of the theodolite carry an Fig. 4.18 General view of gyrocompass type
autocollimator to observe the oscillations of MVB4M
64 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

sions of the instrument and the time for

determining a gyroscopic azimuth roughly
by 50 per cent compared with the gyro-
compass type MVT2. In contrast to MVT2,
the new gyrocompass is intended not only for
basic geodetic surveying, but also for every-
day (current) mine surveying associated with
the construction of underground reference
nets and for measuring horizontal angles.
Like MVT2, the instrument type MVB4M is
a pendulum gyrocompass with torsion sus-
pension and comprises a gyro unit, gonio-
meter with multi-faced mirror, and power
supply unit (transducer and storage battery)
arranged in a common housing which is
mounted on a tripod for operation and
replaced into a casing for transportation.
Tests have shown that the gyrocompasses
types MVT2 and MVB4M ensure roughly
the same accuracy of orientation. Horizontal
angles can be measured by the gyrocompass
type MVB4M with an accuracy of enginee-
ring theodolites.
Technical characteristics of gyrocompasses
MVT2 MVB4M
Error of determination of
gyroscopic azimuth of a
Time
side, fors determination of 30 40
Fig. 4.19 Gyrocompass type MVB4M: 1- gyro
unit cover; 2-storage battery; 3-torsion suspen- gyroscopic azimuth, min .. 20 15
sion; 4~transducer; 5-catch; 6-current lead; Number of starts without
7- arrester; 8 -locking device; 9- SE magnetic Mass
recharging,
of instrument
at least. set ready 15 10
screen; 10- gyromotor; 11-multi-faced mirror;
12~measuring unit casing; 13-mirror for vertical for operation at station
sighting of telescope; 14-rectangular prism; 37 19
Number
point, kg.
of units in the set. .
15-vertical sighting head; 16-teleobjective; 17- 3 2
pentaprism; 18-fixed mirror; 19-photographic
objective; 20- hinged mirror; 21- graticule of scale
microscope; 22-eyepiece; 23-light filter; 24-il- The principal design feature of the gyro-
luminating prism; 25-illuminating lamp; 26-il- compass type MVB4M which distinguishes it
luminating unit; 27- fixed mirror scale; 28- mag- from type MVT2 and determines the scheme
netic screen on gyro unit housing; 29-arrester
pinion; 30 -lower sleeve of arrester; 31 ~ upper of gyroscopic azimuth of a side, is the provi-
sleeve of arrester; 32- sensitive element; 33 -lower sion of a goniometer with multi-faced mirror;
clamp of suspension; 34 -pin with balance weights; this has made it possible to diminish substan-
35- upper clamp of suspension; 36- protective cap tially the mass and dimensions of the
of upper clamp instrument.
 4.9. Horizontal Connection
In the modern mining practice where mine
fields and dangerous zones are continuously
increasing and it is impossible to ensure
permanent planimetric positions of points of
a reference net, an efficient method for
decreasing the influence of angular errors in
nets and increasing the reliability of sur-
veying is the introduction of reference nets
with gyroscopic polygons in which the direc-
tion angles of all sides are determined by the
gyroscopic method, i. e. by means of gyro-
compasses.
4.9.3. Gyroscopic Orientation
This kind of orientation can be carried out
either independently or in combination with
other methods. It is obligatory in opening a
deposit by means of inclined shafts with
angles of dip more than 70. At least two
sides at each mining level must be oriented by
the gyroscopic method. In the reconstruction
and construction of mine survey reference
nets, a side is oriented gyroscopically in each
section.
The direction angle of an oriented side
must be measured independently twice, the
discrepancy between the two observations
being not more than 2'. The principal
diagram of the determination of direction
angles by the gyroscopic method is illustrated
in Fig. 4.20.
In the gyroscopic orientation of a side, it is
recommended to make four starts of the
gyrocompass, the first and the fourth being
done on the surface at one and the same side
with a known direction angle and the second
and third, at the oriented side in the mine.
The first start before sinking into the mine
and the fourth, after completion of observa-
tions in the mine, are performed in order to
determine the gyrocompass correction (0}
which can be calculated by the formula:
8 = no -Go + Yo (4.37)
where no is the direction angle of the initial
,-17711
Survey by Gyrocompasses 65
side; Go is the gyroscopic azimuth of the
initial side; and Yo is the meridian conver-
gence in the station point of the gyrocompass
on Earth's surface.
The gyroscopic azimuths of sides on the
surface and in the mine must be measured
twice. The difference between the two obser-
vations must not exceed 2'. Their arithmetic
mean is taken as the final result. The formula
for determining a gyroscopic azimuth is as
follows:
G = (N -N 0) + E (4.38)
where N is the reading on the gyrocompass
circle corresponding to the direction onto a
point on the surface or at the underground
side being oriented; N 0 is the circle reading at
the equilibrium position of the sensitive
element; and E is the correction for twisting of
the torsion suspension.
The junction direction N on the surface or
of an underground side is determined twice,
at the beginning and end of a start and at two
different positions of the vertical circle. The
difference between the two measurements
should not exceed 30". The final result is
found as the arithmetic mean of the two
observations.
The difference between the direction angle
ao and gyroscopic azimuth Go of a side BC
on the surface constitutes the gyrocompass
correction 0.
A start in the mine determines the gyro-
scopic azimuth G of an underground side DE
to be oriented. The direction angle of DE is:
a = G + 0- Y (4.39)
where Y is the meridian convergence for the
underground station point of a gyrocompass.
Substituting from formula (4.37) into (4.39),
we obtain:
a = ao + G- Go + 01' (4.40)
where 01'is the difference of meridian conver-
gencesfor the gyrocompass station points on
the surface and in the mine, which can be
66 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

,
c 'g
IT
"io

si

c
..,..0

Ili
1 -1
o
1--
c' 'Y c; r

~;I y

Fig. 4.20 Determination of direction angles of sides by gyroscopic method: BC and DE-respectively
initial and oriented sides; B and D-station points of gyrocompass on surface and in mine; Ao and
A -astronomical azimuths of initial and oriented sides; no and n-direction angles of initial ~nd oriented
sides; Cg and C;:-directions of gyroscopic meridians; Go and G-gyroscopic azimuths of initial and
oriented sides; L" and C'-directions of astronomical azimuth in points B and D; o-gyrocompass
correction; 't-measuring unit constant; Yo and y-meridian convergences in points B and D; x and
y -rectangular plane coordinates
 4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 67

Fig. 4.21 Determination of gyroscopic azimuth of a side: DE-oriented side; A1. A2, A3' A4 -amplitudes
of gyroscopic wobbling of sensitive element; Cg-djrection of gyroscopic meridian; N 1. N 2. N 3' N 4 -circle
readings corresponding to reversion points of gyrocompass axis; No-circle reading at equilibrium
position of gyrocompass axis; G-gyroscopic azimuth of side DE; E-twisting angle of suspension

found by the formula: If the ordinates of gyrocompass station

01'= 1.10YO
-I.1Y (4.41) points on the surface and in the mine do not
exceed 10 km, then ~o = ~ and formula (4.41)
where Yo and yare the ordinates of station takes the form:
points B and D of the gyrocompass on the 01'= ~o (yo -y) (4.42)
surface and in the mine, km (to be found
graphically on the plan) and 1.10
and 1.1
are the The equilibrium position N o of the sensi-
coefficients depending on latitude (to be tive element (Fig. 4.21) is found from the
found in tables). observations of four successive points of
5.
68 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys

Table 4.6. Determination of Equilibrium Position of Oscillating Sensitive Element

Rever-
sion
points readings mean inter- readings mean inter.
mediate mediate
values values

h divisions divisioru

10 30 30 9 22 38 10 23 28 19.4
2 35 00 II 24 18 10 23 28 63.8 41.6
3 39 30 9 22 42 23 35 20.5 41.9
4 44 00 II 24 28 63.4

N o = 10 23 31 no = 41.7

Table 4.7. Calculation of Junction Direction

Junction direction

N' 8 10 24 N" 8 10 08 N = 810'16'

10 36 9 57

8 10 30 8 10 0.2

Table 4.8. Calculation of Error for Twisting of Torsion and Suspension

41.7 N 10 24 15 "', -0 02 52

45.0 N~ 10 44 07 'Vc +0 20 40

52" Ho 10 23 31 D 20.2

'I', 2'52" 'l'c +0 20 40 +0 00 53

 4.9. Horizontal Connection Survey by Gyrocompasses 69

Table 4.9. Calculation or Gyroscopic Azimuth Table 4.11. Calculation of Meridian Convergence

N 8 10 16

No 10 23 31 +99.1 +99.3

N -N o 357 46 45 -1.3 -1.5

E +0 00 53
~ 36.5 36.5
G 357 47 38
0. -0'50" .0'55"

Table 4.10. Calculation of Gyrocompass Error

points. The correction for twisting of the
Initial
Polyamy-Novy torsion and suspension is calculated by the
sides
12, 35 40,43
formula:
E = '11/D (4.44)
Starts

where D is a coefficient determined as the

G~ 7 35 l6 17 35 22
ratio of the specific guide moment to the
specific torque of the torsion and '11:is the
twisting angle of the torsion:
'11= '11
t + '11
c (4.45)

Here '11 t is the zero of torsion suspension

determined by the formula '11 t = t (no -nc);
t = 52" is the scale value of an autocollima-
Go 17 35 29 17 35 35
ting telescope; no is the suspension zero; and
nc is the scale reading of an autocoltimating
B +0 23 4(j +0 24 10
telescope corresponding to the positiQn of a
fixed bisector in the determination of the
suspension zero; the term '11 c can be found as
the difference of circle readings N c -N o
corresponding respectively to the mean value
of oriented direction and the equilibrium
position of the sensitive element, i. e.:
'11c = N c -N o (4.46)

In practice the results of observations and

calculations of direction angles in gyroscopic
where N l' N 2' N 3' and N 4 are the readings orientation are recorded in a record book
on the gyrocompass circle at reversion (Tables 4.6-4.12).
70 Ch. 4. Connection Surveys
 4.10. Vertical Connection Surveys

km. The height mark transfer should be made

independently twice.
If the dipping angles of opening workings
exceed 5-8, height marks are transferred by
trigonometric levelling. The procedure re-
quires the use of theodolites with the vertical
circle accuracy of not worse than 30". Height
differences at each side of a traverse line are
determined twice: in the forward and back
direction. The height mark transfer is perfor-
med independently twice. The difference in
heights, mm, in this case must be not more
than
L\h = :t 10~ (4.47)

where nl' n2 is the number of sides in the first

and second trigonometric levelling line.
Most coal mines are opened by vertical
shafts where height marks can often be
transferred by means of a long steel tape or
length-measuring winch.

4.10.1. Transferring a Height Mark

into a Mine by Means
of Steel Tape
In this method of height mark transfer
(Fig. 4.22), the hand winch 4 with a measu-
ring steel tape 7 wound onto its drum "is
placed on a temporary platform 3. The tape
with a light weight (3-5 kg) is let to sink onto
the pit bottom level; then the light weight is
replaced by a standard weight 2 correspon-
ding to that with which the tape has been
standardized. Measurements are made as
required by surveyor's levels 6, set up on the
surface and in the mine. Level readings are
taken on a staff 1 (asur)set on an initial bench
mark R.ur and on a tape 5 (n...r).
At the pit bottom level, readings are taken
from the station point of the surveyor's level
on the tape 5 (nm) and on the staff 1 (llm) set
on an underground bench mark Rm.
During levelling, air temperature is measu-
red at the surface (t sur)and at the pit bottom
level (tm). Then, the position of the tape is
changed by lor 2 m along the height and the
horizons of the instruments are changed to
make another series of observations.
The height difference for each series of
observations is found by the formula:
hmeas = nsur-nm + asur-am (4.48)
The values of hmeasas calculated by two
series of measurements must not exceed the
permissible deviation L1h = (10 + 0.2H), mm,
where H is the depth of a shaft, m. Upon
averaging of hmeas'the following corrections
are determined:
(a) for tape standardization, L1/1, which is
taken according to the tape certificate;
(b) for thermal expansion of the tape
72 Ch. 4. Connection
Al2 = al(t -to), m, where a is the tempera-
ture coefficient of linear expansion of the tape
(for steel, a = 1.2 x 10-5); t = 0.5(tsur + tm)
is the average temperature of air in the mine;
to is the temperature at which the tape has
been standardized; and 1 = nsur-nm is the
interval measured by the tape in the mine, m;
(c) for elongation of the tape under the
action of its own mass A13= fyg/2E, m,
where y is the density of the tape metal (for
steel, y = 7874 kg/m3); 9 = 9.81 m/s2 is the
acceleration due to gravity; 1 is the length of
the hanging portion of the tape, m; and E is
the elastic modulus of the tape metal (for
steel, E = 2.5 x 1011Pa);
(d) for elongation of the tape due to the
different mass of the weights used in standar-
dization and measurements Al4 = 100[(P -
-Po)/EF], m, where P is the mass of the
standard weight, kg; P o is the mass of the
weight used in the tape standardization, kg;
and F is the cross-sectional area of the tape,
mm2.
The elevation of a bench mark in the mine,
Rm, is determined by the formula:
H m = H sur+ hmeas (4.49)
where H suris the elevation of the initial bench
mark on the surface and h meas is the measured
height including all corrections.
4.10.2. Transferring a Height Mark
into a Mine by Means
of the Measuring .Winch
The measuring hand winch shown in
Fig. 4.23 has a drum 3 with a steel wire
wound onto it. As the handle 5 is turned, a
system of rollers 4 rotates the drum and a
measuring disc 2 which makes one full turn
per metre of unwound wire. The number of
full turns is indicated by a counter 1, whereas
incomplete turns are indicated with an
accuracy to 1 mm on the scale provided at
the rim of the measuring disc.
In order to measure the depth of a shaft.
Surveys
4
2
~I~iilli~
5
3
4
Fig. 4.23 Measuring winch
the wire is let to slide over a length measure 1
and a guide pulley 2 into the shaft, and
readings are taken on the scales at the
beginning and end of the procedure (Fig. 4.24).
In depth measurements, aweight-staff 3 with
centimetre marks is attached to the end of the
wire and the check staff 4 is fastened lor 2 m
above the weight-staff (in the top position of
the wire, the check staff is not shown in the
figure). This scheme of height transfer is
much similar to the scheme with the use of
steel tape.
An observer on the top platform takes the
following readings: N sur on the counter and
measuring disc scale; tsuron the thermometer
of the measuring disc; Asuron the scale of the
weight-staff by means of the surveyor's level
placed at the station point on the surface; and
asur on the staff set up on the initial bench
mark Rsurby means of the surveyor's level at
the station point on the surface.
Then the check staff is lowered onto the
level glass of the levelling instrument and all
observations are reneated.
 4.10. Vertical Connection Surveys
Fig. 4.24 Transferring height mark into mine by
means of measuring winch
The weight-staff is then lowered onto the
pit bottom level to take similar readings: N m
on the counter and scale of the measuring
disc; t m on the thermometer in the pit
bottom; Amon the scale of the weight-staff by
means of the surveyor's level set up in the pit
bottom; and am on the staff placed on the
bench mark to be controlled by means of the
surveyor's level in the underground station
point. As on the surface, these measurements
are repeated on the check staff.
73
These measurements conclude the first
stage of observations. After that, the posi-
tions of the wire and surveyor's levels are
changed and the observations are done in the
inverse order, i. e. starting from the pit
bottom level. The height difference between
the bench marks Rsurand Rm is calculated for
each series of observations by the formula:
hmeas= Nsur-Nm + asur-am -Asur + Am
(4.50)
If the discrepancy between the obser-
vations is within permissible value, the
arithmetic mean of hmeas is calculated and the
following corrections are determined:
(a) for wire diameter fj.ll = 0.0017tdl, m,
where d is the wire diameter, mm;
(b) for standardization of the disc fj.12 =
= (k --'-1) I, m, where k is the actual length of
the circumference of the measuring disc as
given in the certificate;
(c) for thermal expansion of wire caused by
the temperature difference in the shaft fj.13 =
=0.5all(tm-tsur)' m, where al is the
temperature coefficient of linear expansion of
wire and t surand t m are the temperatures on
the surface and in the mine; and
(d) for thermal expansion of the measuring
disc considering the difference in temperatures
during standardization and measurements,
fj.14 = a21(tsur-to), m, where a2 is the
temperature coefficient of linear expansion of
the disc and to is the temperature of disc
standardization.
The elevation of the bench mark in the
mine (Rm) is calculated by the formula:
Hm = Hsur + hmeas+ fj.4 + fj.12
+ fj.13 + fj.14 (4.51)
 Chapter Five
Horizontal Surveys of
5.1. General on Underground
Mining Surveys
The mine survey service of mining enterp-
rises has to tackle matters of timely and
accurate determination of the spatial position
of undergound workings and all other objects
essential for the mining production. The
spatial coordinates obtained by mine SUf-
veying are the basis for compiling and
supplementing mining work plans and other
kinds of graphical documentation, as well as
for the solution of various problems of
rational and safe exploitation of mineral
deposits.
The principal objects of mine surveying
are:
(a) underground workings (opening, prepa-
ratory, development, stoping, draining, ex-
ploratory, etc.);
(b) boreholes (prospecting, operating, un-
watering, water-observation, etc.);
(c) boundaries of safe mining work, safety
and barrier pillars;
(d) contours of inundated, gas-laden, and
caved workings, centres of underground fires,
isolating partitions and other ventilation
structures, gas blower sites, areas and con-
tours dangerous in gas or rock outbursts,
rock bump, water inrush, floating earth,
sources of underground waters, etc.;
(e) characteristic points of bedding ele-
ments of mineral deposits (dipping angles,
capacity, characteristics of quality and struc-
ture);
(f) points for documentation of geological
disturbances and other textural and struc-
Underground Workings
tural characteristics of deposits and enclosing
rocks;
(g) points of mineral assaying; and
(h) location of surface and underground
artificial structures and stationary equipment
in underground workings (hoists, ventilating
and pumping plants, various chambers,
explosive stores, locomotive sheds, medical
service, etc.).
The mine survey service solves its problems
by constructing reference and survey nets at
the mining enterprise.
Underground survey nets are understood
as a combination of geometrically interrela-
ted polygonometric traverst:s and levelling
lines which are balanced (adjusted) jointly or
separately. Underground reference nets are
the principal geometrical basis for making
the surveying work and dealing with parti-
cular mine survey problems aimed at ensu-
ring rational and safe exploitation of a
deposit.
The errors permissible in the measure-
ments of horizontal and inclination angles
Table 5.1
20" 0.001 0.00005 0.01
 5.2. Horizontal
and side lengths in polygonometric traverses
can be characterized by the data given in
Table 5.1.
5.2. Horizontal Underground
Surveys
The principal kind of horizontal survey in
underground workings is theodolite sur-
veying which consists of angular and linear
measurements and subsequent calculation of
the rectangular coordinates x, y of survey
points. The straight lines laid between the
mine survey points in underground workings
form closed or open polygons, or theodolite
traverses. Each theodolite traverse is orien-
ted, i. e. tied to the points of an earlier (initial)
survey.
Several types of underground theodolite
traverses and methods of their connection are
employed most often in Soviet mine sur.,
veying practice, which can be classified by
the redundant initial data and the type of
(dl
(bl
(f)
Fig. 5.1 Types of theodolite traverses: (a), (b), (c) free traverses; (d), (e), (/), (g) non-free traverses
Underground Surveys 75
control. By these features, theodolite tra-
verses may be divided into free and non-free.
Free theodolite traverses are referenced to
only one point with fixed coordinates and
one fixed direction angle; they may be
subdivided into open (hanging) and closed.
The line of an open theodolite traverse may
be stretched (Fig. 5.la) or broken (zig-zag)
(Fig. 5.lb). Such traverses are controlled by a
repeated theodolite survey. Closed traverses
(Fig. 5.1c) are controlled by comparing the
sum of the measured angles and the sum of
coordinate increases with their analytical
values.
Non-free theodolite traverses have redun-
dant initial data. They can be run:
(a) between the fixed points and fixed
direction angles: in that case complete cont-
rol is ensured in terms of direction angles and
coordinates (Fig. 5.1d);
(b) between the fixed direction angles with
the initial coordinates of one point, i. e. with
control in terms of direction angles (Fig. 5.le);
(el
(Xn+1
~I cr-
'L~
76 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
(c) between two points with fixed coordi-
nates and with an initial direction angle, i. e.
with control by the coordinates of the fixed
points (Fig. 5.1.f);and
(d) between two points with fixed coordi-
nates, with the initial direction angle being
unknown; in that case, control is possible by
the length of the closing line of the traverse
(Fig. 5.1g).
In cases under (b), (c), and (d), a complete
control of whether a theodolite traverse has
been run properly is not ensured, because of
which a repeated traverse is run or the lines
and angles are measured repeatedly.
Horizontal surveys in underground wor-
kings may involve certain difficulties which
increase labour consumption, reduce the
accuracy of measurements, and increase the
error accumulation. Among the principal
factors causing such difficulties are: conti-
nuous mobility of the underground objects
being surveyed and rock displacement
around workings resulting in uncertain spa-
tial position of permanent survey points
underground; certain limitations in selecting
the most favourable shapes (schemes) of
theodolite traverses and the best lengths of
traverse sides (some sides may turn out to be
too short); constricted conditions for
surveying in underground workings; poor
illumination of working places; dust-Iaden
atmosphere in mines; etc.
In order to minimize the influence of the
factors indicated on the accuracy of surveys
and to avoid unproductive labour expen-
ditures, it is essential to adhere to the
following main principles in surveying work:
I. Mine surveying should proceed from the
more general and more precise procedures to
more particular and less accurate work, i. e. it
should start from constructing reference nets,
after which survey nets are plotted, and
finally, the surveys of particular mining
objects and other details are performed.
2. In any kind of surveying work, all
measurements must be done with the
of Underground Workings
optimum accuracy sufficient for the purpose.
An insufficient accuracy can spoil the survey
work and require unjustified expenditures on
its amendment; in some cases, inaccurate
survey work can have serious consequences
endangering the safety of mining workers. On
the other hand, an excessive accuracy invol-
ves a large loss of labour and time of
surveyors on unproductive and uselesswork.
That is why the mine surveyor must be
able to select pro~rly the suitable method of
surveying and the required accuracy.
3. Mine surveying must be carried out
under an appropriate and timely control
both in the field (in underground workings)
and in the office analysis of the results of
surveys. First of all, it is essential to make a
check, or control, before starting a surveyor
continuing a theodolite traverse, i. e. to
measure the horizontal angle of an earlier
survey in the junction points. The difference
between the initial value (known from the
earlier survey) and the measured value of a
control angle must not exceed I' for the
theodolite traverses of a reference net or 2' for
the traverses of a survey net. With a larger
difference in the measured control angle, it
should be supposed that the points of the
earlier survey have been displaced and the
projected theodolite traverse must be tied to
other points which are known to be stable.
The elements of a survey (side lengths,
angles, height differences) must be checked in
the course of survey measurements so that
probable errors can be revealed and cor-
rected in situ.
For instance, when measuring distances,
control can be ensured by measuring forward
and back; in angular measurements, a check
reading on the circle can be taken, etc.
The measured angles of a closed polygon
(traverse) can be checked by comparing the
sum of angles with their analytical sum. The
measured lengths can be checked by the
discrepancies in coordinate increases and by
other methods of control.
 5.3. Underground Reference Nets of Plan Control
For reliable and efficient performance of
mine surveying, it is essential, before starting
the work, to study carefully the conditions of
the field work, to draft the plan of construc-
tion of survey traverses by the results of
reconnaissance and consider in it the existing
peculiarities, narrow places, etc., to deter-
mine the set of surveying instruments and
equipment, to test and adjust the instru-
ments, to assign performers for the survey
work and acquaint them with the survey
work plan, and, when required, to make
preliminary calculation of the accuracy of
surveys.
5.3. Underground Reference Nets
of Plan Control
Underground reference nets of plan (hori-
zontal) control are the principal geometric
basis for all horizontal angle-measuring
surveys. They are created in the principal
opening and advance workings (adits, incli-
ned shafts, crosscuts, inclines, brake inclines,
fringe, group and haulage drifts) by running
the theodolite traverses of a particular
system.
The system of construction of reference
nets can be characterized by certain specific
features, in particular as regards the shape of
polygonometric traverses, provision of addi-
tional ties, lengths of sides, and number of
fixed direction angles.
Depending on the bedding conditions of
deposits and methods of opening, there are
six principal systems of construction of
underground reference nets which are emp-
loyed in Soviet mine surveying practice
(Fig. 5.2).
I. The scheme of construction of a refe-
rence net for working a single horizontal
seam is shown in Fig. 5.2a. This scheme is
typical for deposits opened by vertical central
doubled shafts and is essentially a system of
polygonometric (theodolite) traverses run in
the drifts of main directions and other
workings parallel and perpendicular to them.
2. In working of single gently dipping and
inclined seams where the deposit is opened
by inclined shafts and ventilation shafts are
driven at the flanks of the mining field, it can
be distinguished between two versions of a
reference net depending on the working
system employed:
(a) with a continuous working system,
theodolite traverses are run twice in level
drifts (Fig. 5.2b);
(b) with the system of longwall retreating
on strike, survey traverses form closed
polygons adjoining one another (Fig. 5.2c).
With advancement of mining work in the
systems indicated, theodolite traverses are
connected to the initial fixed points on the
surface.
3. In mining a suite of gently dipping or
inclined seams where the deposit is opened
by vertical central doubled shafts with a main
crosscut and ventilation shafts are driven at
the flanks of the mining field, two versions of
a reference net are possible:
(a) theodolite traverses form a system with
junction points (Fig. 5.2d); and
(b) if a longwall mining system is emp-
loyed, the reference net includes theodolite
traverses with junction points and closed
traverses (Fig. 5.2e).
4. In mining a suite of steeply dipping
seamswhere the deposit is opened by vertical
central doubled shafts with a main crosscut,
the construction of a net depends on the
location of mine workings on the main levels:
(a) a system of closed-traverses adjoining
one another; such nets can be formed in
mining a suite of seams where the fringe or
group haulage drifts and auxiliary crosscuts
are driven (Fig. 5.2./);
(b) a system of polygons with closed
traverses and repeated control traverses. This
version may appear in mining a suite of thick
steep seams liable to self-ignition, which
requires that fire pillars be left between the
workings (Fig. 5.2g).
78 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
(b)
(e)
[~I~ 1--
L---
~:=
5. In high-capacity ore deposits where
vertical shafts are driven both in the centre
and at the flanks, theodolite traverses are run
in crosscuts and fringe drifts and connected
to the points of plummets hung in vertical
workings (Fig. 5.2h).
6. In underground mining of salt deposits
opened by vertical central doubled shafts, a
reference net is Conned as a system of
adjoining closed polygons (Fig. 5.21).
The considered systems of construction of
reference nets have certain essential draw-
backs in view of the specifics of mining
conditions:
(a) redundant fixed direction angles, sides
and coordinates may be limited in number or
even absent. As a rule, the orientation of
reference nets is most often carried out in the
of Underground Workings
(c)
(f)
centre of a mining field; further, some sides of
theodolite traverses may turn out to be too
short. These factors lead to substantial error
accumulation and non-uniform accuracy of a
net;
(b) if the reference net points are displaced
and the number of additional ties (fixed
coordinates and fixed direction angles) is
insufficient, then a need arises to run an
appreciable number of repeated theodolite
traverses.
In existing systems, and the more so, with
ever increasing dimensions of mining fields
and mining depths, these drawbacks become
especially sensible. This circumstance has led
to the appearance of more advanced systems
of construction of underground reference nets
with autonomous orientation of a net by
 5.4. onstruction
(a) (b) r~-r-r--
1 2 3 I I I
-:)- -;:::)- ---C]- @---6-L-1--b-L-
(d) ~
@ '0- -J-
Fig. 5.3 Examples of arrangement of sides with reduridant direction angles: l-initial
3- side with redundant direction angle
gyroscopic instruments, i. e. with inclusion of
redundant (fixed) direction angles (Fig. 5.3).
The mine surveying practice quite often
uses free hanging theodolite traverses run
twice. In order to avoid the need in running a
repeated traverse in autonomous determina-
tion of direction angles by a gyrocompass, a
polygon is divided into sections (Fig. 5.3a).In
a similar manner, additional ties can be
included into the theodolite traverses be-
tween two fixed sides (Fig. 5.3c).
In adjoining. free closed traverses of large
extension, the reference direction angles are
measured in each closed traverse (Fig. 5.3b).
In non-free theodolite traverses controlled
by point coordinates, a repeated survey is
done by measuring the direction angles of the
sides adjoining the points (plummet points)
with fixed coordinates or the sides close to
them (Fig. 5.3d). A similar construction of
a reference net with additional ties is possible
in a version when the net is developed from a
junction point to points with fixed coor-
dinates (Fig. 5.3e).
5.4. Construction of Underground
Reference Nets
Underground reference nets are const-
ructed according to an engineering design
which should consider the actual positions of
the existing mining workings and their
expected development and establish the most
favourable system of the net, the distances
between the sides with reference direction
of Underground Reference Nets 79
(cl
I I
~ ---{::J- @):::J
(e)
,
..d
rr ~
side; 2-traverse;
angles, points and methods of junction of the
constructed net to the reference net on the
surface, points for setting up permanent
station marks, and the order of net adjust-
ment. The work of construction or reconst-
ruction of a reference net is carried out in the
following order:
(a) reconnaissance is carried out in under-
ground workings and permanent station
marks are revised, located and fixed;
(b) the sides of a net are oriented by
gyroscopic instruments;
(c) angular and linear measurements in
theodolite traverses are carried out;
(d) the net is centred and the theodolite
traverses are connected to the points of the
mine survey reference net on the surface;
(e) the results of measurements are proces-
sed preliminarily and estimated for accuracy;
(I) the net is adjusted and the point
coordinates are calculated; and
(g) the coordinates of permanent station
marks are recorded in a list.
The object of reconnaissance is to investi-
gate the underground workings in which the
reference net has to be constructed, to specify
the system of the net, and to choose places for
setting up permanent station marks. It is also
essential to consider the conditions under
which permanent station marks will be
preserved longer and will be convenient for
survey work.
Permanent station points are set up in
groups of three or four. The spacings between
the points in a group are usually equal to
80 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

50-100 m and the spacings between the

groups must be not more than 500 m. The
chosen places for setting up permanent and
temporary points are fixed in the under-
ground workin~ and on sketches.
The orientation of underground reference
nets is carried out by means of small-sized
gyrocompasses. These instruments offer the
possibility for constructing a reference net as
a system with intermediate (redundant) direc-
tion angles and a system of local nets, in
particular at the mining field flanks.
The essenceof the system of a reference net
with redundant direction angles consists in
that a polygonometric net of a length more
than 2 km is divided into sections with fixed
(gyroscopic) direction angles. The number of
angles in section should be not more than 20.
The direction angle of one of the sides is
measured by a gyrocompass independently in
each section, and the results of angular
measurements are combined and adjusted.
The direction angles of the sides in the
sections determined in this way are taken as
fixed angles and their relative weights are
considered.
Nets with redundant direction angles have
an advantage of being more uniform; further,
the positions of the remotest points of a net
can be determined with a higher accuracy.
Calculations have shown that the accuracy of
the final point of a theodolite traverse of a
length of 5000 m, divided into sections (of a
length of 1 km), increases by a factor of
seven. Besides, it is possible to control the
errors in the positions of the points of a net
within wide limits in accordance with the
location of the sides having redundant
direction angles, which increases the reliabi-
lity of the net.
In mine survey reference nets, gyroscopic
sides are located roughly in every 20 traverse
sides. In order to check 1hat the locations of
gyroscopic sides in a projected reference net
are chosen properly, calculation is carried out
to determine the error of location of the
remotest point of the net, considering the
supposed (planned) development of mining
work (usually for 5-7 years).
The root-mean square error of location of
a point relative to an initial point A of a
reference net (Fig. 5.4) can be determined by
the formula:
+(Lrf)n +
(Lrf)k
where I and II are the numbers of sections, k
is the number of the last section of a net; ~
and A. are the coefficients of random and
systematic influence in side length measu-
rements by a tape; ii is the length of a traverse
side, m; L is the distance between the points
A and 1; m; mp and m are the rms errors of a
turning angle 13and direction angle a; r i is the
distance from a theodolite traverse point to
the centre of gravity O of the given section, m;
R is the distance from each point of a
hanging traverse to the final point 1; m; D are
the lengths of intervals connecting the points
A and T through the centre of gravity O of
the net sections, m; and p" = 20~65".
The coordinates of the centre of gravity of
a section are calculated as the arithmetic
mean of the coordinates x, y of points in the
 5.5. Survey
section. The values of I, L r, R, and D are
found on the plan of the projected net.
In cases when the mining work is carried
out at distances more than 1.5-2 km from the
shafts of a mine and the points of a survey
reference net are subject to displacements,
local reference nets are constructed at the
flanks of the mining field and oriented by the
gyroscopic method.
The horizontal angles in polygonometric
traverses of reference nets are measured by
theodolites reading with an accuracy not
worse than 30". The rms error of angular
measurements must not exceed 20".
When polygonometric traverses are run in
underground workings with dipping angles
up to 30, horizontal angles (forward to the
left) must be measured by the method of sets
or, in extreme cases, by the reiteration
method. In the latter case, the difference
between a check value and final value of an
angle must not exceed 45". If angles are
measured by the method of sets, the discre-
pancy between the half-sets must be not more
than 60".
In undergound workings with dipping
angles more than 30, horizontal angles must
be measured only by the method of sets (not
less than two) under the observance of the
following rules:
(a) before each set, the instrument is
centred once more and the vertical axis is set
truly vertical; and
(b) before making a second set, the initial
reading is shifted by 180.
With measurements in underground wor-
kings with dipping angles more than 30, the
discrepancies between the angles measured in
individual sets must not exceed the values
given in Table 5.2.
The side lengths in theodolite traverses can
be measured by standardized steel tapes (of a
length of 20 m, 30 m or 50 m), linen tapes or
light range finders.
In length measurements by steel tapes,
each side must be measured twice (forward
Nets 81
Table 5.2
Permissible angular discrepancy
between half-sets, min
at junctions in dipping
between workings
horizontal and dip-
ping workings
31-45 1.3 2
46-60 1.8 2.5
61-70 2.5 4
and back) and the discrepancy between the
two measurements must not exceed 1/3000 of
the side length.
The sides of a length more than 50 m are
recommended to be measured by light range
finders. If the discrepancy between the
readings of a measured length in the first and
second phase does not exceed 2-3 mm, the
measurement can be limited to a single set.
The maximum discrepancy between the
measurements at different frequencies must
be not more than 8 mm.
The engineering design for mine surveying
should specify that the error in the location
of the remotest point of the underground net
relative to the initial point of the under-
ground reference net or the closest points of
that net on the surface should be not more
than 0.8 mm on the map or plan. This
requirement is dictated by the specified accu-
racy of graphical construction of mining
work plans. As is known, the permissible
error of the position of a contour point of the
walls of the main working on a plan relative
to the points of a mine survey reference net
on the surface is taken to be equal to 0.8 mm,
while the positions of the walls are determi-
ned by taping directly from the net points
with an accuracy to 5 cm.
5.5. Survey Nets
Underground survey nets are the basis for
surveying of mining workings and solution of
82 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
Table 5.3
Type of mp m, Pernlissible
traverse discrepancy between
two measurements
of side
Theodolite 40" 60" closed 1/1500
Goniometer 10' 10' open: 1/1000, 1/200
problems of mine geometry and are con-
structed in the form of theodolite and
goniometer traverses. Theodolite traverses
are run in all preparatory workings except for
those in extraction sections and blocks which
can be surveyed by goniometers.
The permissible root-mean square errors in
measurements of horizontal angles mp and
inclination angles m" are given in Table 5.3.
The points of a theodolite traverse serve as
the basis for tackling various problems of
mining geometry within the limits of a block
or panel and for surveys of indicated wor-
kings.
Goniometer traverses are developed on the
basis of theodolite traverse points and serve
as the basis for surveying of preparatory and
stoping workings. The fixed points of a
theodolite or goniometer traverse in these
workings are used only once in surveying of
these workings or for connection of prepara-
tory workings within the limits of a face.
Theodolite and goniometer traverses in
survey nets are usually c.osed or are run
twice. When theodolite traverses are run in
main workings to supplement the plans for
further development of reference nets, it is
permissible to run free traverses with mea-
5.6. Types of Station
surements of left and right forward angles
(except for workings approaching pillars or
dangerous zones).
The angles in theodolite traverses are
measured by theodolites. In theodolite tra- term of a survey net, the points of theodolite
verses run in the workings with dip angles surveys (station marks) are divided into
less than 30, angles are measured in a single permanent and temporary.
repetition or set. If angles are measured by
the repetition method, the discrepancy be- the development of reference nets. They are
of Underground Workings
tween the check and final values of an angle
must not exceed 1.5'; in the method of sets,
the discrepancy between two half-sets must
be not more than 2'. The angles in the
workings with dip angles more than 300 must
be measured in two rounds with resetting of
the initial reading roughly by 180 before the
second round.
In goniometer traverses, angles can be
measured by goniometers or theodolites in a
single repetition or set. The permissible
discrepancy between the check and final
values of an angle or the discrepancy of
angles in half-sets must be not more than 5'.
Before starting a theodolite or goniometer
traverse, a check measurement of the last
angle of the previous run is made. The
discrepancy between the earlier and current
measurements of this angle must be not more
than 2' in theodolite traverses or 8' in
goniometer traverses.
The side lengths of theodolite traverses are
measured by standardized steel tapes twice,
shifting the tape after the first measurement.
It is permissible to make both measurements
in the same direction. The deviations of
intermediate plumb-bob lines from the tra-
verse line must not exceed 1/200 of the length
of the smaller interval. Tape readings are
taken to a millimetre.
In goniometer traverses, side lengths can
also be measured by linen tapes or optical
range finders with a relative accuracy not
worse than 1/300. Tape readings are taken
with an accuracy to a centimetre.
Points
of Reference and Survey Nets.
Their Fixation
Depending on the purpose and existence
Permanent station marks are the basis for
 5.6. Station Points of Reference and Survey Nets 83

established in the bottom and robf of Temporary station marks are fixed in the
underground workings so as to ensure their roof of underground workings, top beams of
stability and existence for a long time. In support frames or on steel arcs. If a working
view of this, permanent station marks are is driven in a hard rock without supporting, a
established where possible in the areas station mark (centre) can be fixed directly in
beyond the zones of influence of support the roof rock (Fig. 5.7a) or in a wooden plug
pressure or underworking, weak enclosing driven into a cut hole (Fig. 5.7c). Figure 5.7b
rocks and rocks liable to heaving. shows a station mark to be fixed on wooden
Some types of permanent station mark for supports and Fig. 5.7d, a mark for fastening
establishing in the footwall of workings are on metal lining.
illustrated in Fig. 5.5. A permanent station
mark usually consists of a metallic rod
25-30 mm in diameter and 200-700 mm long
which is concreted in a drill hole (Fig. 5.5a)
or pit (Fig. 5.5b and c). The top face of the
rod is marked by drilling a hole or by
punching a circular (up to 2 mm) or
cross-wise mark. For longer preservation,
some types of permanent station mark have a
pressed-in copper or lead plug at the top,
with a punch mark made in it.
Permanent station marks established in the
roof of workings should be convenient for
plumbing a theodolite under them. For this
purpose, they have a drilled hole around
2 mm in diameter for passing the line of a
plumb bob (Fig. 5.6). Permanent station
marks and special bench marks can also be
established in the side walls of underground
Fig. 5.6 Pennanent station marks for setting in
workings. They are usually fixed by con- roof of underground workings: (a) in concrete;
creting. (b) in wooden plug; (c) hole for plummet line
84 Ch. 5. Horizontal
(a) (bl
t++~
~
Fig. 5.7 Temporary station marks
Station marks in underground workings
are fixed so that a plumb bob can be hung
quickly and conveniently and the plumb line
be always in the same position.
For quick identification of permanent and
temporary station marks, metal plates (mar-
kers) with their numbers are fastened on
support props or on the opposite side walls of
a working. In underground workings without
supporting or with concrete lining, the
numbers of station marks are marked on the
side walls by an oil paint using a template.
Upon establishing of permanent and tem-
porary station marks in underground wor-
kings, their positions are marked on sketches
in the surveyor's field book and in coordinate
calculation book. The established permanent
station marks are transferred onto the mining
working plans. Each kind of permanent
station marks is provided with a certificate.
All permanent points must be numbered.
5.7. Theodolites
Theodolites are the principal type of an
instrument for making underground angular
surveys.
Surveys of Underground Workings
(c) (dl
-g-
~
Mining theodolites differ from those emp-
loyed for surface survey work in certain
design features associated with the specific
conditions of surveying in underground
workings.
The principal parts of a mining theodolite
should not corrode under the action of
chemically aggressive water. They should
have small dimensions and low mass and be
provided with illuminating devices. The
optical systems should be hermetically sealed
to prevent mechanical damage and penetra-
tion of dust and moisture inside. The possi-
bility should be provided for automatic
centring and for mounting of a theodolite
and signals on tripods and console holders.
The telescope of a mining theodolite usually
has an upper centre (thorn) for centring the
instrument under a station point by means of
a suspended plumb bob. It should permit
focussing onto objects beginning from a
distance of lor 2 m. Mining theodolites
should allow the measurement of inclination
angles up to 90, because of which some
models are provided with an eccentric tele-
scope in addition to the central one.
Theodolite, type T2 (USSR), is a precise
instrument with a rotating limb and two-
 5.7. Theodolites 85

sided optical wedge-type micrometer. The ja)

instrument has coaxial sighting devices, an
optical centring device, and a detachable
tribrach which permits surveying by a
three-stand scheme.The telescope is provided
with two optical sighting devices for rough
aiming at objects.
By the consumer's request, the instrument
can be supplemented with a box compass,
striding level, two-sided optical centring
device, eyepiece attachment, range finder
attachment, and other auxiliaries. The theo-
dolite is designed for class-3 and class-4
triangulation and polygonometry and can
measure horizontal angles with an accuracy
to :t: 2-3".
Theodolite, type 2T2 (USSR), shown in
Fig. 5.8a, is a more advanced model and
differs from the former in the following: the
system of a vertical axis is non-repeating; the
reading device takes readings from two
diametrically opposite sides of angle-mea-
suring circles, which eliminates the effect of
eccentricity of these circles: for more conve-
nience, the field of view of the reading micro-
scope shows additionally the numbers of tens
of minutes; and the telescope gives a better
image. The tangent screws are set coaxially
with winged-knob clamp screws. Both pairs
of screws are arranged at the same side of the
instrument for a quicker change from azi-
muth-sighting to vertical plane-sighting of
the telescope.
The telescope graticule has two horizontal
hairs (stadia hairs); one of the vertical hairs is
doubled.
The horizontal and vertical circles of the
theodolite have 20'-value graduations and 10
numbering. The horizontal circle has double Fig. 5.8 Theodolite, type 2T2: (a) general view;
(bifilar) graduation lines and the vertical one, 1 ~objective; 2-optical sighting device; 3 -micro-
single lines. meter head; 4- vertical clamp; 5- vertical tangent
The images of graduation lines and screw; 6- horizontal clamp; 7- horizontal tangent
numbers are projected in the field of view of screw; 8-clamp screw of base (support); 9-
adjusting screw of vertical circle level; IO-level
the reading microscope by means of a
tube; Il-horizontal circle aperture; (b) field ofvi~w
double-channel optical system. Changing of scale micrometer (reads 17o 25' 26.5" on
from one optical channel to the other is horizontal circle)
86 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
performed by means of a handle. With the
handle set horizontally, the field of view of
the microscope shows the images of the
double lines of a horizontal circle and with
the vertical position of the handle, it shows
the lines of the vertical circle.
The field of view of the reading microscope
is shown in Fig. 5.8b. The central aperture
shows the images of graduation lines of two
diametrically opposite sides of a circle, which
are separated by a halving line. The upper
aperture shows numbered degrees and below
them, a scale of six numbers (from O to 5),
which indicates tens of minutes. The aperture
at the right is the micrometer scale with one
division corresponding to one second of the
arc.
To take a reading, the micrometer head is
operated to align carefully the top and
bottom images of the lines of a vertical circle
or respectively those of the double lines of a
horizontal circle. If two numbers of whole
degrees are seen in the upper aperture, the
true one is that which does not pass beyond
the limits of the ten-minute numbered scale.
The number on this scale just below the
degree number gives tens of minutes. Then,
whole minutes and seconds are read off
respectively on the left-hand and right-hand
part of the micrometer scale.
c It should be noted that before aligning the
vertical circle graduation lines, it is required
to align the ends of the level bubble image by
an adjusting screw.
Theodolites T5 and T5K (USSR) are
precise instruments with a cylindrical repeat-
ing system of vertical axes. The horizontal
circle can be locked with or unlocked from
the alidade by means of a repeater lock. The
repeating system of vertical axes allows
horizontal-angle measurements by the meth-
od of reiteration or the method of sets. These
instruments are designed for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles in under-
ground workings when constructing refe-
rence nets and on the surface in analytical
of Underground Workings
Fig. 5.9 View field of scale microscope of theodo-
lite, type T5 (reads: 74 o 55.0' on horizontal circle
and 12 o 06.0' on vertical circle)
and polygonometric nets of the lst and 2nd
order.
The theodolite TSK differs from TS by the
provision of a compensator whicb automa-
tically eliminates the error in measured
vertical angles, caused by the deviation of the
vertical axis of the instrument. The working
angular range of the compensator is ::t 3'. In
view of this, the vertical circle alidade has no
spirit level. The compensator also ensures
precise levelling of the collimation axis of the
theodolite, and therefore, the instrument can
also be used as a level.
The high-quality telescope of theodolites
TS and TSK has a magnification of 27 and
the focussing range from 2 m to infinity.
Optical sighting devices for rough aiming of
the instrument are provided at the top and
bottom of the telescope. Precise aiming of the
telescope is effected by means of tangent
screws. The angle-measuring circles have
I-degree graduations. Readings are taken by
means of a scale microscope arranged near
the telescope eyepiece. The scale microscope
shows simultaneously the graduation lines of
 5.7. Theodolites 87

the vertical and horizontal circle (Fig. 5.9)

and its scale is graduated to single minutes.
Angles are measured by reading off the
degrees on the limb scale and the minutes on
the microscope scale; the seconds are esti-
mated by eye as a fraction of the microscope
scale division. The reading accuracy is equal
to 0.1 of the scale value of the microscope, i. e.
:t 0.1" or :t6".
Theodolites 2TS and 2TSK (2TSKP) (USSR)
are further modifications of type T5. These
instruments are of the non-repeating type.
In the theodolite, type 2T5K (Fig. 5.10a),
the functioncof the level of the vertical circle
alidade is performed by ap optical compen-
sator with a self-adjusting index. Angles are
read off at one side of the circles. For easier
calculation of vertical angles, the vertical
circle is numbered in sectors from 0 to
75 and from 0 to minus 75. The tangent
screws of the telescope and vertical circle
alidade are coaxial with the corresponding
winged-knob clamp screws; both pairs of
screws are arranged at the same side of the
theodolite.
The telescope is fully reversible, i. e. can be
transited at both ends, and focussed by
means of a rack-and-pinion gear. The eye-
piece can be adapted to the observer's vision
by means of a diopter ring which should be
rotated until the cross hairs are seen sharp.
The two extreme horizontal lines of the cross
hairs (above and below the cross) are stadia
hairs. The telescope is provided with two
collimation sights for rough pointing to
objects. When using a sight, the observer's
eye should be at a distance of 25-30 cm
from it.
For aiming at an object, the telescope is
rotated on the horizontal axis and the Fig. 5.10 Theodolite, type 2T5K: (a) general
theodolite body, on the vertical axis. Precise view; l-objective; 2-optical sighting device;
3 -level tube; 4- vertical clamp; 5- vertical tangent
aiming is made by operating micrometer
screw; 6- horizontal clamp; 7- horizontal tangent
tangent screws 5 and 7 when winged-khob
screw; 8-clamp screw of base (support); 9-foot
clamp screws 4 and 6 are locked. A special screw of base; IO-horizontal circle aperture;
handle is provided for changing the sections (b) view field of scale microscope (reads 127 o 05.6'
of horizontal circle (in angular measure- on horizontal circle and 0 o 34.0' on vertical circle)
 88 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

ments). To change from one section to measuring the horizontal and vertical angles
another, the handle should be turned and at in theodolite and tacheometric traverses, for
the same time pressed down along its axis. the construction of plan and elevation survey
The setting of the horizontal circle in a nets on the surface and in underground
particular section is additionally controlled workings, and for measuring distances (by
by indexing in the aperture of horizontal using the stadia hairs of the telescope).
circle finder. These theodolites have a repeating system
The horizontal and vertical circles have for measuring horizontal angles by the
I-degree numbered graduations. The gradua- reiteration method and are convenient for
tion lines and numbers are projected in the assigning directions to mine workings.
plane of reading scales of the microscope. The principal parts and units of the instru-
The image of the vertical circle is tinted blue ments are protected against dust, dirt and
and that of the horizontal circle, yellowish- moisture. The telescope can be plunged
green. The illumination of the field of view (transited) at both ends. It is of the internal-
can be controlled by a hinged mirror. The focussing type and is focussed by rotating the
scales are focussed for distinct vision by
eyepiece ring. Optical sighting devices arran-
rotating the diopter ring of the microscope ged at both sides of the telescope serve for
eyepiece. rough aiming at objects. Precise aiming is
The field of view of the microscope of done by means of a micrometer screw and
theodolite 2T5K is illustrated in Fig. 5.10b. tangent screws when the corresponding
The images of the reading scale and the clamp screw is locked. The eyepiece of the
vertical and horizontal limb are projected microscope for reading off on the horizontal
respectively in the upper and lower apertures and vertical circles is located near the tele-
of the field of view. Each division of the scope eyepiece.
reading scale corresponds to one minute of The vertical axis of the theodolite is set
the arc. The fractions of minutes can be truly vertical by means of bubble level which
estimated by eye with an accuracy to 0.1 of a is centred by adjusting screws.
division. The reading index is the hair of the Theodolites of these types have a hollow
limb. Th~ reading error is equal to 0.05-0.1 of vertical axis for centring over a station point
a scale division, or 3-6". The readjng scale of by means of telescope. The eyepieces of the
the vertical circle has two rows of numbers. telescope and reading microscope are provi-
The lower row (with the minus sign) is used ded with zenith attachments which permit
for reading off when the vertical limb hair the observations of objects at angles above
with the same sign is seenin the reading scale 45 to the horizon and theodolite centring
aperture. over a point. A diagonal eyepiece (optional)
The certified accuracy of angle measure- can also be used for zenith and nadir sighting
ment ( :1:5") is ensured in measurements by and centring over a point.
the method of full sets (with the instrument Theodolites, types T30 and 2T30, are
positioned 'face left' and 'face right'). In order mainly designed for surface surveying, but
to eliminate the division error of the horizon- are often employed for surveys in under-
tal circle, the latter should be reset after each
ground workings.
full set by 180: n (where n is the number of Theodolite type T30M (USSR) shown in
full sets). Fig. 5.lla is a mining theodolite. It has a
Theodolites T30, 2T30, and T30M (USSR) specially designed vertical axis (spindle) and a
are angle-measuring instruments of technical reversible bubble level for the operation of
precision ( :1:30"). They can be employed for the instrument in both upright and inverted
 5.7. Theodolites
""
Fig. 5.11 Theodolite, type T30M: (a) general
view; 1- theodolite base; 2- horizontal clamp;
3- horizontal tangent screw; 4- illuminating at-
tachment; 5- diopter ring; 6- microscope eyepiece;
7- telescope focussing ring; 8- optical sighting
device; 9-telescope clamp screw; 10-vertical tan-
gent screw; 11 -level tube; 12 -lever for locking of
horizontal circle with alidade; 13-1ock; 14-zenith
(prism) attachment; 15- diagonal eyepiece;(b) view
field of scale microscope (reads 23 o 54' 30" on
horizontal circle and 150 12' 30" on vertical circle)
89
positions, which is essential in underground
surveys. The sighting devices on the telescope
have a centre mark for centring (plumbing)
the instrument under a point by means of a
plumb bob.
For ease of operation in underground
workings, the reading scales are provided
with an illuminating system which can be
switched on by a button either for a short
time to take a reading or for continuous
illumination.
The reading microscope arranged near the
telescope eyepiece has the field of view in
which the images of the vertical and horizon-
tal circles are projected simultaneously
(Fig. 5.llb). The reading scales have 60 one-
minute divisions. The graduations of the
vertical circle (limb) are projected against the
upper reading scale in the field of view and
those of the horizontal circle, against the
lower scale. A reading can be taken by eye
estimation to 0.5 or 0.25 of a division, i. e.
with an accuracy to 30" or 15".
A version of the former instrument is type
T30ME theodolite with an auxiliary eccentric
telescope (Fig. 5.l2a); an eccentric telescope
with a bracket is also obtainable optionally
to the type T30M theodolite (Fig. 5.l2b).
Theodolite, type T30ME (with an eccentric
telescope) i\ designed for surveys in steep
underground workings and for surface sur-
veys connected with sighting of the telescope
in the directions close to the vertical. The
eccentric telescope has the same optical
characteristics as the central telescope and is
also provided with optical sights.
Theodolite TheoO1O(GDR) is a precision
instrument provided with a rotating limb, a
lens-and-mirror telescope, and a two-sided
optical wedge micrometer. It has a detachable
tribrach and an optical plummet. The advan-
ced versions of this instrument, Theo010A
(Fig. 5.l3a) and TheoOlOB, have an optico-
mechanical compensator of the vertical circle
and an erect-image telescope. The field of
view of the reading microscope of type
Fig. 5.12 Theodolite, type 2T30ME: (a) general view; l-central telescope; 2-eccentric telescope;
3 -level tube; 4- horizontal clamp screw; 5- horizontal tangent screw; 6- base clamp screw; 7- vertical
clamp screw; 8-focussing rack-and-pinion; (b) eccentric telescope to theodolite, type 2T30M

(b)
(a) .
/1

46""
,10
5

.3

7- Fig. 5.13 Theodolite, type Theo010A: (a) general

8- view; 1 -objective; 2- optical sighting device; 3- op-
tical centring device; 4 -micrometer; 5 -vertical
and horizontal clamps; 6-circle switch; 7, 8-vertical
and horizontal tangent screws; 9-foot screw;
9- lO-illuminating mirror; (b) view field of scale
micrometer (reads 112o 27' 35.0" on horizontal
circle)
 5.7. Theodolites 91

lb)

Fig. 5.14 Theodolite, type Theo020A: (a) general

view; l-objective; 2-optical sighting device;
3-optical centring device; 4-eyepiece; 5-vertical
and horizontal clamps; 6- disconnection of vertical
circle; 7-illuminating mirror; 8-vertical tangent
screw; 9-horizontal tangent screw; IO-foot screw;
(b) view field of scale microscope (reads 235 o 050'
on horizontal circle and 256 0 52.0' on vertical
circle)

TheoO1O theodolite is shown in Fig. 5.l3b.
These instruments are intended for triangu-
lation and polygonometry on the land
surface.
Theodolite TheoO20 (GDR) is a repeating
theodolite of technical precision. It has an
optico-mechanical compensator on the ver-
tical circle (instead of a bubble level), an
optical centring device, and a detachable
tribrach which allows the instrument to be
used in surveys by a three-stand scheme.
Improved models, TheoO20A (Fig.5.l4a)
and TheoO20B, have a new unique system of
coaxial tangent and clamp screws for simul-
taneous locking of the vertical and horizontal
axes and a more perfect reading system
(Fig. 5.14b).
These instruments are intended for the
construction of survey nets in mines and on
the surface and of reference nets in under-
ground workings.
Theodolite TheoO80 (GDR) is a compact
optical repeating theodolite with a detachable
base for three-stand scheme surveys; it can
also be mounted on console holders. Limb
graduations have double numbering: one of
them being read off when the instrument is
mounted in the common upright position
and the other when the theodolite is mounted
on a console holder in an inverted Dosition.
92 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

is swinged slightly and if the image of the

object again deviates from the cross hairs, the
move of foot screws is made more tight by
means of tightening nuts.
2. The bubble level of the horizontal circle
alidade is adjusted (when required) so that
the bubble level axis can be truly perpendi-
cular to the vertical rotation axis of the
theodolite. For checking, the bubble level is
arranged amid the line of two foot screws of
the tribrach and, by rotating these screws in
opposite directions, the bubble is moved into
the centre. The alidade is then turned
through 180. If the bubble deviates from the
mid position, half of its deviation is taken off
by operating the foot screws and the other
half, by means of the adjusting screws of the
Fig. 5.15 View field of reading-off microscope of
theodolite, type Theo080 (reads 359 o 28' on bubble level. After that the alidade is rotated
horizontal circle and 96 o 04' on vertical circle} through 90 and the bubble is centred by
means of the third foot screw. The check is
repeated until the required conditions are
The field of view of a reading-off microscope satisfied.
is illustrated in Fig. 5.15. The instrument is 3. The position of the telescope cross hairs
intended for supplementary surveys in under- is tested and adjusted. The horizontal line of
ground workings. eyepiece cross hairs must be perpendicular to
the vertical axis of rotation of the theodolite.
For this test, the theodolite is mounted on
5.8. Tests and Adjustments
the tripod, and its vertical axis is arranged
of Theodolites
truly vertical. Then a convenient point is
Before starting the survey work, theodo- chosen, and its position relative to the hori-
lites, tripods, and sighting devices are tested zontal line of the eyepiece cross hairs is
in order to avoid the influence of probable observed when rotating the instrument stan-
errors on the results of angular measure- dards by the horizontal tangent screw. ffthe
ments. image (point) deviates from the horizontal
1. The tripod and tribrach are tested for line, it is required to take off the eyepiececap,
stability. To test the tripod for stability, the slacken four fastening screws, and turn the
theodolite is mounted on it and the vertical eyepiece so as to horizontalize the horizontal
axis of the instrument is set truly vertical. The hair. Upon adjustment, the eyepiece is fasten-
telescope is then sighted on a distinct object, ed again and the cap is screwed into place.
and the tripod table is swinged slightly back 4. The collimation error, which can
and forth. If the image of the object is then appear if the collimation axis of the telescope
noticed to deviate from the telescope cross is not perpendicular to the axis of rotation of
hairs, the wing nuts at the tops of the tripod the telescope, is measured and eliminated.
legs must be tightened more firmly. For this, telescope is set roughly horizontally
After the tripod has been made rigid, the and aimed at a remote object. Readings are
stability of the tribrach is tested. The tribrach taken at two positions of the circle: 'face left'
 5.9. Centring
(FLJ and 'face right' (FRJ. Then the clamp
screw of the tribrach is loosened, the theo-
dolite is rotated through 180 and locked
again by the clamp screw. The telescope is
aimed at the same object and two new
readings are taken at two positions of the
circle: FL2 and FR2. The collimation error
can then be calculated by the formula:
(FLl -FRl :t 1800) + (FL2 -FR2 :t 180)
c=
4 carried out to check whether the vertical
For correcting the collimation error, the
eyepiececap is taken off to open an accessto
the adjusting screws of the cross hairs, and
the horizontal circle is set at a reading that is
determined by the formula:
FR = FR2 -c
The graticule (cross hairs) is moved hori-
zontally by means of the adjusting screws
until the cross is aligned with the image of the
object chosen earlier. The check is repeated
until the condition is satisfied. The permissible
collimation error should not exceed 30".
5. The zero point (zero offset) is tested and
adjusted. The zero point in the reading on the
vertical circle when the collimation axis of
the telescope is truly horizontal and the
bubble of the bubble level of the vertical
circle alidade is in the zero point.
The zero point of the vertical circle must be
known and accounted for in surveys or be
excluded. The zero point value is determined
by sighting on one and the same point,
preferably closer to the horizon, at two
different settings of the circle and in the
general casecan be calculated by the formula:
FL + FR + 180
ZP=
2
If the reading is less than 90, add 360.
For the correction of the zero point, the
vertical circle is set at the reading FL-ZP
and the cross of the graticule is aligned with
the image of the selected point on the object
of Theodolites and Signals 93
by moving the graticule vertically by means
of the adjusting screws. The test is repeated if
required.
When testing and adjusting the zero point,
it is essential to observe the position of the
level bubble on the horizontal circle alidade;
if the bubble is moved aside, it must be
centralized by means of the foot screws of
tribrach.
6. The compensator is tested. This test is
circle reads the same when the vertical axis of
the instrument deviates within ::t:3'. For this
test, a distinct point is chosen and the
theodolite is mounted on the tripod so that-
one of the foot screws is oriented in the
direction of that point. The bubble of the
adjusted cylindrical bubble level is brought
into the central position so that the main axis
of the theodolite is truly vertical. The theo-
dolite is then tilted by 2-3 " i. e. by 4-5 level
divisions, towards the selected point by ope-
rating the foot screw facing that point. After
that the theodolite is levelled by the other
two foot screws.
With a tilted position of the theodolite, the
telescope is sighted on the selected point, and
the reading is taken on the vertical circle. The
procedure should be repeated with the instru-
ment tilted by 2-3' in the reverse direction,
i. e. towards the observer.
The difference between the readings taken
with the instrument tilted in two opposite
directions should be not more than 0.1.
Otherwise, the theodolite should be sent to
the manufacturer for adjustment.
5.9. Centring of Theodolites
and Signals
When running a theodolite traverse in
underground workings, the instrument is set
up successively in the traverse points and,
before making angular and linear measure-
ments, should be prepared for operation, ioeo
it should be centred and levelled. and its
 94 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
telescope should be prepared for observa-
tions. The plumb lines are hung or signals
(sighting marks, or targets) are established in
the "points to be sighted.
Centring is essentially the placing of a
theodolite or signals into a position in which
their vertical axis is brought into coincidence
with the vertical line passing through the
centre of a survey mark.
Suppose that we have to measure a hori-
zontal angle a = BAC (Fig. 5.l6a). If the
theodolite is not centred properly, its vertical
axis may turn out to pass through a point
A l' rather than through A. Then, the measu-
red angle will be a1, but not a. The difference
L\a = a -a1 is called the error of angular
measurementcaused by inaccurate centring of
the theodolite, and the horizontal distance
AA1 = I is the linear error of theodolite
centring. Suppose now that the signals
at sighting points B and C have been centred
poorly (Fig. 5.16b). In that case, L\a' = a -
-a2 is the error of the horizontal angle
measurement caused by inaccurate centring
of the signals, and the horizontal distances
between points BB1 and CC1 are the linear
errors of signal centring.
If the linear errors of theodolite and signal
centring occur simultaneously, the total error
(a)
A
Fig. 5.16 Deternlination of measurement error of
horizontal angle caused by inaccurate centring of
(a) theodolite and (b) signals
of Underground Workings
of measurement of horizontal angles may be
quite substantial.
The root-mean square error in the measu-
rements of horizontal angles caused by inac-
curate centring of the theodolite and signals
can be determined by the formula:
m.
'.'
.=
J- ~2b
2a 2 [l;(a2 + b~) + lfh(a2 + b2 -2abcosa)]
(5.2)
where a and b are the horizontal projections
of the side lengths of the measured angle and
I,h and Is are the linear errors of theodolite
and signal centring.
Taking, for instance, that a = 21 m, b =
= 28 m, 11= 175, Is = 0.001 m, and I,h =
= 0.002 m, the error of angle 11will be equal
to 24".
The analysis of formula (5.2) suggests the
following conclusions:
I. The effect of the signal centring error is
independent of the magnitude of the mea-
sured angle.
2. The effect of the theodolite centring
error depends on the magnitude of the angle
and is the highest for angles close to 180.
3. The effect of the errors of theodolite and
signal centring is inversely proportional to
the lengths of the sides making the measured
angle and increases with the difference in the
side lengths.
As may be seen, all these factors, which
worsen the accuracy of horizontal angle
measurements owing to poor centring of
theodolite and signals, are typical for the
conditions of surveying in underground
workings. In that connection, the matter of
theodolite and signal centring is of prime
importance in mine surveying.
Three main methods of centring are used
in the mine surveying practice: with a mecha-
nical plummet, with an optical plummet, and
automatic centring.
In centring with a mechanical plummet, the
theodolite is mounted on a tripod or console
holder, its vertical axis is set truly vertically
 5.9.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.17 Types of centring string
and the telescope is set into the horizontal
position. The string of plummet is passed
through the hole of a survey mark and the
height of plummet suspension is controlled so
that the plummet point is just to touch the
top centre of the theodolite. After that the
instrument is moved on the platform of the
tripod or console holder until the point of the
freely hanging plummet is exactly over the
top centre of the instrument.
Upon making these operations, the con-
tinuation of the vertical axis of the theo-
dolite will pass through the centre of the
survey mark if only the top centre of the
instrument (with the telescope arranged
strictly horizontally) lies in the vertical axis of
rotation of the telescope and the plummet
point lies in the same vertical line with the
plummet string.
When plummets are used as signals, the
sighting axis of the telescope is aimed at their
strings.
The following types of mechanical (string)
plummets are used in the modern mine
surveying practice (Fig. 5.17): (a) a simple
centring plummet which has a massive metal
body 3 sharpened at the bottom; the sharp-
ened portion ends with a steel point 4; the
Centring of Theodolites and Signals
(c) (e)
plummets
plummet is connected with a string 1 by
means of a threaded plug 2 at its top;
(b) a plummet with a retractable point;
(c) and (d) controllable plummets with
respectively external or internal pulleys on
which the string is wound; and
(e) a controllable plummet with an internal
reel, which is the most convenient type in
operation, since its centring point 6 can be
quickly set at the desirable height. On pres-
sing the top portion of a sleeve 1, the
plummet string can be freely unwound to the
required length. In order to raise or lower the
plummet, the operator holds the plummet
body 4 by one hand and rotates the sleeve by
the other. Depending on the direction of
rotation, the string will be either wound onto
the reel or unwound from it. To fasten the
string to the plummet, the sleeve is taken out
upon removing a nut 2, and one end of the
string is passed through the slot in the rim of
a reel 3 and got made into a knot. The other
end of the string should be passed through
two side holes and one central hole in the
sleeve, after which the plummet can be as-
sembled. At the end of plumbing, the plum-
met point should be retracted by turning a
sleeve 5.
 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
The surveys in underground workings are
carried out with the use of illuminating
plummets whose body incorporates, in ad9i-
tion to the string-winding mechanism, also a
power source, an electric lamp, and a conical
transparent cap. Illuminating plummets are
also employed successfully in the orientation
of underground workings and check surveys.
It is usually warranted by plummet manu-
facturers that the deviation between the
plummet point and the centre of a string hole
is not more than 0.5 mm. This can be check-
ed by hanging a plummet and setting up two
theodolites at a distance of 5-7 m from it so
that the sighting axes of the two instru-
ments, when pointed to the plummet, make
an angle of roughly 90. The telescopesof the
two instruments are sighted on the plumb
line so that the plumb line and plummet
point are within the bisector of cross hairs. If
the image of the plummet point in at least
one telescope is beyond the bisector, the
plummet tested should be repaired or
rejected.
For more accurate centring, modern theo-
dolites and signals are provided with optical
plummets or optical centring devices. The
former are built in into an instrument, while
the latter are detachable optical plummets
and optical centring devices may be either
one-sided or two-sided. A one-sided optical
plummet permits centring by a vertical col-
limating ray to be performed either only
upwards or only downwards. The scheme of
an optical plummet for centring above a
surveying mark is shown in Fig. 5.18. By
pointing the telescope to the zenith, the
theodolite can also be centred under a sur-
veying mark.
In the mine surveying practice, when there
is no need to fix the intermediate vertexes of
theodolite traverses, it is common practice to
employ automatic centring of theodolites and
signals on tripods or console holders by using
a special set of attachments, such as that
illustrated in Fig. 5.19.
of Underground Workings
3
~
~-
~
Fig. 5.18 Optical plummet: I-protective glasses;
2-mirror; 3-objective; 4-graticule; 5-eyepiece
The essenceof the automatic centring of a
theodolite and signals consists in that the
attachments mentioned make it possible to
set up the theodolite in the points where a
signal was set up before, and vice versa. This
ensures that the vertical axis of the instru-
ment, which passes through the centre of a
surveying mark, restores automatically its
geometrical position when the theodolite and
signal setups are interchanged. This inter-
changing requires no additional centring.
Survey with Automatic Centring of
Theodolite and Signals. The sequence of sur-
vey with automatic centring of theodolite and
signals is as follows. Suppose that a checking
theodolite traverse is to be run between two
groups of fixed mine survey points: A, R, C
and D, E, F (Fig. 5.20). To do this, supports
(bases)(see Fig. 5.19) on tripods are set up in
points A and C and centred by means of an
optical plummet and the theodolite is set up
and centred in a point R. Signals c are then
mounted on the bases in the points A and C
and the checking angle ARC is measured by
 5.9. Centring of Theodolites and Signals 97

Fig. 5.19 Set of attachments to theodolite T30M for surveying by three-stand scheme

the theodolite in the point B. Then the A similar survey with lost points and
theodolite and forward signal are interchan- automatic centring of theodolite and signals
ged on their bases and the rear signal is set can also be performed by using console
up on a tripod (or console holder) in a point holders instead of tripod stands. This method
7
is usually resorted to in steeply dipping
The signal in the point 1 is set into the workings or where the mine traffic is inten-
upright position by means of a level tube on a sive. The set of attachments for this method
bracket and, then the angle BCl and the
length of a side Cl are measured. The 4
theodolite and forward signal are then
interchanged on their bases and the rear
signal on the tripod is reset onto a next point
to run the traverse to the second group of
fixed points D, E, and F where, as in the
points A, B and C, the bases are set up by
means of an optical plummet or a theodo-
lite.
This order of survey is characterized by
that the theodolite and signals can be
interchanged without intermediate centring,
the traverse vertexes between the fixed points
are not fixed, and the survey is done by using
three stands. For that reason this method is
also called the survey with lost points, or Fig. 5.20 Scheme of theodolite traverse between
survey by a three-stand scheme. two groups of reference points

7-1270
98 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
of survey (see Fig. 5.19) contains console
holders with adapters (e), centring plates with
spherical level tube (a), a clamp (b) for
fastening a console holder to wooden or
metallic mine supports, pin (1), prism attach-
ment (h) for an objective, and a level tube (g).
As has been found by experiments, the
errors of centring of theodolites and sig-
nal~ by various methods are as follows:
1.2-1.5 mm in single centring with string
plummets, 0.8-1.0 mm in optical centring,
and 0.3-0.8 mm in automatic centring.
5.10. Measurements
of Horizontal Angles
The operation of measuring a horizontal
angle includes centring a theodolite under or
over a fixed point in an underground wor-
king, sighting on signals, and taking readings
on the scales.
The sequence of signal sighting and the
order of reading on the scales depend on the
method of angle measurement employed by a
surveyor.
In mining workings, left-hand angles along
a survey traverse are usually measured by the
method of repetitions (reiteration method),
method of sets or, less frequently, method of
rounds.
5.10.1 .Reiteration Method
In view of the wide use of repeating
theodolites in the mine surveying practice,
the method of repetitions (reiteration meth-
od) has become very popular in measure-
ments of angles. It consists of the fol-
lowing operations.
I. The zero division of the alidade of a
horizontal circle is roughly aligned with the
zero mark of a limb, after which the latter is
unlocked and the hair cross of a telescope is
sighted on the rear signal set up in a point B
(Table 5.4). The reading 01 is taken on the
scale 01 (01 = 0000'.2).
of Underground Workings
2. The alidade is unlocked and, by rotating
the instrument clockwise, the telescope is
sighted on the forward signal in a point C to
take the reading a2(a2 = 5823'.5).
3. The telescope is reversed, the limb is
unlocked and turned together with the ali-
dade to sight the telescope on the rear signal;
no reading is taken.
4. The alidade is unlocked and rotated
counter-clockwise to sight the telescope on
the forward signal and take the reading
a3 (a3 = 11647'.7).
5. The left-forward angle ~ and its check
value ~chare calculated by the formulae:
~ = (a3 -aJ/2 (5.3)
~ch= a2 -al (5.4)
If the discrepancy between the measured
and check angle is more than 1.5 of the
instrument accuracy (:!: 1.51),the angle mea-
surement must be repeated.
When running theodolite traverses of
higher accuracy, the measurements of
horizontal angles are repeated more than
twice. In that case, in the first position of a
circle (say, FL), the limb is moved n times to
sight the telescope on the rear signal and the
alidade is also moved n times to sight the
telescope on the forward signal. Readings are
taken only on the first and second sighting,
and the check angle is calculated by the
formula ~ch= a2 -al. The total value of
the angle measured n times will be equal to
a3 -al. After that, the telescope is reversed
and sighted n times on the rear and forward
signal in a different position of the circle.
Only one reading, a4' is taken after the last
sighting on the forward signal. With n full
repetitions, we have:
~ = a4 -a1 + R360 (5.5)
2n
where R is the number of full revolutions of
the alidade around the limb.
The number of full revolutions of the
 5.10. Measurements
alidade around the limb can be determined
by considering the measured check angle and
the number of performed repetitions:
R = (2n 13ch
+ a1 -a4)/360 (5.6)
5.10.2. Method of Sets
The measurement of an angle (for instance,
CDE, Table 5.5) by the method of sets is
carried out in the following sequence.
1. The limb is locked in a position when it
roughly reads 00, the telescope is sighted on
the rear signal (point C), and the reading a 1 is
taken on the horizontal circle and recorded
in the field book (01 = 1007'.5).
2. The alidade is unlocked and the tele-
scope is sighted on the forward signal (point
E) to take the reading 02 (02 = 6831'.0). The
measured angle in one position of the circle,
i. e. in the first half-set, is 13'= 02 -01 (13'=
= 5823'.5).
3. The limb is turned through 60-90 and
locked. The telescope is reversed and sighted
again on the rear signal; the reading 03 is
recorded in the book (03 = 19007'.5).
4. The telescope is sighted again on the
forward signal to take the reading 04 (04 =
= 24830'.9), and the angle measured in the
second position of the circle is calculated:
1311 = 04 -03 (1311 = 5823'.4). The mean angle
calculated by the two half-sets
13m = (13'+ 1311)/2
is taken as the final value (13m= 5823'.45).
In angle measurements by the method of
two sets, the sequence of operations is
essentially the same, but the limb for the
second set is turned initially at a reading
close to 90.
5.10.3. Angle Measurements by
Method of Rounds
The procedure of angle measurement by
the method of rounds consists essentially in
the following.
of Horizontal Angles 99
1. The zero divisions of the limb and
alidade are roughly aligned, and the alidade
is locked. With the limb unlocked, the te-
lescope is sighted on the initial signal (for
instance, point B, Table 5.6) set in the centre
of a bench mark, and the reading at is taken
and recorded in the book (at = 00003'.0).
2. The alidade is freed (with the limb being
fixed) and the telescope is sighted on the
signal set in the centre of a bench mark D. In
this case,the theodolite is rotated clockwise.
The reading a2 is taken and recorded in the
book (a2 = 2808'.1). .
3. The alidade is rota-ted clockwise in the
same sequenceand the telescope is sighted on
the signal in a point C to take the reading a3
(a3 = 5826'.7).
4. The observations of the first half-round
are finished by sighting the telescope on the
signal set in the initial direction B and taking
a check reading. This makes it possible to
prove that the limb was fixed during the
observation of the point (a4 = 0003'.1).
In order to eliminate the instrument error
of the theodolite, the same angles between the
given directions are then measured at a
different setting of the circle (FR). In the
second half-round, observations are made in
the reverse direction and the alidade is rota-
ted counter-clockwise.
The second round is performed in the same
sequence, but the limb is initially set at a
reading close to 90.
Upon completing the measurements at the
second setting of the circle, the collimation
error is calculated by the formula: 2c =
= FR -FL ::!: 180; its magnitude is indi-
cative of the accuracy of measurements. After
that the mean values of the directions obtai-
ned by two measurements are calculated. by
the formula: (FL + FR ::!: 180)/2. The pro-
cedure is finished by calculating the corrected
directions, i. e. by calculating the mean initial
direction from the mean directions found; in
our case, the corrected direction is
(0002'..80+ 0002'.90)/2 = 00~02'.85.
 "5
~
00
o
~ o
"' ~
"E:
.c N
8';<
000
.J=-
~ 00 ~
O
..., ~
" ~
0) " 1:1. I =
~
O 00
"' I ~

0
0\
O
1 0
\Q
.
E-- 8 a o 0 ~ s " O
""'
-'" "0 +"' "'
...t.s
= = "'-
.-"' = =
~ ... Q.5 0
8 o .=: s ~ ""'
~
...~
>,
00 ~ e ~ 00
] 0
...> ~ +"' > G)
"' 1-. ...
"' ...+"'
= ~ t.s = =' "'
-rnO -000 Ir)
., r--v
=' '0 -0
Nr'"\
oN
~ -o
r'"\OO
I: Ir)
::;- ~
Q
.: ~
01 1'"10- ~
8 i' r-.:o ""'
0... N
= ~
Q
..c
~
= 000 00
.. O\~ Ir)
~ -<""1
~ =
-=
." ~ ..
Q;
.:, Ino Ir\
e r..:...; ..;
'-'
!fJ 0 N
=
01 'tJ
=
8 Q;
000 ~
~ e --0 'r\
=
"' ~
~ ..1 =
01 ~ "'
~
~ Q; 00 00
.. ~ N 00
~ on o
01 ..
= ~
Q;
~ =
or\
~ ~ ~ or\
= -
~ ~
=
.. ~
~
~ 8 ; 8 "0
= 0 = 0 ~ ~ OOID
IDN I r--
ID
< 0 ~ "' ",,~
","0 "'J ~
~
= r-- '".~ 0: .
..."' ,"].,-5 '00
., e < I ~~ ~
Q I ~""'",,, -
~ ~.~ ] "'- ...,..., ...,
~ u = ";)
Q ;. ~ >
Q 01
= - = .
~ .
. ~ ~
..i::' .. ~ ..,
Q
~ ..~ ~ .. \,) ~
~ 1~.5 -~
Q; ..Q; "' .~.a
.-Q;
~
.~
B =
.~ ~ ~ u ~ =
~ .-
~.
--~ o. 8 ~ .0 .-~ .0
I)
;..
.
.
~ .: ~ P.8 ~
01 Q).d . O II") >. , ~
" 0
'.:
'"
Q;
->
Q; ..:
.. ~ ..,
~
3C;~8
~ =' 0 ~ ~ .c ..~
~ ~ o
E--r/JZJ!:.- E- VJVJ
 -13
..,
~
~
O ..
M 8"
Ir\
-1-
~ 011 "g ~ o.r;M
~ 0
OON
-= ~ .;;;
=
"8 o I: ~
O .!=
U"O 00000
~ ..
ON"'
e
-"
"' -
= = 011
-VJO
0"'00
~~\0~
Nr.:IQN
ooNo
;1 N
000000
'(ij' ONIr)O
-=
=
=
e
'Q ~
'X> """'N~
-g +1
0000
.c .-1
~ ""
,, I
"' ~
.. "" 0000
=
.. II 0000
e " I I I I
.. N
..
=
"'
"
.. 10 00"' r--
~ Nr-:IQN
OONO
..
~ ~
= ~ 000000
< 000...'00
-~~-
';
= o-r--
=
N '.;00,cj'.;
.~ i OONO
= ci)
= I::
~ 000000
ONIr)O
~ .,s
= ;:I
= 0
'- "' ~~v~
-=
"Q) ..0 e "' ~.5
~ u>-o c
"' ..\r\
'5
~ 0. I:: ~ ~
Ir) >-~ I
o c
..~~- ~.,g
~
.c
->-~ ...~ >
" ;:I .-"
Eo-(/J~-
 102 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

III

(b)
III

,
"'
/
/
--

/
Fig. 5.21 Measurement of horizontal angle by eccentric telescope

The measurements of horizontal angles in is shown in Fig. 5.210 and with the circle at
underground workings with the angles of dip left, in Fig. 5.21b. In order to measure the
more than 300 are made only by the method angle between the directions II-I and 1I-111,
of sets under the provision of the following for instance, with the circle at right, the
additional conditions: telescope is sighted successively on signals I
I. If a repeating theodolite is employed, its and III. In that case, the horizontal axis of
limb must be locked for the entire time of rotation of the telescope moves from posi-
measurements. tion II-I into 1I-2, i.e. its setting is changed
2. The theodolite for measuring hori- by an angle 13" and therefore, the angle 13,will
zontal angles must be provided with a stri- be measured instead of 13.Similarly, with the
ding level and permit plumbing of its vertical circle at left, the angle 13! will be measured
axis of rotation before each set. instead of 13.
3. The alidade of the theodolite should As may be seen in Fig. 5.21, the exterior
always be rotated in one direction only. angles <p and <p' are the sums of the two
interior angles of the triangles which are not
5.10.4. Measurements of Horizontal adjacent to them, i. e.
Angles by Means of <p=13,+'1=13+o (5.7)
Eccentric- Telescope <p' = 13!+ 0 = 13+ '1 (5.8)
Theodolites
Hence:
The horizontal angles in steep workings 13= 13,+ '1 -O (5.9)
are measured by means of the eccentric 13= 131-'1 + O (5.10)
telescope of a theodolite. The scheme of
measurement of a horizontal angle I-II-III by Adding these equations, we get:
the eccentric telescope with the circle at right 213= 13,+ 13! (5.11)

~
 5.10. Measurements
or
I:}= (I:}r+ I:},)/2 (5.12)
It follows from formula (5.12) that the
central angle is equal to the half-sum of the
angles measured in two half-sets. This eli-
rninates the influence of the telescope eccen-
tricity. An eccentric telescope can also be
used for angular measurements by the reite-
ration method. In that case, it should be
noted that, in order to determine the check
angle, the instrument must be sighted on the
signals of measured directions at two dif-
ferent positions of a circle.
The accuracy of measurements of
horizontal angles by an eccentric-telescope
theodolite depends on the difference in the
side lengths of the measured directions and
on the inclination of the theodolite tele-
scope axis. For that reason, when establi-
shing the points of a theodolite traverse it is
desirable that all sides be roughly of the same
length. The vertical axis of the telescope must
be adjusted by means of a striding level.
5.10.5. Errors in Measuring
Horizontal Angles
with Steeply Inclined Sides
When running theodolite traverses in steep
workings, the most critical source of errors is
non-verticality of the principal axis of
theodolite which causes an additional incli-
nation of the rotation axis of telescope and
thus worsens substantially the accuracy of
angular measurements. The dependence of
the error of a measured horizontal angle on
the inclination angle of collimating rays and
inclination of an instrument axis can be
expressed by the formula:
mIl = o[cosutanhf -cos(u -~)tanhr]
(5.13)
where mp is the root-mean square error of the
measured horizontal angle depending on the
inclination of the principal axis of theodo-
of Horizontal Angles 103
lite; O is the inclination angle of the rotation
axis of an instrument; u is the angle between
the direction of inclination of the principal
axis of an instrument and the direction of
rotational axis of telescope when sighted on
the forward signal; ~ is the horizontal angle
being measured; and h f and h r are the angles
of inclination of collimating rays when sight-
ed respectively on the forward and rear
signal.
The analysis of formula (5.13) shows that
the error mfJof angular measurement is at a
maximum at ~ = 180 and at a change from
a horizontal to an inclined workipg or vice
versa. In that case, the magnitude of an error
increases proportional to the slope and may
attain rather high values (3-5' or even more).
5.10.6. Accuracy of Horizontal
Angle Measurements
The accuracy of measurement of ho-
rizontal angles is influenced by gross,
systematic and random errors.
Gross errors may appear owing to the
inclusion of improper bench marks into the
traverse being run, poor fixation of plummets
in the centres of bench marks, instability of
tripod (console holder), etc. To avoid gross
errors, before sinking into the shaft, the
surveyor must prepare all the initial data,
write them in the theodolite survey field
book, and instruct the workers engaged in
the setting and illumination of plummets
(signals) and other related jobs. In the shaft,
he must check that all the bench marks are
reliably fixed and belong to the traverse line
to be run.
Systematic errors depend on the environ-
mental conditions and inaccuracies in the
manufacture and assembly of instruments, for
instance, improper mutual arrangement of
some elements or non-perpendicularity of
the geometrical axes of theodolite. These
systematic instrumental errors can be mi-
nimized by regular examinations of theodo-
104 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

lites, signals and other instruments and by As follows from formulae (5.12) and (5.13),
using the appropriate methods of angular the total error of angular measurement with n
measurements. repetitions will be:
Random errors mainly appear owing to J 2 2

instrumental errors, incorrect setting of theo- m/J = Jm~,

2
+ m~..
2
=
m,
-2 2 +
mv

-(5.17)
I v n n
dolites and signals, and incorrect sighting
and reading. The specific environmental con- The limb reading and sighting errors can
ditions in underground workings, in be calculated by the formulae:
particular, restricted space, water drip, and
dust-laden, atmosphere, and also the spe- t "' .0'
mi = 2"J2 \J..vJ
cifics of fixation of bench marks (in the
ground or roof) set forth additional requi- mf}= 60"/v (5.19)
rements to the instrument setting and tech-
niques of observation in angular measure- where t is the accuracy of horizontal circle
ments. reading and v is the telescope magnification.
In view of these specific conditions and Accuracy of angular measurements by the
difficulties in the performance of survey work, method of sets. In this case, the accuracy of
special care should be given to the centring of measurements depends mainly on the errors
theodolites and signals (especially when tra- of signal sighting and circle reading. There-
verse sides are relatively short) and to fore, the error in establishing each direction
making the observations strictly accordipg to 1S:
the adopted method, since these factors can mIl = ~ (5.20)
influence substantially the accuracy of mea-
sured angles. and the error of a horizontal angle measured
Accuracy of angle measurements by the in a full set is:
reiteration method. As may be seen from the mIl = 0.5J4(mf + m~) (5.21)
description of the reiteration method, the
angle 13 measured by n full repetitions is or
determined by the readings at and a4. The mIl = ~ (5.22)
magnitude of 13is calculated by the formula:
If an angle is measured in n sets, the error
B=a4-a1+R.360-o (5.14) of the mean arithmetic value of that angle is
2n determined by the formula:
The error of the measured angle, mp , J m2 m2

caused by the limb reading error mi will bJ: m = -.!.-+~

/In n n

5.11. Measurements
of Inclination Angles
In theodolite surveys of underground
workings, the inclination angles are measured
at the same time with horizontal angles.
These are needed for determining the hori-
zontal distances of the sides of theodolite
traverses and the elevations between the
 5.11. Measurements of Inclination Angles 105

Fig. 5.22 Measurement of inclination angle of underground working by central-telescope theodolitl

traverse points. The inclination angle of the 4. The telescope is reversed, and the same
side of a theodolite traverse is essentially the operations are repeated with a different set-
angle between the collimating ray {sighting ting of the circle.
line) and its projection onto the horizontal 5. The magnitude of the measured incli-
plane. Suppose that we have to determine the nation angle is calculated by one of the
inclination angle of a collimating ray 1-2 formulae:
passing through a point 2 fixed on a plumb
line {Fig. 5.22). To do this, the following FL -FR -180
v= (5.24)
operations should be carried out. 2

I. The telescope of theodolite is sighted on v = FL -ZP (5.25)

a plummet hung at a point 18. The clamp
screws of the limb and alidade are locked.
Manipulating the tangent screw of the tele-
scope, the hair cross of the telescope is
aligned with the point 2 fixed on the plumb
line.
2. The level bubble of a vertical circle level
is centred by the micrometer screw of the
alidade, and the accuracy of sighting is
checked.
3. The readings are taken from the micro-
scope.
v = ZP -FR -180 (5.26)
where v is the inclination angle; ZP is the
zero point of a vertical circle; and FL and
FR are the readings on a vertical circle with
the latter at the left ('face left') or at the right
('face right').
If the readings FR, FL and ZP in calcu-
lations of inclination angles are less than 90,
they should be increased by 360.
Upon making angular and linear measu-
rements at a station point 17, the theodolite
 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

is set up under the centre of a mark 18 to

make a check measurement oNhe inclination
angle in the reverse direction (onto the PQint
17).
In measurements of inclination angles, it is
also required to measure the instrumental
height i and the sighting height v which are
then used to determine the height difference
between the traverse points and the dipping
angle of the working, since the inclination
angle of a collimating ray does not always
define the dipping angle of a working.
Dipping angles larger than 50 can be
measured by central-telescope theodolites
provided with special attachments on the
objective and eyepiece or by eccentric-tele-
scope theodolites. The procedure of angular
measurements in this case is similar to that
described above. An eccentric position of the
telescope (with eccentricity e) results however
in that the measured angle v' differs some- Fig. 5.23 Measurement of inclination angle by
what from the actual inclination angle v eccentric telescope
(Fig. 5.23). Let us demonstrate how an actual
inclination angle v can be found from the
measured and known values v', I, and e. The
triangles I-11-B and A-11-B in Fig. 5.23 have close to 90 or when the lengths of traverse
the common' side lIB, and therefore, it may sides are less than 20 m, it is required to
be written: introduce corrections for telescope eccen-
I sin v = I' sin v' and I' = ji'=-'ii (5.27) tricity.
The accuracy of measurement of inclina-
tion angles depends mainly on the errors of
signal sighting in a vertical plane, mv, errors
1 e~
sin v = 1 sin v' or sin v = sin vi of limb reading, mi, and errors mt which can
v Ti

Table 5.7
(5.28)

It is known from the experience that the Incli- Error for telescope eccentricity with
error of measurement of inclination angles nation inclined length of traverse side, m
angle
increases with an increase of inclination in
the measured direction and a decrease of the 10 15 20 25
length of traverse sides.
The corrections (in seconds) to the inclina- 40 214" 96" 35" 9" 4" 2" 1"
tion angles as measured by an eccentric-te- 50 307 137 49 12 5 3 2
60 448 198 72 18 8 5 3
lescope theodolite of an accuracy of 30" are
70 710 315 109 78 12 8 5
given in Table 5.7. As may be seen from the 80 1455 650 234 58 26 15 9
table, when measuring the inclination angles
 5.12. Measurements
appear due to inaccurate centring of the level
bubble of the vertical circle alidade (in. theo-
dolites without compensators). Thus, the
error of measurement of an inclination angle
in one full set can be determined by the
expression:
I
mf + m; + m:
m =
"
v 2
where 't is the scale division of the vertical
circle level tube; the nns errors mi and mv can
be determined by fonnulae (5.18) and (5.19).
5.12. Measurements of Side
Lengths of Theodolite
Traverses
Length measurement is one of the most
important and labour-consuming operations
of theodolite traversing in underground wor-
kings, Depending on the specifics of survey
work and the reqmred accuracy, length mea-
surements can be carried out by using mea-
suring tapes, light range finders and other
instruments.
5.12.1 .Length Measurement
Tapes
Steel tapes 20 m, 30 m and 50 mlong have
found wide use for length measurements in
theodolite traversing. The most convenient
among them are 50-m tapes, since they make
it possible to measure in shorter time and
with greater accuracy.
of Traverses Side Lengths 107
(.)
(5.29)
Fig. 5.24 Measuring steel tapes
The common material for measuring tapes
is carbon or stainless steel. Some types of
steel tapes are shown in Fig. 5.24.
The lengths of sides of theodolite traverses
are usually measured by a tape held freely in
air (catenary taping). The sides of a traverse
are divided into intervals which are some-
what shorter than the length of a measuring
tape to be used. Plumb lines along a side are,
as a rule, aligned visually. For measuring the
lengths of sides in dipping workings, inter-
mediate plumb lines are aligned by means of
a theodolite with the collimating ray directed
along the measured inclination angle. Marks
by in the form of movable knots and the like are
provided on the strings of plummets.
When chaining the intervals, the tape is
applied so that it does not touch the plumb
bobs. In the extreme interval at the theo-
dolite, the tape is applied to the horizontal
axis of rotation of the telescope. The readings
on the tape are taken simultaneously at a
plumb line and the horizontal axis of rotation
108 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
of telescope or simultaneously at two plumb
lines. Since in most measuring tapes the first
decimetre is graduated in millimetres and the
remaining length of the tape, in centimetres,
the readings with an accuracy to a millimetre
are taken only at the initial end of the tape; at
the other end, the centimetre mark should be
aligned with a plumb line. Readings are taken
two or three times, every time shifting the
tape along the side being measured.
The length of each side in underground
theodolite traverses is measured twice, i. e.
forward and back. For the back measure-
ment, the intermediate plumb lines are shifted
by 2 or 3 m, which ensures the check of
measured lengths.
The accuracy of length measurements in
mines is largely influenced by the errors
caused by the sagging of the tape under its
own weight, inaccurate standardization of the
tape, difference of temperatures during mea-
surements and standardization, poor aligning
of plumb lines, and some other factors.
To obtain a greater accuracy of measured
lengths, which is of essential importance in
the construction of reference nets, certain
corrections are introduced into the measured
results.
The correction for tape sagging can be
found by the formula:
where q is the mass of I m of tape, kg; Q is
the force of tape tension in measurements, N;
and 11is the measured length of an interval.
The temperature correction is determined
by the formula:
Alt = 11a (tm -tst) (5.32)
where a is the coefficient of linear expansion
of steel; tm is the temperature of measu-
rement; tst is the temperature at which the
tape is standardized; and 11 is the measured
length.
of Underground Workings
The standardization error L\lst is taken
according to the tape certificate.
Using these corrections, the corrected in-
clined length 4" of a measured interval is
determined, then the horizontal distance is
found by the formula 1 = 4" cos O which
includes the inclination angle O measured
earlier.
When calculating the theodolite traverses
of a reference net, the additional corrections
must be introduced into the horizontal dis-
tances in order to reduce these to the sea level
(mean level of the surface) and Gauss
projection plane (see Para. 4.8.2).
5.12.2. Standardization
of Measuring Tapes
Tapes for measuring the side lengths of
reference and survey nets must be stan-
dardized in order that the relative error may
be not more than 1:40000.
Measuring tapes are usually standardized
on a comparator, or check base. If this is
non-available at the mining enterprise, stan-
dardization can be carried out by comparing
the tape with a new standardized tape pro-
vided with a certificate. The certificate gives,
as a rule, the corrections per metre and for
the whole length of a tape and the tempera-
ture conditions and tension in standardiza-
tion. The comparison of measuring tapes can
be carried out on a smooth surface where
both tapes can be stretched at full length and
tensioned by spring balances with a force not
less than loo N.
The zero marks of the two tapes are
aligned by means of a millimetre rule, after
which the deviation of the tape being checked
relative to the standard one is measured at
least twice.
If the section being checked is shorter than
the standard section, the deviation is thought
to have the 'minus' sign, if otherwise, it has
the 'plus' sign. The deviations thus measured
and the certificate data for the standard tape
 5.12. Measurements
are used to compile the certificate of the
checked tape.
Two types of comparator, or check base,
are employed in the mine surveying practice:
stationary check bases for control of metre
intervals and the whole length of tapes and
field check bases to standardize the whole
length of tapes.
A stationary check base (Fig. 5.25) is a
wooden shelf 3 to 20 m long, which is
mounted on steel brackets along the wall of a
building, underground working, etc. The
place for a check base should be chosen so
that the temperature of air can be constant
along its entire length. An axial line is drawn
on the top surface of the check base and
scaleplates with 0.5-mm divisions (Fig. 5.25a)
are attached to it symmetrically in l-m
intervals. One end of the tape is fastened to
the check base, whereas the other end is
passed over a pulley and loaded by a weight
that develops the required tension.
The standardization is done much in the
of Traverses Side Lengths 109
same way as described earlier, but the devia-
tions for each metre of the tape being checked
are determined by means of the scale plates
on the check base. Upon completion of the
check work, the certificate is filed for the
tested tape.
A field check base can be arranged on a
smooth area of ground. Two bench marks
with centre lines are fixed in the ground at a
distance of 100 m or 200 m from each other.
The distance between the bench mark centres
is measured several times by means of invar
or steel wires with a relative accuracy not
worse than 1 : 50000. Then the comparator
base is measured by the tape to be checked
and the mean distance is calculated to deter-
mine the standardization correction. In prac-
tical measurements by the checked tape, the
standardization correction is introduced pro-
portional to the measured length, and con-
sidering the error of length.
A field check base can also be constructed
in a mine. In that case, bench marks are
110 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys
usually established in the side wall of an
underground working. The procedure of
standardization is essentially as described
earlier.
5.12.3. Kinds and Causes
of Accumulated Errors
in Measurements
by Meta!lic Tapes
Inaccuracies in the measurements of side
lengths in underground traverses can occur
due to gross, systematic and random errors.
Gross errors mainly appear owing to the
carelessness of persons engaged in survey
work (for instance, the omission of whole
intervals in long sides, etc.). These errors can
be revealed by repeated measurements.
Systematic errors obey a unique law of
accumulation and measurement. They may
be either permanent (when both the sign and
magnitude of an error are known) or va-
riable, i. e. with the magnitude varying from
one measurement to another.
An example of permanent systematic er-
rors is, for instance, the error caused by poor
standardization of a measuring tape.
Random errors may appear irrespective of
the instruments and measuring methods
employed. The nature of their occurrence in
individual measurement is usually unknown.
The probable sources of random errors
are uneven tension of a tape in various
measuremems, poor alignment of interme-
diate plumb lines, uncertain readings on the
tape scale, etc.
Let us find the expressions for estimating
the random and systematic errors which can
appear in length measurements.
Let the total effect of a number of random
errors be such that the interval 1 is measured
with the total root-mean square error ml'. If
the length being measured contains n such
intervals, then
mL = mr In (5.33)
I'
of Underground Workings
or
mL, =m,JL/j/
since n = L/I.
Denoting m,/ j/ = a, we get:
mL = a JL (5.34)
,
As may be seen from this formula, the
random error of a measured side length
increases proportional to the square root of
L. The coefficient a is called the coefficient of
random influence; it can be determined expe-
rimentally.
Depending on the influence of random
errors, the relative error of length measu-
rement decreases with an increase in the
length of a line:
mL,/L= a/JL (5.35)
In order to estimate the systematic error,
let us suppose that the interval 1 is measured
with a systematic error m. .Therefore, the
entire length Lof a line, including n intervals,
can be measured with a systematic error:
mL = m.n
.
or
mL = m.L/I
.
With m./l = b, mL = bL, i. e the systematic
error increasesproportional to the length of a
line.
Depending on the influence of systematic
errors the relative error of length measu-
rement is constant for particular measuring
conditions and independent of L:
mL. /L= b
The total root-mean square error of mea-
surement of a side length depending on m,
and m. can be determined by the formula:
mL =..ja2L+b2L2 (5.36)
The coefficients of random and systematic
influence, a and b, can be found experimen-
tally. To do this, the given length in a mine is
 5.14. Detailed Survey of Underground Workings 111

measured with the common and higher accu- 5.14. Detailed Survey
racy, and the results of more accurate measu- of Underground Workings
rements are considered to be faultless
(true). After that, the difference between the Mine survey plans, profiles and sections
common Li and more accurate measurements should represent all the elements and details
(LTi) is found: essential for the geological and mine-en-
gineering characteristic of a deposit: the
d,=L.-L
, , T
,.
geometrical form and spatial location of
Using this difference, it is possible to cal- underground workings, geological structure
culate a and b: of a section or deposit, mechanisms and
structures in a mine, etc. Surveying of
a= J ~ and b=0 these elements, which is called the survey of
n -[L]
details, or detailed survey, consists in measu-
where di = dj
ring the lines and angles that determine the
bLi
location of the characteristic points of these
details relative to survey traverse lines. De-
tailed survey can be carried out either at the
same time when the survey traverses are
5.13. Distance Measurements
being run or at a different time.
by Light Range Finders The accuracy of location of details
Light range finders are employed in mine depends on the object of surveying and the
surveying mainly in the case of the centra- scale of the survey plan. If the results of
lized construction of reference mine survey survey will be used for analytical calcula-
nets when the majority of sides of theodolite tions, the accuracy of detailed survey must
traverses exceed 50 m in length. correspond to the accuracy of analytical
The measurement of the length of a theo- calculations.
dolite traverse by this method consists essen- Detailed survey for compiling a survey
tially in determining the time 't required for a plan should be done with an accuracy at
light beam to cover the distance between the which all details can be shown properly on
two points being measured in the forward the scale of the survey plan. For instance, if
and back direction. the scale of a plan is 1/5000, the linear
Light range finders have a light source measurements in detailed survey can be made
which emits a narrow light beam onto the with an accuracy of 0.5 m; for a plan scale
reflector placed at the other end of the line to 1/1000, the accuracy of linear measurements
be measured; the reflected light beam enters a to 0.1 m is quite sufficient. The angular
light detector. The signals from the light measurements in detailed surveys do not
source and light detector are fed into a require an especially high accuracy: angular
recording device. Since the light source and values can be read off with an accuracy to
light detector are combined and arranged in 5-10'. Detailed surveys can be carried out by
the same point, the light beam covers twice the method of ordinates, polar method,
the distance being measured. Thus: method of cross bearings, etc. The first of
D = v't/2 them is however most popular in surveys of
permanent and development workings.
where v is the velocity of light in air and 't is When running a theodolite traverse in a
the time during which the light signal covers working, the clear cross section of the wor-
twice the distance being measured. king in each instrument station point is
 112 Ch. 5. Horizontal
x
/
/
,~~
O
-.0
Fig. 5.26 Sketch of detailed survey by method
measured by a tape. The measured distances
from the theodolite centre to the right, left,
top and bottom are recorded in the field
book.
The positions of the points of details are
determined by measuring the distances from
the beginning of a theodolite traverse side to
the perpendiculars drawn from these points
onto that side and the lengths of the perpen-
diculars proper (ordinates).
The density of measurements depends on
the curvature of workings. In detailed surveys
by the method of ordinates, it is recommen-
ded to choose two intervisible theodolite
points so as to measure the distance between
them by a tape (such as points 17 and 18 in
Fig. 5.26). The zero mark of the tape should
be aligned with the projection of one of the
final points of the traverse.
The distances 01' 02' etc. are measured
with an accuracy to 10 cm and recorded in
the field book as an increasing total from the
starting point. The ordinates h1, h2, etc. are
measured with an accuracy to 2-3 cm. The
measured values oi, hi, the cross-sectional
dimensions of the working along the traverse
and other details are written on the sketch
(outline) of the working. Using the method of
ordinates, detailed survey can be performed
quite quickly, and its results can be trans-
ferred easily onto the plan of a mine working.
Detailed survey should also fix sharp chan-
ges of the bedding elements of a deposit,
~
Surveys of Underground Workings
,
of ordinates
dipping angles and capacities of seams
(veins), probable tectonic disturbances and
their main parameters, etc.
5.15. Office Analysis of Results
of Underground Theodolite
Survey and Calculation
of Point Coordinates
The office analysis of the results of an
underground theodolite survey includes the
following procedures:
(a) control of mine (field) books and pre-
liminary analysis of the measured linear and
angular values;
(b) calculation of horizontal distances;
(c) determination of the closure error of
angles (angular discrepancy) and direction
angles upon the distribution of this error;
(d) calculation of the increase of coordi-
nates, determination of the linear discrepan-
cy, and distribution of this discrepancy pro-
portional to side lengths; and
(e) calculation of the corrected increases of
coordinates and the coordinates of the points
of a theodolite traverse.
For successful office analysis, the records
in the field book and the book of calculated
coordinates should be made accurately arid
carefully. It should be noted that these mine-
engineering documents also have juridical
validity. As a rule, as the field books have
been controlled and it has been established
 5.15. Office
that the results obtained are within the
specified allowances, the controller makes
corresponding records in them. All erroneous
records are struck out and the corrected
values are written instead and signed by the
controller.
The analysis of linear measurements is
started from calculating the arithmetic mean
of side lengths.
The preliminary analysis of angular mea-
surements consists in calculating the mean
values of measured angles. The checked mean
values of angles and horizontal distances are
written in the book of calculated coordinates,
and the angular error {discrepancy) is then
determined by various formulae, depending
on the kind of theodolite traverse. For
instance, for an open traverse with measured
left forward angles, the formula is as follows:
f fJ= l80n + !:13-{l1f -l1in) -360 R
where n is the number of measured angles, l1in
and 11 I are the direction angles of the initial
and final side respectively; and R is an integer
or zero.
For a closed traverse, the angular error is
determined as the difference between the
actual and theoretical sums of interior angles
of a closed polygon:
f fJ= !:13"-!:13th
In that case, the discrepancy f fJ must not
exceed the permissible angular error:
ffJ = 2m
perm Jn fJ
Table 5.8
Measured
parameter
a, degrees 0-90
r, degrees r=a
~x
~y
1270
Analysis of Results 13
For hanging traverses run twice,
1;/1perm=2m /1 v ~nl -1-n2
The discrepancy f /1 obtained in this way,
provided that it does not exceed the permis-
sible error, is distributed equally for each
measured angle, with an opposite sign. After
error distribution, the calculated direction
angle of the final side in an open traverse and
the initial direction angle in a closed traverse
will be true.
If the angular discrepancy exceeds the
specified permissible value f /1 ' the traverse
angles must be measured anew.
The direction angles of sides of a theo-
dolite traverse with measured left forward
angles can be calculated by the formula:
an = an-l + /31::t: 180
and with measured right forward angles, by
the formula:
an = qn-l -/3r ::t: 180
The horizontal distances of sides are calcu-
lated by the formula:
s = Scosv
where S is the inclined length of a side and
v is the angle of inclination of that side. With
the horizontal distances and direction angles
of theodolite traverse sides being known, it is
possible to determine the increases of rectan-
gular coordinates by the formulae:
dx = scosa = scosr
dy = ssina = ssinr }
Quadrant
II ill IV
Table 5.9. Calculation Sheet: Point Coordinates of Theodolite Traverse
Nos. Horizontal angles Direction Tabulated
of angles a' angles a' Natural values
points measured corrected Horizontal
distances
s
cosa' sin a' tan (1' or
cotan (1'

20' 00'00"
-9"
177' 30'43" 177 30'34"

17 3034 17 3D' 34" 23.468 0.953667 0.300863 0.315480

-9"
2 179 0031 1790022

16 3056 16 3056 21.508 0.958743 0.284276 0.296509

-9"
3 80 44 43 80 44 34

277 1530 82 44 30 20.809 0.126343 0.991987 0.127364

-9"

4 165 1405 1651356

2622926 82 2926 26.367 0;130689 0.991424 0.131820

-9"

177 5209 177 5200

26021 26 80 2126 29.489 0.167505 0.985871 0.169905

-9"

6 183 1527 1831518

263 36 44 83 36 44 27.361 0.111257 0.993792 0.111952

-9"
94 3147 94 31 38
~s

1780822 149.002

Lf3m=
1058 0925
Lf3perm
=10580822
IIlPnM= 2mp In = 2 x 20" J7 = 1'46"
111=+1'03"
 Increases of coordinates, m Coordinates

Nos. of

points

2000.000 2000.000
+5 +I

+ 22.381 + 7.060 + 7.060 + 22.386 + 7.061

2022.386 2007.061 2
+5 +I

+ 20.620 + 6.114 +6.114 +"20.625 + 6.115

2043.011 2013.176 3
+5 +I

+ 2.629 20.642 +2.629 + 2.634 -.20.641

2045.645 1992.535 4
+6 +1
3.446 26.141 -3.446 3.440 -26.140

2042.205 1966.395 5
+6 +2

4.940 29.072 -4.939 -4.934 -29.070

2037.271 1937.271 6
+6 +1

3.044 27.191 -3.044 3.038 -27.190

2034.233 1910.135
~/1x 1:L\y

+. 34.200 89.872 + 34.233 -89.865

+ 34.233 89.865 c

fAx = -0.033, JAy= -0.007

0.034
~ = ~ < -, ~=~
f.=~=0.034, t=s 4400 3000 ~s 3000

8.
 116 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

The quadrantal bearings r and the signs at
Ax and Ay can be found in Table 5.8.
Upon the calculation of coordinate in-
creases Ax and Ay. it is recommended to
make check calculations by one of the formu-
lae:
Ax = Aycotanr
or
Ay = Ax tan r
The calculation of coordinates for an open
theodolite traverse run between points C and
D (see Fig. 5.20) with the known coordinates
Xc, Yc and XD' YD can be done as follows:
The linear discrepancy,h, of a traverse line
is found by the formula:
h = ~1y + f1x
Permissible linear discrepancies are speci-
fied depending on the purpose of theodolite
survey, kind and length of traverse line, and
the availability of fixed points.
If the linear discrepancy is within the
perIilissible value, the errors in coordinate
increases are distributed with an opposite
sign proportional to the lengths of sides:
0.-.
ayi =&"
[S] ~i

Xi = XD + AXD-1 ' Y1 = YD + AyD-1 .0Axi =&s.

[S] ,
X2 = Xi + AX1-2 ' Y2 = Y1 + Ay1-2
Noting the calculated errors Ay' and Ax"
, ,
the corrected increases of coordinates are
Xc = X7 + Ax7-c YC = Y7 + Ay7-C
then determined by the formulae:
L\x'. = L\x. + 0.
Adding the left- and right-hand parts of , , -aX.
,

L\ y '.
both columns, we get: 1= L\y ,.+-ayi
0.

xc=xD+LAx The coordinates of the points of a theodo-

Yc = YD + L Ay lite traverse are found by the formulae:
x. = x. 1 + L\x'.

whence , 1- -1

LAxcalc = Xc -XD (5.37) Yi=Y~l:!:L\y'i

LAycalc = yc -YD (5.38) The calculations of coordinates of under-
ground theodolite traverse points are carried
Since the measurements of angular and out by the formulae given above by one of
linear values in theodolite traverses involve the following methods: with the use of loga-
certain errors, the left-hand parts in formulae rithmic tables; with the use of desktop calcu-
(5.37) and (5.38) are not equal to their right- lators and tables of trigonometric functions
hand parts, and therefore (Table 5.9); or by using electronic computers
-D and special standard programs.
f/1x LAxcalc -(Xc -XD) (5.39)
1 5.16. Accumulation of Errors
D
in Underground Theodolite
!\y LAycaIc -(yc -YD) (5.40)
1 Surveys
where f &x and f &yare the linear discrepancies The positions of points in an underground
of coordinate increases of an open theodolite survey are determined with certain errors, so
traverse along the axes of abscissae and that the calculated coordinates of the points
ordinates respectively. of a theodolite survev do not corresDond to
 5.16. Accumulation
the actual positions of these points in space.
As the number of measured angles and the
lengths of sides in traverses are increased,
these errors are accumulated, i. e. the points
which are more distant from the beginning of
a traverse are determined with an ever increa-
sing error. The error in the determination of
the final point of a traverse depends substan-
tially on the configuration (shape) of a trav-
erse line and mainly on whether the traverse
contains the sides of a short length and
angles close to 90.
5.16.1. Root-Mean Square Errors
of the Position of Final Point
of Free Theodolite Traverse
Suppose that a free theodolite traverse is
run from the initial fixed point I (Fig. 5.27), in
which the left forward angles 13iand horizon-
tal projections of sides Si are measured. It is
required to determine the errors of the coor-
dinates of the point N of the free traverse
relative to a point 1. The traverse is run from
a side II-I with fixed values of coordinates
and a direction angle (l1I -I. The error of the
coordinates of that point is the sum of the
errors of measurement of horizontal angles,
M /1' and of side lengths, M s.
Fig. 5.27 Detern1ining errors accumulation in
free polygon
of Errors 117
Since angles are measured independently
of the side lengths of a traverse, the coordi-
nate errors depending on Mx .My and Mx .
My can be determined sepa&tely.fJThen it ;s
possible to calculate the total errors of the
coordinates of the point N by the following
formulae:
M x -",
-/~. M~p -.: '.
"- + M;.
My=J~~
The total error of the planimetric position
of the point N will depend on the errors of
measured angles, M p .and measured side
lengths, M s:
M2 = M~ + M; = Mi + M; (5.41)
smce
M~ = M~p + M;p and M; = M~s + M;s
The errors Mx and M y can be determined
p p
graphically. Let the angle 131be measured
with the rms error mp (see Fig. 5.27). In that
case the polygon 1-2,1..., N will be turned
through an angle mp about a point 1, so that
the point N will oc6upy a new position N'.
The displacement of the point N can be
found from a rectangular triangle 1N N' :
NN' = R1 tan mp1 (5.42)
Since at small angles it may be taken that
m
tan 13= 13"/p", we have: NN' = -!!..l-R1. The
p
displacement of the point N along the axes x
and y will then be:
N'N" = (mp /p) R1 and N'N" = (mp /p) R1
1 y 1 x
where R1 and R1 are the projections of the
shortest distance R1 from the polygon vertex
1 to the point N onto the coordinate axes
and p" = 206265".
If all horizontal angles are measured with
the same accuracy mp1 = mp2 = ...= mp; =
= mpn= mp, i. e. if any angle 13;is measured
with the same error mp;, it can then be
written that the displacements of the point N
118 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

along the axes Ox and Oy are respectively traverse is displaced along a straight line i
m.. m.. connecting that vertex with the initial point 1.
~ R. and --1:1 R. .
p 'y p 'x Then, the errors along the coordinate axes for
the final point N will be:
The total displacement of the point N
Mx = bN and My = bN (5.45)
along the axes x and y under the influence of s x s .
sys sys
random errors of measurement of all angles
will be: where LN
x
and LN
y
are the projections of

closures LN onto the axes of abscissae and

ordinates respectively.
Using formulae (5.44) and (5.45), we can
write:
n
M2 = a2 ~ s.cos2a + b2L2
Xs L.. , I N;
/=1
(5.46)
n
Let us now find the errors of the coordi- M2 =a2 ""' s.sin2a.+b2L2
nates of the final point of a free theodolite y. .., , I Ny
i=l
traverse, M~ and M; , which are caused by
the errors in Sthemeas~rement of side lengths. The total error of the coordinates of the
The errors Mx and My are the sums of the point N caused by the errors of linear
random and systematicSerrors in the measu- measurements will be:
rement of each polygon side. Therefore, we "
M2 = M2 + M2 = 02 ~ S + b2 L 2
have: .x. y. L.. t N (5.47)
i=l
M~ = M~ + M~
s sr ssys
M2 = M2 + M2
y. y, " Y. -sys - Using formulae (5.43) and (5.46), we can
where Mx and M y are the errors of the obtain expressions for the root-mean square
s s
, , error of the position of the final point N of a
coordinates of the final point of a free poly-
free polygon in the coordinate axes:
gon caused by the influence of random errors
in length measurements and Mx and M y
s s
sXs sys
are their errors caused by the Influence of
n
systematic errors in length measurements. + a2 ~ S cos2a. + b2L2
The random components M; s and M y2s .,
;=1
i. N
.

, ,
can be found by the formulae: (5.48)
n
M; = a2 ~ sj cos2a.
s L.. I
1 j=l
"
(5.44) 02 ~
...
s.sin2a.
I I
+ b2L2
N
II i= 1
M y2 = a 2
.'
L S.sm
.2 a.
I
r i=l
m2 " "
Under the influence of a systematic error of M2 = --7 L Rf + 02 L Si + b2L~
length measurement, each ith vertex of a p i=l i=l
 5.16. Accumulation of Errors 19

5.16.2. Root- Mean Square Error where R; , is the projection of the distance
of the Position of Free between the vertex i and the final point of
Traverse Point in the Known a polygon onto the direction perpendicular
and Perpendicular Directions to that for which the error M x' is determined;
a; is the angle between the line Si and the
In practical surveying, it is often required direction relative to which M x' is determined;
to determine the errors in the positions of and 4' is the projection of the closing line
points of a free polygon relative to a critical L onto the axis x', i. e. onto the direction
direction. For instance, when a working is relative to which M x' is determined.
being driven towards an abandoned section, The terms Ry' and sicos2a'; can be deter-
it is essential to know the error of the mined graphically.
position of the face in the direction of the
working being driven; when driving a work-
ing from both ends, it is essential to know the 5.16.3. Root- Mean Square Error
connection error in the direction perpen- of Direction Angle of Side
dicular to the working axis. Suppose that the of Free Theodolite Traverse
axis x' of a rectangular system of coordinates
The direction angle of the nth side of
coincides with the direction of driving of
a theodolite traverse can be calculated by the
a working, CD (Fig. 5.28a) or is perpendicular
formula:
to the direction AB of a working being driven
from both ends (Fig. 5.28b). Let the chosen a" = ao + ~1 + ~2 + ...+ ~" I 180 x n
system of coordinates be denoted x'y'. where ao is the direction angle of the initial
According to formula (5.48), the rms error side of a traverse and ~1' ~2' ..., ~" are the
of the position of a face relative to the known measured angles of the traverse.
(specified) direction M x' can be expressed by Let us denote: mIl' m Il ' ..., m Il the rms
the following formula: 1 2 "
errors of measured angles; ma the rms error
mf32 n n "
M2, = -~ R~ + a2 ~ s.cos2a' + b2L2, of the direction angle of the nth traverse side;
x 2 ... 'y' ... I I x and ma the rms error of the direction angle
p 1=1 i=l
of the rnitial side.
(5.49)

(b)

Fig. 5.28 Driving underground working: (a) in direction of worked-out sections; (b) in working driven
from both ends in direction A-B.
120 Ch. 5. Horizontal Surveys of Underground Workings

Then, the fIllS of the direction angle of the

nth side of a traverse will be:

man= JI-=i (5.50)

If the angles are measured with the same

accuracy, then m. = m(J;;;: (5.51)
Considering theOrms error of the direction man
, = V
/ -.2
mao
+
-r
, nm/i
2
2

angle of the initial traverse side, m~-, the rms

 Chapter Six
Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings

6.1. General
foundations of stationary underground in-
stallations and structures. The permanent
Vertical survey, or levelling, is a survey station marks or polygonometric and theo-
procedure in which the height differences dolite traverses can also serve as height
(elevations) of some points over others are control points. The height transfer by geo-
measured in a certain sequence,and then the metric levelling should satisfy the following
required heights of points are calculated from requirements:
the heights of initial points and the height (a) the discrepancies of measured heights
differences measured. of points should not exceed 50 mm Jf
Vertical surveys are carried out in order to in polygonometric traverses or 80 mm JL
determine the height marks of individual in theodolite traverses (where Lis the length
points established in underground workings, of a traverse line, km);
to assign the specified slope (grade) to wor- (b) staff spacings should not exceed 200 m
kings, to plot longitudinal and vertical profi- in length and differ from one another by
les and sections, to determine th~ height more than 10 m;
marks of the characteristic points of deposits (c) levelling lines between the initial bench
(seams);these measurements are essential for marks should be closed or run forward and
the solution of mining geometry and mine back;
geometrization problems. (d) the discrepancies of height differences
Vertical surveys can be made by two at a station, as read off on the black and red
methods: (a) geometric, or direct, levelling face of staffs or at two different settings of the
and (b) trigonometric, or indirect, levelling. level instrument, should not exceed 10 mm;
The former method is employed in under- and
ground workings with small inclination ang- (e) before starting the levelling procedure,
les (up to 5) and the latter, in steeper the available station points should be
workings. checked for stability.
Levelling reference nets are extended all The discrepancies between the height diffe-
over the mining field and are later used as the rence established earlier and the test one
basis for vertical surveys in underground should not exceed 10 and 20 mm respectively
workings. Additional levelling lines are run in polygonometric and theodolite traver-
upon advancing the main workings through ses.
500 m (for survey scale 1/2000) or 300 m (for When transferring the height marks in
survey scale 1/1000). underground workings. by trigonometric le-
The height control in mines is ensured by veiling, the following accuracy requirements
bench marks set in the solid rock in the foot should be observed:
wall, side walls and roof of workings or in the (a) the permissible discrepancy of a zero
122 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings

offset (horizon point) in the measurements of (.) "-,

inclination angles is 1.5' in polygonometric
traverses and 3' in theodolite traverses;
..
(b) the discrepancy of height differences '5

determined for a line by levelling forward and ~I

back should be not more than 1/2000 of the >
side length in polygonometric traverses or
1/1000 in theodolite traverses;
-111- 150 J
(c) the discrepancy of two measured heights .1251.
of a theodolite and signals should be not
more than 5 mm in polygonometric traverses Fig. 6.1 Special station plugs used in under-
or 10 mm in theodolite traverses; and ground workings
(d) the discrepancy in the height differences
of the entire line of levels in polygonometric
footwall (Fi"g.6.la) and side walls of workings
t~aversing should be not more than (Fig. 6.lb). The bench marks set in the
Ah = [s]/4 v'l/n + siwo/3 footwall are preferable, since they are less
subject to deformations due to rock displace-
where [s] is the total inclined length of the
ment during exploitation of deposit.
forward and back traverse, m; n is the total Bench marks should be established at each
number of sides in the forward and back level of a mine and preferably in places less
traverses; and O is the mean inclination angle probable to be disturbed by stoping. As a
of traverse sides; in theodolite traversing,
rule, bench marks are established in pit
this discrepancy should be not more than bottom and main horizontal workings so as
120 mm JL, where L is the traverse to provide a levelling control net within the
length, km. limits of the entire mining field.
Side lengths should be measured in accor- For the identification of bench marks,
dance with the specifications for linear mea- marker plates are nailed to mine lining
surements in polygonometric and theodolite supports, which bear the number of a bench
traversing (the discrepancies between two mark and a letter M which indicates that the
measurements should not exceed respectively bench mark in question is an elevation point,
1/3000 and 1/1000). Vertical angles are mea- rather than the point of a plan control net. In
sured at two different positions of the circle caseswhen marker plates cannot be fastened
and in the forward and back direction. The to mine lining, they are replaced by cor-
heights of the instrument and signals are responding inscriptions made in a fast paint
measured twice by a metallic tape. The height on the mine lining or side wall rock.
difference for each traverse line is determined
by levelling forward and back.
The heights of the points of the survey net 6.2. Levels
are determined by using polygonometric sta- All existing levelling instruments, or levels,
tion marks as the initial points. can be divided into two main types by the
The bench marks to be set in the footwall method of levelling of the sighting axis:
or roof of workings may be of the same instruments with a level tube on the telescope
design as the station marks of underground (dumpy levels) and those with a tilting angle
horizontal referencenets. Special station plugs compensator (automatic-aligning, or simply
and marks can also be used for setting in the automatic levels).
 6.2.
6.2.1. Dumpy Levels
Level type N-3 (Fig. 6.2a) is an instrument
intended for technical levelling. Its main
components are a telescope 13 with a cylind-
rical level tube attached to it; a telescope
support 10 mounted on a vertical axis; a
triangular plate (tribrach) 7 with foot screws
6; and a spring plate (trivet stage) 5 having a
threaded hole for an attachment screw by
means of which the instrument is fastened on
a tripod.
(a)
.13
2
Fig. 6.2 Level type N-3 (USSR): (a) general view;
(b) field of view
Levels 123
9
Fig. 6.3 Level type N-IOL (USSR)
The cylindrical level tube with the scale
value of 15" is arranged in a box 1 together
with an optical prismatic system which
brings the images of the ends of level bubble
into the field of view of the telescope (Fig.
6.2b). The sighting axis of the telescope can
be arranged truly horizontally by manipula-
ting the levelling screw 9 until the images of
the bubble halves are perfectly coincident.
The cylindrical level tube is provided with
four adjusting screws covered with a lid.
The instrument has an additional circular
level tube 8 with three adjusting screws for
rough adjustment of the vertical axis into a
truly vertical position. For rough sighting
on an object, the telescope can be turned in
the horizontal plane manually when the
clamp screw 3 is unlocked; precise sighting is
done by locking the clamp screw 3 and
turning the sighting (azimuth) screw 4. The
image of cross hairs in the view field of the
telescope is made sharp by rotating the
diopter ring of an eyepiece 12. The telescope
is focussed onto a staff by means of a
focussing wheel 11. Tough sighting of the
telescope on a staff is made by using a vane 2.
Level type N-I0L (Fig. 6.3) is a small-sized
124 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings

instrument for technical levelling and has the

following characteristics: telescope magnifica-
tion 23, scale value of cylindrical level (at 2
mm) 45*, that of circular level 10', stadia
factor loo :t 1%, and scale value of the
horizontal circle (limb) 10.
The instrument has rotatable portion con-
sisting of a telescope 9, cylindrical level with a
prismatic system, 8, circular level 3, levelling
screw 4 for precise horizontalization of the
sighting axis, and a stationary portion with a
horizontal circle 7.
The prismatic optical system brings the
image of the ends of level bubble into the field
of view of the telescope; these images must be
made coincident by means of the levelling
screw before taking a staff reading.
The graticule (cross hairs) has a vertical
hair and three horizontal hairs of which the
Fig. 6.4 Level type NiO60 (GDR): 1- telescope;
two extreme (shorter) ones serve for distance
2-sphericallevel; 3-pivoting mirror; 4-cylindri-
measurements(stadia hairs). A sharp image of callevel
the cross hairs is obtained by turning the
diopter ring 2 of the eyepiece and a sharp
image of a staff, by turning the focussing
knob 1.
For setting up on a station point, the
instrument is mounted on the ball-and-socket
head of a tripod 5 so that the bubble of the
circular level will be in the centre.
For measuring horizontal angles, the tripod
is set above the centre of a bench mark by
means of a plummet. The limb readings are
taken by an index arranged in a window 6.
Level type NiO60 manufactured by Carl
Zeiss, Jena (GDR) is a small-sized instrument
0.9 kg in mass (Fig. 6.4). It can transfer height
marks with a root-mean square error of :t 6
mm per kilometre of a level line. The shortest
sighting distance is 1.5 m. The instrument is
quite convenient for underground applica-
tions. The telescopeis of the internal-focussing
type with the field of view wider than 2. The
cylindrical level with the scale value 60" is
Fig. 6.5 Level type Ni-Bl (Hungary): l-tele-
provided witq a pivotable mirror.
scope; 2-cylindricallevel tube in casing; 3-scale
Level MOM Ni-Bl is manufactured in microscope eyepiece; 4 -levelling screw; 5- endless
Hungary (Fig. 6.5). All sensitive parts of the sighting screw
 6.2. Levels
instrument are dust- and moisture-protected.
Rough sighting is done manually and precise
sighting, by a sighting device. The level has
no clamp screw.
When measuring height differences by a
Ni-BI level, the rms error does not exceed
:!: 3-4 mm per kilometre of a level line. The
instrument is provided with a levelling screw.
The horizonta position of the level tube is
controlled by the method of prismatic align-
ment of the ends of level bubble.
The instrument is provided with a horizon-
tal glass limb of 76 mm in diameter and scale
value 1. The readings are taken by means of
a scale microscope whose eyepiece is arran-
ged near the telescope eyepiece. With the
microscope scale value 10', the accuracy of
reading is 1'.
6.2.2. Test and Adjustments
of Dumpy Levels
T he axis of a circular level must be parallel
to the rotating axis of an instrument. The
bubble of circular level is brought into the
centre by means of foot screws (for level type
N-IOL, by moving the instrument on the
ball-and-socket head of tripod). The upper
portion of the instrument is then turned
through 180. If the bubble does not move
from the centre, the condition is satisfied. If
otherwise, the bubble is moved by adjusting
screws towards the zero point through half
the deviation arc and then brought into the
centre by operating the foot screws (for level
type N-IOL, by moving the instrument on the
tripod head). The test and adjustment proce-
dure is then repeated.
T he vertical hair of the graticule must be
parallel to the rotating axis of the instrument
and the horizontal hair, perpendicular to that
axis. The rotating axis of an instrument is
first arranged truly vertical. The vertical hair
is sighted on the line of a plummet hung at a
distance of 20-25 m from the level instrument.
The condition is satisfied if the. vertical hair
125
coincides fully with the plummet line. If
otherwise, the eyepiece of telescope should be
taken off to allow access to the graticule
mount which is fastened by three screws. The
top and bottom screws must be slackened by
a full turn and the mid one, by a quarter-turn
to shift the cross-hair plate if needed. Then
the telescope eyepiece is set in place to
check the position of the vertical hair. Upon
the adjustment of the cross-hairs, the screws
of the mount must be tightened (first the mid
screw and then the top and bottom screws),
after which the telescope eyepiece is fastened
in place.
T he sighting axis of the telescope must be
parallel to the axis of cylindrical bubble
level. This is the principal condition to be
satisfied by a level. The test is carried out by
the method of double levelling forward be-
tween points A and B arranged at a distance
of 50-75 m from each other and fixed by
spikes or pegs. A staff is set up on one of the
points, say, B, and a level instrument, on the
other (A) (Fig. 6.6a). With the horizontal
position of the bubble level axis, the reading
ai is taken on the staff in the point B and the
height Vi of the level instrument is measured.
Then the level and staff are interchanged to
take the reading a2 on the staff and measure
the height V2 of the instrument in the new
position (Fig. 6.6b).
If the sighting axis is not parallel to the
bubble level axis, but makes an angle i with
the latter, i. e. the sighting axis is not
horizontal, then the readings taken on the
staff will contain an error x and the true
readings will be as follows:
a'i = ai + x
, } (6.1)
a2 = a2 + x
Denoting the height difference of the point
B over A as h, we can find from Fig. 6.6 that:
h = Vi -a'i = vi -ai + x (6.2)
or
h = a~ -V2 = a2 + x -v2 (6.3)
126 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings

corrected as follows. By operating the level-

(al
ling screw, the horizontal hair is set on the
reading
a2 + sjp" (6.6)
on the staff set up in the point A or on the
reading
at + sjp" (6.7)
on the staff set up in the point B. Then, the
images of the ends of the level bubble are
aligned by means of adjusting screws. This
test can also be made by levelling the same
points A and B from the mid forward.
The level instrument is set up at equal
distance from these points, the staffs are set
~ up in the points A and B, and the readings a
and b are taken on them (Fig. 6.7a). If the
sighting axis is parallel to the bubble level
axis, then h1 = at -b1; if otherwise, h2 =
Fig. 6.6 Check of parallelism of sighting axis and
= a2 -b2. If the instrument is set up at equal
axis of cylindrical bubble level by double levelling
distances from the staffs, then a2a1 =
forward
= b2b1, and therefore, h1 = h2 = h, i. e. the
true height difference is obtained irrespective
of whether the test condition is satisfied. For
better accuracy, the height difference is mea-
sured two or three times changing the instru-
ment horizon, and their mean value hm is
taken as the final result.

2s ,--,

where p" = 206265" and s is the distance

between the points A and B, Inm. The angle i
should be measured at least twice, with the
discrepancies between the measured values
not more than 5". The final value is taken as
the arithmetic mean of all measurements. Fig. 6.7 Check of parallelism of sighting axis and
If the angle i has been found to be greater axis of cylindrical bubble level by double levelling
than 10", the non-parallelism of the axes is from mid forward
 6.2. Levels 127

Mter that, these points are levelled forward (a}

upon setting up the instrument over one of
these points, say, A (Fig. 6.7b). In that case,
the height difference will be:
(bl.
h2=v-b3 (6.8)
r' ~ O -=F::: Zl
where v is the height of the level instrument
r E ZI ,
and b3 is the reading on the staff set up in the
point B.
If the discrepancy between the height dif- ~' s
ferences measured by levelling from the mid
forward is less than 4 mm (x ~ 4 mm), the ,
=='i=i1 ~
-I ,
z 1

sighting axis of the telescope can be regarded p Z

to be parallel to the axis of the cylindrical
level. Otherwise, it is required to calculate the
true reading on the staff set up in B from the
true height difference (hm) obtained by the
levelling from the mid and the height of the
instrument v, by using the formula:
b~ = v -hm (6.9)
after which the sighting axis of the telescope
can be adjusted parallel to the bubble level
axis by the method described above.
6.2.3. Automatic Levels
Level instruments with cylindrical bubble
levels require careful levelling before opera-
tion and continuous checking of the bubble
position when taking readings. This draw-
back is eliminated in automatic-aligning (or
simply automatic) levels in which the sighting
line of telescope is automatically horizonta-
lized by means of a special compensator
(stabilizer-compensator) of a mechanical, op-
tical or optico-mechanical type.
Let us consider the schemesof stabilization
of the sighting line by compensators in mo-
dem automatic levels. Suppose that the sigh-
ting line of the telescope is in a truly horizon-
tal position zz1 (Fig. 6.8.a). In this position of
the axis, the reading on a staff will be correct.
Let the sighting axis of the telescope be now
non-horizontal and make an angle E with the
horizontal plane (Fig. 6.8b). In that case, the
centre of cross hairs will be displaced from
I
Id)
=40~~ ~ J~z
v ~z
(e)
Fig. 6.8 Optical schemes of level compensator:
the horizontal line and occupy a position Z'l'
Since the cross hairs are usually arranged in
the rear focus plane of the objective, the
displacement Zlz'l of its centre can be exp-
ressed as ZlZ'l = 1 tan or, since the angle is
small, ZlZ'l ~I, To take a correct reading
with an inclined position of the sighting line,
the cross-hair centre should be displaced in
some or other way from the horizontal line
and be in a point z l' This procedure is
performed by compensators whose principal
schemes will be discussed below,
1, The compensation 1 can be introduced
by displacing the cross hairs from a point Z'l
into Zl by turning the level PZ'l on a point P
through an angle ' (Fig, 6.8c).
2, The image of a staff (Fig. 6,8d) can be
displaced so that the true staff reading is
aligned with the centre of cross hairs (comnen-
128 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys
-I
(a) (b)
~ 7
Fig. 6.9 Level type N-I0KL (USSR): (a) general view; (b) optical
sation with rotation of the sighting ray
through an angle EJ.
3. The sighting line is displaced parallel to
itself to pass through the centre of cross hairs
(Fig. 6.8e).
According to the compensation schemes
shown in Fig. 6.8c and d, the lever or
optical system placed in a point p for the
compensation of an inclination angle must
satisfy the condition fE = SE'; and for the
schemesin Fig. 6.8e, the required condition is
f = ks, where E' is the angle of deviation of the
ray by a compensator, s is the distance from
the compensator to the cross hairs or the
length of the path of sighting rays from the
point of incidence onto the optical system
(prism or mirrors) of the compensator to the
cross hairs, and k is the compensation factor
(k = E'IE). The compensators of modern
automatic levels ensure the compensation of
the sighting axis within the angles from:!: 6'
to :!:40'.
Automatic level type N-1OKL (Fig. 6.9a) is
intended for technical levelling with a root-
mean square error of 8-10 mm per kilometre
of a single run.
The direct-image telescope (I, 4) of the
instrument is placed in a heat-insulated ca-,
in Underground Workings
8
\
" ) 9 10
"
--tr
-11
scheme of compensator
sing. The instrument is provided with a
horizontal circle 3 having 1 limb divisions.
Index readings can be taken with an accuracy
to 0.10.The instrument has no azimuth screw
and the telescope is sighted onto objects by
turning the instrument body by hand. The
telescope is focussed by a knob 2.
Rough levelling of the instrument is effec-
ted by means of a circular bubble level 5 with
the scale division 10'. The cross-hair mount is
provided with adjustment screws to correct
the position of the sighting axis. The devia-
tions of the cross hairs from the true vertical
or true horizontal position can be corrected
by turning the entire eyepiece unit upon
slackening the clamping screws.
The prismatic compensator of the instru-
ment ensures the horizontal position of the
sighting axis at the inclinations of the instru-
m...n~support up to::!: 15'. The optical scheme
of a level is essentially as follows (Fig. 6.9b).
Upon passing through the objective 6, light
rays fall onto the reflecting faces of a larger
pentaprism 7, change their direction by 90,
and enter the sensitive element (rectangular
prism) 11 of the compensator. Upon double
reflection in the prism 11, light rays enter a
smaller pentaprism 8 where their direction
 6.2. Levels
is changed again by 90 and finally get into
the lens system 9, 10 of the eyepiece. The
pentaprisms are fixed and the rectangular
prism is mounted in a tilting frame suspended
on two bearings. The axis of suspension of
the rectangular prism is chosen so that the
distance from the main rear plane of the
objective to that prism is equal to the optical
distance from that prism to the cross hairs. In
that case the coefficient of angular magnifi-
cation of the compensator is k = 13/a= 2,
where a is the inclination angle of the telesco-
pe and 13is the deviation angle of the sighting
ray of the compensator.
9-1270
129
The telescope is focussed by means of a
focussing knob 2 which moves the rectan-
gular prism 11 vertically in a slide.
Level N-3K;Fig. 6.10) is intended for class
IV and techJlical levelling. It can transfer
heights with a root-mean square error of
::!:3 mm per kilometre of a level line. With
the distances between the level and staffs up
to 100 mm, height differences can be mea-
sured with an rms error within::!: 3 mm.
The instrument is provided with an optical
(prismatic) compensator having an operating
angular range::!: 15'. The collimation line is
horizontalized automatically with an accura-
cy to ::!:0.4". A circular bubble level with 10'
scale graduations facilitates rough setting of
the instrument axis into the vertical position.
The instrument has a horizontal circle with
a scale microscope, w,hich makes it possible
to employ the horizontal circle for control
survey and tacheometric survey on flat
terrain.
The optical scheme of the instrument is
illustrated in Fig. 6.10b. The telescope proper
consists of a front lens 1 and focussing lens 3
of the objective, cross hairs 5, and an eyepiece
6. The compensator is arranged between the
focussing lens 3 and cross hairs 5 and com-
prises two prisms 4 and 7, the former being
Fig. 6.10 Level type N-3K (USSR): (a) general
view; (b) optical scheme of compensator
130 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys
fastened internally in the telescope tube 2
and the latter suspended on crossed steel
wires 8. The oscillations of the compensator
suspension are damped by a piston-type air
damper 10. The steel wires intersect in the
centre of gravity 9.
Level NiO25 (GDR) is intended for techni-
cal levelling and, if employed under normal
conditions, gives a root-mean square error
within :t2.5 mm per kilometre of a double
run (Fig. 6.1la). The sighting line is hori-
zontalized automatically by a compensator
arranged between the focussing lens and
eyepiece of the telescope and consisting of
two rectangular prisms 1, 3 which are moun-
ted on a pendulum 4 and a fixed roof prism 2
(Fig. 6.llb). If the instrument is inclined by a
certain angle E, the pendulum will also
deviate by the same angle E under the action
of the force of gravity. This arrangement
(a) .3
in Underground Workings
ensures automatic horizontalization of the
sighting line. A double-action air damper
5 brings the pendulum to the state of rest in
less than I s. The working angular range of
the compensator is::!: 10'. The mean error of
the horizontalization of the sighting axis is
not more 0.5". The instrument compensator
is insensitive to jolting during transportation.
Precise aiming of the level at a target is
effected by an endless sighting screw. The
instrument has a horizontal circle with 10
divisions. Ocular estimation can be made
with an accuracy to I '.
Level type NiOO7 (GDR) is intended for
technical and precise levelling (Fig. 6.12).
Precise levelling is carried out by using a
parallel-plate micrometer provided on the
instrument and precision staffs with invar
tape. When used for technical levelling, i. e.
without the parallel-plate micrometer and
with centimetre-graduated staffs, the instru-
ment gives a mean error of::!: 2 mm per
kilometre of a level line; in precise levelling,
the accuracy is ::!:0.5 mm.
The pendulum-type compensator of the
level NiO07 has an air damper and can
compensate tilting angles up to::!: 10'. Rough
levelling of the instrument is effected by
Fig. 6.11 Level type NiO25 (GDR): (a) general
view; 1-endless sighting screw; 2-circular bubble
level; 3-rnirror; 4-telescope focussing screw; (b)
optical scheme of compensator
 6.2. Levels 131

(a)

Fig. 6.12 Level type NiOO7 (GDR): 1- telescope

window; 2-telescope; 3-focussing screw; 4-clam-
ping handle; 5-sighting screw; 6-circular bubble
level; 7 -micrometer drum

means of a circular bubble level. The telesco-

pe has a large magnification (31.5 X) and can
be aimed with a high accuracy.
The level is manufactured in two versions:
with and without the horizontal circle. The
horizontal-circle microscope is located just
under the telescope eyepiece. The glass limb
of the horizontal circle has a scale value of
10', but ocular estimation can be made with
an accuracy to tenths of that value. Fig. 6.13 Level type Ni-B3 (Hungary): (a) general
Level type Ni-B3 (Hungary) can be emp- view (l-telescope eyepiece; 2-optical microscope
eyepiece; 3- endless sighting screw; 4- focussing
loyed for class III and IV and technical
screw; (b) optical scheme of compensator
levelling (Fig. 6.13). The root-mean square
error of levelling is not more than::!: 2 mm
per kilometre of a level line. The instrument The compensator of Ni-B3level (Fig. 6.l3b)
has a glass limb with a scale microscope has three rectangular prisms, two of them (1
which reads with an accuracy to::!: 1'. The and 2) being movable and the third (3) being
rotation axis of the instrument is set upright fiXed. The compensator has the working
by means of a circular bubble level with the angular range::!: 8' and the mean error of
bubble image being transferred into the field levelling of the collimation line is not more
of view of the telescope. .
than::!: 0.4".
132 Ch. 6. Vertical
Fig. 6.14 Level type TN-6
Levels types TN-6 (Fig. 6.14), TN-7, and
TN-9 have been designed specially for under-
ground work. These small-sized instruments
(0.7 kg, 1.8 kg, and 2.5 kg in mass respective-
Iy) are intended for technical levelling. Level
type TN-7 has a wide-range compensator
which can stabilize tilting angles up to :t6.
The working angular range of levels types
TN-6 and TN-9 is :t30'. Levelling work in
constricted underground workings is facilita-
ted by the provision of a diagonal eyepiece
on the instruments.
The levels of these types are provided with
a horizontal angle-measuring circle which
makes it possible to assign directions, carry
out station fixing, and survey flat areas by the
polar method.
The optical system of the telescope has a
high illumination power and gives an erect
image of objects. The tripod has an extenda-
ble top portion to quickly change the instru-
ment horizon.
Surveys in Underground Workings
6.2.4. Tests and Adjustments
of Automatic Levels
Test of the circular bubble level. The axis of
the circular bubble level must be parallel to
the vertical axis of rotation of the telescope.
The bubble of the circular level is brought
into the centre by operating two foot screws.
The upper portion of the instrument (tele-
scope) is then turned through 180. If the
bubble deviates from the centre, it is moved
back through half the deviation arc by means
of its adjusting screws. After that the bubble
is brought into the centre by operating the
foot screws of the instrument.
Mter this procedure, the instrument upper
portion is turned through 90 to check that
the bubble does not move from the centre. If
otherwise, the test and adjustment must be
repeated.
The horizontal line of cross hairs must be
perpendicular to the vertical axis of rotation of
the telescope.The test and adjustment in this
case is essentially the same as for dumpy
levels.
The collimation line must remain truly hori-
zontal when the axis of rotation of the in-
strument is tilted within the range of working
angles of the compensator. Pegs are driven
into the ground at two points, say A and B
(Fig. 6.15a), spaced at a distance of 100:!: 0.2
(a) x, K"
~ ~
---~'\
a<
I
Irb
~
50:!:.0.1 m D 50.:!:.0.lm
.1.
 6.3.
Fig. 6.16 Positions of bubble in circular
m from each other, and the level is set up
midway between them (in a point D). The
height difference between A and E is mea-
sured at least three times without changing
the horizontal setting (horizon) of the in-
strument. The mean height difference cal-
culated by these measurements, hl = a -b, is
free from all instrument errors, since, with the
arms AD and DE equal to each other,
x' = x". The instrument is then transferred to
a point C (Fig. 6.15b) to make new measu-
rements of the height difference h2 between
the points A and E. If the discrepancy
between the measured height differences is
more than 2 mm, i.e. hl -h2 > 2 mm, it is
required to adjust the collimation axis upon
determining the corrections by the formulae:
x= d dl J.f v=
d2
Jf
1 -d2 dl -d2
where x is the correction to the reading on
the farther staff; y is the correction to the
reading on the nearer staff; and dl and d2 are
the distances from the instrument to these
staffs.
To make the adjustment, the level tele-
scope is aimed at the farther staff and the
horizontal line of cross hairs is aligned with
the true reading on the staff by operating the
adjusting screws of cross-hair mount.
Determination of the compensation -error.
This test is carried out in the field by
measuring the height differences with the
lengths of instrument arms of 5 m, 25 m,
50 m, and 100 m, i. e. with the distances
between the staffs 10 m, 50 m, lOO m, and
200 m. The level must beset up.in the centre
Levelling Staffs 133
5~
"\
@ 0
"-/
level when determining compensation error
of the distances being levelled, i. e. the dif-
ference of arms must be not more than I m.
The height differences between the staff
points are measured successively, the level
axis being perfectly upright and tilted at the
maximum working angle of the compensator
(v). The latter measurements are made with
various positions of the circular level bubble
(I, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in Fig. 6.16). At least five
measurements are done for each staff
distance.
The systematic error of the compensator
per minute of deviation of the instrument axis
is then calculated by the formula:
-(hv -ho)p"
O'c-2sv
where h" is the mean height difference mea-
sured with the instrument axis tilted at the
compensator working angle; ho is the mean
height difference obtained with the instru-
ment axis in upright position; s is the length
of the collimation line, mm; p" = 206 265";
and v is the angle of inclination of the
instrument.
If O"c> 0.5", the instrument must be adjus-
ted at the manufacturing works.
6.3. Levelling Staffs
Levelling staffs are made of well-seasoned
pine or spruce wood. They may have a
different length: 4 m or 3 m for surface work
and up to 2 m for underground work. Some
types of staff are made of transparent mate-
rials, which largely facilitates reading-off in
underground workings. Wooden staffs are
134 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workings

initially impregnated with a drying oil and
painted white, after which patterned gra-
duations are applied by means of a template
or special machine. Staffs for technical level-
ling have l-cm graduations. For easier rea-
ding, centimetre graduations are grouped so
as to form clearly seen decimetres. In novel
makes of mine survey staffs, graduations are
applied on a plastic, reflecting coating or
lavsan film.
Levelling staffs must be checked periodi-
cally to establish their accuracy. A check
must determine the mean length of a metre
interval, errors of decimetre groups, and
prove that graduations are applied correctly.
The discrepancy between the actual lengths
mainly associated with the fact that the
existing bench marks for levelling may be set
in the roof and footwall of a working. In
either case (with a bench mark set in the roof
or footwall), a staff is set up so that its
starting end is applied to the bench mark. Let
us consider some probable schemes of geo-
metric levelling in underground workings.
(a)
fb
a<
~~

of decimetre groups must not exceed ::I: 1 ~ I A ,

mIn. Staffs are checked by means of a stan-

dard metre; the use of standardized steel
tapes is also possible.

6.4. Geometric Levelling

in Underground Workings
Geometric levelling can be employed in
underground workings with dipping angles
not more than 5-8. The procedure includes
revision and fixation of bench marks, level-
ling proper, and office analysis of field ob-
servations.
The principal aim of revision is to check
whether the levelling project in question is
chosen correctly. The operation consists in
studying the state of the workings and exis-
ting points of reference nets. Additional
bench marks may be set up by the results of
revision.
Levelling under the conditions of under-
ground workings is recommended to be car-
ried out by the method 'from the mid'
(two-staff technique). Staff readings are taken
with an accuracy to 1 mm.
Geometric levelling in mines does not
differ principally from surface levelling, but
the schemes of underground levelling are Fig. 6.17 Schemes of geometric levelling in
characterized by a greater diversity. This is underground workings
 6.4. Geometric Levelling in Underground Workings
1. Levelling is carried out by bench marks
set in the footwall of a working (Fig. 6.170).
In this case the height difference of a point B
over a point A will be determined by the
difference of readings on the staffs set on the
forward and rear points (bench marks):
h=o-b
where h is the height difference; a is the
reading on the rear staff; and b is the reading
on the forward staff.
2. Levelling is carried out by bench marks
fixed in the roof of a working (Fig.6.17b).
The height difference of the point B over the
point A is found as the difference of readings
on the staffs suspended from the forward and
rear point: h = b -a.
3. Levelling is done by two bench marks,
with one of them (rear) fixed in the roof and
the other (forward), in the footwall (Fig.
6.l7c).In this scheme, the height difference is
the sum of readings on the two staffs, taken
with a 'minus' sign:
h = -(a + b)
4. Levelling is carried out by two bench
marks, the rear one being fixed in the foot-
wall and the forward one, in the roof of a
working (Fig. 6.l7d). The height difference of
the forward bench mark over the rear one
will be determined as the sum of readings on
both staffs: h = a + b.
The considered particular casesof determi-
nation of height differences with various
schemes of bench mark arrangement can be
covered by a common rule: the height dif-
ference between two bench marks in any
levelling scheme is equal to the forward staff
reading (foresight) minus the rear staff rea-
ding (backsight); the staff reading on a bench
mark located in the footwall is taken to be
positive and that on a bench mark arranged
in the roof, to be negative.
In geometric levelling in an underground
working by the two-staff method, the field
work consists essentially in the following.
135
I. If the surveyor's level employed is of the
type with the level tube on the telescope, the
instrument is set up roughly over the centre
of a change (turning) point and prepared for
observations. The telescope of the instrument
is first sighted on the staff set on the back-
side point, and the reading is taken on the
black face of the staff. The telescope is then
pointed to the forward staff, and the reading
is taken on the black face of that staff. Mter
that, repeated readings are taken on the red
faces of both staffs or with a different position
of the telescope. At once a check is done
whether the readings are taken correctly. For
this, the height difference between the change
points is calculated for the first and second
pair of staff readings. The results of levelling
are recorded in a field book of a form like
that given in Table 6.1.
If the discrepancy between the two height
differences thus determined does not exceed
the permissible value, the rear staff is taken
off from the common turning point and set
up successivelyon intermediate points. Upon
completing the survey work on the given
station, the levelling instrument is transferred
onto a next station, and the staff on the point
of known elevation is transferred onto the
fore-side common point of a next levelling
interval, while the forward staff remains in
place. The work on the new station is re-
peated as described above.
2. If the l~vel instrument employed is of the
automatic-aligning type, it is set up roughly
in the mid between two common (change)
points so that one of its foot screws is on the
sighting line. The instrument is initially sight-
ed on the rear staff, and the reading is taken
on the staff black face. The operation of the
compensator is checked by turning slowly the
foot screw. The compc:nsator operates pro-
perly if the staff reading is not changed on
rotation of the screw. The telescope is then
reversed and sighted on the forward staff to
take the reading on the black face of that
staff. The operation of the compensator is
136 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys in Underground Workil

Table 6.1. Technical Levelling Book

Work place South entry Level N-IOL
Performed by

~ta- P~gs, Notes,

tions pOInts sketches

21 1169 242.849
5859 151 52
22 1212 1018 153 242.697
5899 5706 -104 103
23 1350 J316 -102 -241.450 242.800
6039 6001 100 100
1250 99 242.700
5940 2502 L)U4
4 24 -1252 -1152 2506 240.296
-5948 -5841 354 350
-1255 -1606 346 239.946
-5935 -6294 360 362
26 -1556 -1615 364 239.584
-6242 -6299 -2870
1314 -2864
5996 -242.451
I:R = -22188 I:F -22807 1:h 6736 1;h.. = 3368 dh = 398
21528 21351 5940 -2970
Page-to-page
control -680 -1456 796

Checked by Date

checked again. If the compensator operates
properly, the staffs are turned by their red
faces to the instrument and measurements
are repeated, but reading-off on the red faces
is now started from the forward staff.
Geometric leyelling can be used for vertical
survey of haulage tracks in weakly inclined
and horizontal workings. Levelling is carried
out by change points arranged in intervals of
10 m or 20 m by means of a linen tape. The
points are marked by chalk on one of the
track rails and fixed by a suitable method on
the side walls of the working. Track levelling
is done in traverses supported by the points
of a levelling reference network. Levelling
from a single point is also feasible, provided
that it is carried out forward and back. The
level instrument is set up roughly in the mid
between two change points, and staff rea-
dings are taken with an accuracy to a mil-
limetre.
In mine track levelling, the initial bench
mark may be the last change point of a
preceding levelling line, provided that the last
height difference is checked and the dis-
crepancy does not exceed 1 cm. The dis-
crepancy of levelling lines must not exceed
30 mm JL, where L is the length of a line in
hundreds of metres.
 6.6. Errors in Geometric Levelling 137

At the same time with levelling work, the The corrected height differences are used
height of the working at each change point is for calculating the height marks of the points
measured. by the formula
H., = H,,- 1 + h.,
6.5. Office Analysis of Results
where Hi is the height mark on a subsequent
of Geometric Levelling
point, Hi-l is the height mark on a preceding
The office analysis of mine measurements point, and hi is the height difference between
in geometric levelling includes the control of these points.
the field books, calculation of height dif- The height marks of intermediate points
ferences at stations, page-to-page control, are calculated by means of the instrument
adjustment of calculated height differences, horizon (elevation head), which is determined
and calculation of the heights of reference net by the formula EH = HB + b, where HB is
points and change points in track levelling. the height mark of the rear point and b is the
If levelling is carried out by means of black-face reading on the staff set on that
dumpy levels or levels with self-adjusting point. In this formula, b is taken with a 'plus'
sighting axes, two height differences are mea- sign if the peg is set in the footwall of a
sured on the black and red faces of staffs at working and with -a 'minus' sign if it is set in
each station, after which the mean values of the roof.
height differences are calculated as the arith- The height marks of intermediate points
metic mean of two readings. The calculations (pegs) are calculated by using the elevation
are checked by page-to-page control which in head: Hc = EH ::!: c, where Hc is the height
the case of geometric levelling (see Table 6.1) mark of an intermediate point and c is the
is made by the formula reading on the staff set up on that point. The

}:;R -}:;F = }:;hi -}:;h2 = 2hm staff reading c is taken with a 'minus' sign if
the staff is set up in the footwall and with a
where }:;R is the sum of readings on the staffs 'plus' sign if it is set up in the roof.
set on rear points; }:;F is the sum of readings Upon calculation of the height marks of
on the forward staffs; }:;hi is the sum of height the change and intermediate points, a profile
differences read off on the black face of a of the working is plotted on a horizontal
staff; }:;h2is the sum of height differences read scale 1/2000 to 1/500 and vertical scale 1/200
off on the red face of a staff; and }:;hmis the to 1/50. The vertical scale is usually taken 20
sum of mean height differences. times as large as the horizontal scale.
The misclosure of a closed line is fh = }:;hi
and that of a line run between the bench 6.6. Errors in Geometric Levelling
marks isfh = }:;hi-(HA -HB), where HA and
H B are the heights of initial bench marks. If the height mark of the initial point is
The permissible discrepancies are intro- known, -the height mark of the final point of
duced with an opposite sign into the cal- geometric levelling can be found by the
culated height differences as corrections de- formula:
termined by the formula O = (n/N)fh' where n
H i = H, + ~h.

is the number of stands (tripods) in the line to In I

be corrected and N is the number of stands in where Hin is the height mark of the initial
the entire levelling line. The sum of cor- point and ~hi is the sum of the height
rections should be equal to the actual dis- differences of a levelling line, which are
crepancy taken with an opposite sign. usually obtained by levelling from the mid.
138 Ch. 6. Vertical
Each height difference is determined as the
difference of staff readings, i. e. hi = ai -hi,
Let us determine the root-mean square
error of the sum of height differences. For
this, let the rms errors of height differences be
denoted as mi. m2. m3. ., '. mn, Since the
distances between the change points of the
line of levels are practically equal to one
another and the work is done by a single
instrument and under roughly identical con-
ditions, the measured height differences can
be taken to be equal to one another, i, e.
mi = m2 = m3 = , , , = mn = m.
Thus, the rms error of the sum of height
differences is m; = nm2,
The errors of height differences are in-
fluenced predominantly by the errors of rea-
dings on two staffs and therefore:
m2 = m~ + m~ = 2m~
,:"here mo is the rms error of a staff read-
mg.
The error of a staff reading can be caused
by an error of sighting and an error of level
tube setting. The reading error caused by a
sighting error can be recommended to be
found by the formula:
6011
mv = -IMp"
where M is the telescope magnification; 1 is
the sighting distance (to the stafI), m; and
p" = 206000". The accuracy of level tube
setting is taken equal to 0.l5t" (here t is the
level tube division). Thus, the reading error
caused by inaccurate setting of the level tube
can be found by the formula:
0.l5t"
m -
t- p.
--;;--I
The total reading error
-;: 2 2
mo -v mv + mt
By way of an example, let us calculate the
root-mean square error of a staff reading if
Surveys in Underground Workings
the telescope magnification is M = 20, the
sighting distance to the staff 1 = 50 ill, and
't= 20":
mo=J~= 1.Omm
Hence the rms error of a height difference
in levelling from the mid, with the distance
between the instrument and the staff 50 m,
will be:
m=~=1.4mm
The formulae given above make it possible
to determine in advance the rms error of
levelling with an instrument of specified
characteristics and under particular condi-
tions or, on the contrary, to choose an
appropriate instrument and method of level-
ling to ensure the required accuracy.
6.7. Trigonometric Levelling
Trigonometric (indirect) levelling is resor-
ted to in underground workings with a dip
angle more than 5-8 where geometric (direct)
levelling becomes inefficient. Theodolites em-
ployed for indirect levelling should have the
accuracy of vertical circle reading not worse
than 30". Trigonometric levelling is usually
carried out at the same time with establishing
the underground horizontal (planimetric)
control (polygonometric traversing).
Theodolites are mounted on the platforms
of console holders. Measurements are made
with the use of sighting marks or height
compensators; disc-type signals are recom-
mended at dipping angles greater than 30. If
plummets are used, marks should be provi-
ded on their strings for easier sighting.
Vertical angles are measured in one set
luf.'..rd and back. The measurements are
will be:
checked by observing that the zero point is in
a constant position. The permissible differen-
ce between zero point positions may be seen
in Table 6.1. The instrument height i and the
sighting height v are measured twice by a
 6.7. Trigonometric Levelling 139

measuring tape. Tape readings should be

taken with an accuracy to I mm.
If trigonometric levelling is to be carried
out over polygonometric points, the fol-
lowing conditions should be observed: (a)

(a) the difference of zero point positions -

s --
~
should not exceed 1.5';
(b) the discrepancy of the height differences
measured by levelling forward and back for -~--=-
the same side should be not more than
1/2000 of the length of that side; and .,
(c) the difference between two measure-
ments of the height of a theodolite or signals
should be not more than 5 mm.
If trigonometric levelling is to be carried
out over the points of a theodolite traverse
line, the following conditions are essential:
(a) the difference of zero point positions
should not exceed 3';
(b) the discrepancy of the height differences
of a side, determined by two independent
measurements, should be not more than
1/1000 of the length of that side;
(c) the difference between two measure-
ments of the height of a theodolite or signals
should be not more than 10 mm; and
(d) the height discrepancy of a traverse
should be not more than 120 mm JL. where
L is the length of a level line, km.
The lengths of trigonometric levelling lines
are measured according to the specifications
for linear measurements in underground
polygonometric traverses. Each height dif-
ference is measured twice: by sighting for-
ward and back, and the arithmetic mean of
the two measurements is then found. Cor-
rections to the calculated mean height diffe-
rences are determined by distributing the
traverse misclosure between the height diffe-
rences proportional to the lengths of sides or
by considering the relative weights of height
differences.
Let us consider some probable schemes of
trigonometric levelling in underground wor-
kings. Fig. 6.18 Schemes of trigonometric levelling in
I. Suppose there are two statiQn marks A underground workings
140 Ch. 6. Vertical Surveys
and B set in the footwall of an underground
working (Fig. 6.180). It is required to mea-
sure the height difference of B over A. To
measure the inclination angle of a side AB,
the theodolite can be set up either in the
lower point A or in the upper point B; let it
be first set up in A. Then a plummet is hung
over the point B and a mark (say, the point of
string connection or the plummet point) is
chosen so as to sight the theodolite telescope
on that point.
The height difference for the schemeshown
in Fig. 6.180 can be calculated by two for-
mulae, one of which includes a horizontal
distance s and slope v and the other, the sine
of an inclination angle v and inclined
length S.
Denoting the sighting height by v and the
instrument height by i, we obtain for the first
case:
h+v=stanv+i
and therefore
h=stanv+i-v
For the second case:
h+v=S sinv+i
and therefore
h=Ssinv+i-v
If the theodolite is set up in the upper point
B, the formulae for height differences will be
written as follows:
h=s tanv+v-i
h=Ssinv+v-i
As may be seen, the structure of the
formulae with sin v and tan vis essentially the
same and only the trigonometric function is
different. Below, we shall use only the for-
mulae with the sine of an inclination angle.
2. If the points A and B are set in the roof
of a working and the theodolite is set up
under the point A which is at a lower height
in Underground Workings
than B, then according to Fig. 6.l8b we have:
h=S sinv+v-i
3. With the point A set in the roof and the
point B in the footwall (Fig. 6.l8c), the height
difference can be found by the formula:
h = -S sin v + v +i
4. If the points A and B of trigonometric
levelling are set in the roof of a working
(Fig. 6.18d) and the theodolite stands in the
upper point (point B), then the height dif-
ference will be found by the formula
h=S sinv-v+i
6.8. Errors in Trigonometric
Levelling
The error of location of the final point in
trigonometric levelling is determined by the
error of location of the initial point of a
traverse and the error in determining the
height differences. In this case, the error in
determining the location of the initial point
will not be considered. We shall only analyse
the accumulated errors caused by the errors
in determining the height differences. If the
root-mean square errors of height differences
are denoted as mi' m2' m3, ..., mn,the sum of
height differences will be calculated with an
error:
M 2- 2 2 2 2
-mi + m2 + m3 + ...+ m"
The rms error of a height difference will
then be expressed as follows:
m2 = m2 sin2v + m2S2/p 2 + m~ + m2
h .v, v
where m. is the mean error of measured
length of a line, which can be found by the
formula m; = ~2S + A2S2 (here ~ is the coef-
ficient of random influence; A is the coefficient
of systematic influence in linear measure-
ments; and S is the inclined length of a line); v
is the inclination angle of a line; p" = 206
 6.8. Errors in Trigonometric Levelling 141

265"; m" is the error of measured vertical v = 25; ~ = 0.0015; I.. = 0.0001; mv = mi =
angle; mi is the error of measured height of an =2mm:
instrument; and mv is the error of measured m~ = 0.00152 x 30000 x 0.422622
sighting height. The last two errors may be
taken to be equal to each other, i. e. mi = mv. + 0.00012 x 300002
In view of what has been said above, the
preceding formula can be rewritten as fol-
lows:
+ 2 x 22 = 17.6 mm
S2
m2
h = ,,2Ssin2v + A.2S2sin2v + m2- 2 + 2m?, Thus, m" = 4.2 mm.
p
If the height difference is measured when
Let us calculate the root-mean square levelling forward and back, then:
error of height difference determined by tri- , r
m" = m,j.J2 = 3 mm
gonometric levelling for the following data:
sighting length S = 30 m; inclination angle
 Chapter
Surveys of Preparatory
7.1. General
The progress in mining technology is lar-
gely due to the introduction of mining sys-
tems with a large number of preparatory and
stope workings whose position and state can
change substantially both in space and time.
Deposits of more intricate shape are worked
out by more complex mining systems where
the problem of accurate and timely coordina-
tion of underground workings becomes of
crucial importance.
As has been found, the surveyors of mo-
dern mining enterprises spend the major part
of their time on survey work for servicing
preparatory and stope workings in extraction
sections and stoping blocks.
From the standpoint of mine surveying,
underground workings can be divided into
the following groups:
A. Preparatory workings which can be
further subdivided by the conditions of sur-
veying into workings with the angles of dip
up to 45; those with the angle of dip more
than 45; and connecting workings and outlet
workings (draw holes, funnels, winzes, etc.).
B. Stope workings which are subdivided
into: faces in gently dipping and inclined
seams;faces in steep seams;faces in layerwise
worked-out seams; faces with an open sto-
ping area; shrinkage stopes; and chambers
(cavities) of large volume. The latter type of
workings is again subdivided into three
groups:
(a) cavities in which the observer with
instrument can be present (chambers left in
the chamber-and-pillar systems of working,
large-sectioll tunnels, etc.);
Seven
and Stope Workings
(b) cavities into which only instruments
(automatic or semiautomatic) can be intro-
duced (usually through vertical holes) that is
cavities formed through leaching of salts,
underground chambers containing petroleum
and gases, deep ore chutes, bins, etc.; and
(c) cavities which are accessible neither for
observers nor instruments (chambers left in
the level-chamber systems of working, caving
cones on the surface, voids formed in seams
worked out by the caving system, etc.).
c. Blasting workings: deep blasting holes,
mine chambers, and wells.
The list of survey objects includes all
preparatory and stope workings, various ho-
I~s and chambers, fill-in strips, fill-in boun-
daries, drainage, ventilation and fire-fighting
facilities, haulage tracks; elements of the
geological structure of deposits, i. e. places of
tectonic disturbances, thinning and wash-out
of deposits, visible rock-mineral contacts,
points of mineral assaying and other ele-
ments essential for proper exploitation of
deposits; elements of occurrence of rock pres-
sure, i. e. fissures, inrushes, domes, etc. which
are important for solving the problems of
efficient and safe exploitation of mining wor-
kings.
The surveys of preparatory and stope wor-
kings involve the determination of details of
the geological structure of a deposit or. its
particular areas (the shape and bedding con-
ditions of deposits, tectonics, distribution of
quality of the mineral, etc.); determination of
the dimensions and spatial position of mining
workings for the construction of mine survey
plans and solution of analvtical Droblems
 7.2. Instruments
associated with driving underground wor-
kings of the planned dimensions; and ensu-
ring safe conditions of mining.
The surveys of underground workings are
based on survey nets which can be formed by
running theodolite or goniometer traverses.
The initial points for theodolite traverses are
the points of polygonometric traverses. Ang-
les in theodolite traverses are measured by
theodolites of a root-mean square accuracy
not worse than 30". If theodolite traverses are
run in workings with the angle of dip less
than 30, horizontal angles can be measured
in a single repetition or set. The difference
between the check and final values of an
angle should not exceed 1.5' in measurements
by the method of repetitions and 2' in those
by the method of sets.
The error of centring of the theodolite and
signals in theodolite traverses should be not
more than 1/2000 of the horizontal length of
the smaller side of a measured angle.
In underground workings with the angle of
dip more than 30, horizontal angles should
be measured by two rounds, with the circle
being reset roughly by 180 before the second
round. The discrepancy between the angles
obtained in individual sets should not ex-
ceed 2'. The discrepancy between the angles
measured by half-sets should not exceed the
values given in Table 7.1.
The discrepancy between the two measure-
ments of one and the same side of a theo-
dolite traverse should not exceed 1/1000 of
Table 7.1
Angle of dip of wor- Permissible angular discrepancy be-
kings, degrees tween half-sets, min
at junctions bet- in inclined wor.
ween horizontal kings
and inclined
workings
31-45 2 3
46-60 3 4
61-70 4 5
for Surveys 143
the side length and the linear discrepancy
should be not more than 1/2000 in closed
traverses with gyroscopic sides or 1/1500 in
traverses run between two sides of a poly-
gonometric traverse.
The sides of theodolite traverses are mea-
sured twice: in inclined workings, in forward
and back direction with simultaneous measu-
rement of the inclination angle of the measu-
red line; in horizontal workings, both measu-
rements can be done in the same direction
with measuring the length of intervals if the
line is longer than the length of a measuring
tape. Steel tapes for the measurements must
be standardized to have the relative error not
more than 1/40000 of their total length; it is
permissible in taping to stretch the tape
without spring balance.
Stope workings can be surveyed by run-
ning goniometer traverses with the use of
theodolites or instruments of a lower ac-
curacy. Goniometer traverses should be con-
nected at both ends to the points of a
theodolite traverse. The accuracy of gonio-
meter traverses can be characterized by the
following data: root-mean square error of
angular measurements 10'; ultimate length of
a traverse 0.3 km; discrepancy between two
measured lengths of a line 1/100; and linear
discrepancy in traverses run between two
sides of a theodolite traverse, not more than
1/200.
The points of a survey net should be
located at distances not more than 50 m from
a face. In places where mining workings
approach dangerous zones, this distance
should be not more than 20 m. In the latter
case, the coordinates of the points of survey
control are determined twice.
7.2. Instruments for Surveys
of Preparatory
and Stope Workings
The most popular instruments employed in
mine surveying practice for the surveys of
144 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings

formed in the telescope. The magnitude of

displacement of the images relative to each
other depends on the distance to the stadia
pole.
The ranging pole (Fig. 7.2a) is made in the
form of a rectangular glass plate having four
horizontal hairs (to read off tens of metres),
two inclined hairs, and a horizontal scale
with five square divisions, each of them
corresponding to 1 m in distance measure-
ments.
Before taking a stadia reading, the tele-
scope is sighted on the mid of the stadia pole
(along the height). The telescope tube is then

(a)

Fig. 7.1 Goniometer type UTa: l-horizontal

circle; 2- vertical circle; 3- telescope; 4 ~ bracket;
5- horizontal axis; 6- index; 7 ~ hinge joint

preparatory and stope workings are engi-

neering theodolites and goniometers; suspen-
sion compasses and suspension semicircles
are also in use.
Since the surveys of stope workings most
often are to be carried out in a restricted
space, instruments for the purpose should
have small dimensions and a low mass and
ensure the specified accuracy of measure-
(c)
ments of the worked-out area.
Goniometer type UTG (Fig. 7.1). The tele-
scope of this instrument has a double-image
range finder with the stadia factor K = 500.
The goniometer set includes a ranging (sta-
dia) pole. The telescope is of the internal-
focussing type with the focussing range from
2 m to infinity. The telescope system has two
optical wedges, each of which covers half the
objective and deviates the collimation ray by
the same angle but in different directions.. Fig. 7.2 Ranging pole for UTG goniometer (a)
Thus, two images of the stadia pole are and field of view of goniometer UTG (b and c)
 7.2. Instruments for Surveys 145

This is a repeating-type instrument provided

with stadia hairs.
The limb of horizontal circle has five-
degrees graduations. The readings on the
horizontal and vertical circle are taken by
means of a measuring drum with an accuracy
to 1'. The stadia hairs permit the measure-
ments of distances from 5 to 30 m with an
accuracy of 1/200 and from 30 m to 40 m
with an accuracy of I/lOO. The telescope of
the instrument carries a sighting-and-ranging
rod.
Mine surveyor's goniometer-tacheometer
(Fig. 7.4) is intended for the surveys of pre-
paratory and stope workings and assigning of
directions in driving workings; it can also be
Fig.7.3 Goniometer type UT-3: I-base; 2-
used for tacheometric surveys on the surface.
limb; 3-vertical circle; 4-clamp screw; 5-sighting
screw; 6-telescope; 7-sighting-and-ranging rod The instrument is essentially a repeating-
type goniometer with the telescope having
three pairs of stadia hairs. Two of tliem serve
moved by means of the alidade tangent screw for distance measurements by means of a
until one of the left-hand inclined hairs is sighting-and-ranging rod and the third pair,
made coincident with anyone of the right-
hand horizontal hairs at which tens of metres
are read off. The whole metres and de-
cimetres are then read off on the left-hand
portion of the horizontal scale, beginning
from the first black square. If the inclined
hair coincides with a figure '5', it is required
to subtract 5 m from the read-ofT number of
tens of metres. Metres and decimetres are
read off in a common way; for instance, the
reading shown in Fig. 7.2b is: 30 -5 + 3.5 =
= 28.5 m. In all other cases, i. e. when the
inclined hair does not coincide with '5', the
read-ofT number of tens of metres is left
unchanged; for instance, the reading in
Fig. 7.2c is 10 + 1.6 = 11.6 m.
The range finder of the goniometer type
UTG can measure distances with a relative
accuracy 1/100 to 1/200.
Goniometer type UT -3 (Fig. 7.3) is design-
ed for the surveys of preparatory and ac-
cessible stope workings, orientation of suble-
vels via inclined or vertical workings, and
height mark transfer to subleve~ workings.
10-1270
146 Ch. 7. Surveys
Fig. 7.5 Goniometer-tacheometer type
by means of a common levelling staff. The
range of measured distances is from 2 m to 40
m and a relative accuracy of 1/200 for
distances up to 30 m and 1/100 for those
above 30 m.
The telescope of the instrument is mounted
eccentrically and permits the measurements
of vertical angles within the limits :t 90,
The goniometer portion of the instrument
has worm-and-gear mechanisms instead of
reading circles. The readings are taken on
measuring drums with estimation by eye to
tenths of a division, which corresponds to 1
minute of arc.
of Preparatory and Stope Workings
Goniometer-tacheometer type UTO-3
(Fig. 7.5) is designed for the surveys of uilder-
ground workings and can also be used for the
tacheometric surveys and surveys of quarries
in open-cast mining.
The instrument has an erect-image bro-
ken-type telescope 1 with a diagonal eyepiece
10. A wide-angle finder 2 is provided for
quick aiming at objects. The goniometer has
an optical reading system in the form of a
scale microscope. For convenience of an
observer, a reading eyepiece 3 is made ro-
tatable.
The vertical and horizontal circles are
arranged in the housing 8 of the goniometer.
The vertical axis, base 6, and reversible level
tube 4 are designed so that the goniometer
can be mounted in the upright or inverted
position on a console holder 7, as well as in
the upright position on a tripod. The gonio-
meter is aimed at an object by means of
'endless' tangent screws 5 and 9 respectively
for horizontal and vertical sighting. The
instrument can be centred under and over a
point by means of a mechanical or optical
plummet.
The instrument can measure vertical angles
between -65 and + 90 and distances in
mines between 2 m and 50 m. The reading
UTO-3 accuracy of the vertical and horizontal circle
is 1-2 minutes and the root-mean square
error of angular measurements, not more
than 3 min.
Distances are measured by means of stadia
hairs with a stadia factor loo, which ensures
that the relative accuracy of measurements is
not more than 1/100. The instrument has ver-
tical and horizontal pairs of stadia hairs.
Measurements underground are made by
using a special stadia pole with a transparent
scale which can be arranged either hori-
zontally or vertically.
Suspensioncompassesand suspensionsemi-
circles can be used for measurements pro-
vided that there are no large magnetic masses
in the vicinitv.
 7.2. Instruments for Surveys 147

Fig. 7.6 Suspension compass

A suspension compass(Fig. 7.6) consists of

a round housing 1 and a suspension 2 which
can be fastened on a cord 3. The housing is
hinged in the suspension and can be arranged
horizontally. The limb 4 of the compass has
one-degree graduations increasing anticlock-
wise from 0 to 360. The point axis 5 in the A suspension semicircle (Fig. 7.7) is used to
centre of the housing carries a sensitive measure the vertical angles of the sides of
magnetic needle. In the non-operating state, compass traverses and consists of a limb I,
the magnetic needle is fixed by an arrester. plumb bob 2 and two hooks 3 to hang the
For surveying, the suspension compass is semicircle on a cord 4. Limb graduations
suspended from a cord with the zero mark
facing forward; the readings can be taken at
both ends of the needle.
Before using the compass, the needle is
tested for sensitivity. For this, the compass is
suspended on a cord and the reading is taken.
Then the needle isdisbalanced by a magnetic
mass and let to come to rest, after which the
second reading is taken. The needle is consi-
dered to be sufficiently sensitive if the dif-
ference between the two readings does not
exceed the read-off accuracy. Otherwise, its
sensitivity should be improved.
The insufficient sensitivity of the magnetic
needle may be caused by some defects of the
point axis and needle pivot or by the de-
magnetization of the needle. The former fault
can be eliminated by polishing the point axis
and needle pivot or by replacing them and
the latter, by applying one pole of a per-
manent magnet to the needle and drawing it
from the needle centre to the opposite pole
end of the needle several times (up to 20).
10.
increase from 0 in the mid of the semicircle to D E F' F
~////////////////////////////////
90 at its ends. Inclination angles can be 'l/ ~/;;;;T--- --0--
measured with an accuracy to I 15'.
Telescopic rod. The thickness of deposits
can be measured by means of a telescopic rod , o
o
(Fig. 7.8) which has the measuring range 0 I
// 0
from 1.6 m to 4.4 m, root-mean square error
0
Io.01 m, and mass 2.5 kg. 0
0
The rod consists of three telescopic alumi- O
nium tubes 1, 2, 3, a support foot 4, stoppers ~
5, 6, and an indicator 7 with a clamp screw 8. , ~. ---o 9
The lower side of the indicator is covered by b b. o
a reflecting foil which reflects the light of ,/ 9
miner's head lamp and makes the point of
a a' , 0
rock contact readily visible. .0
/ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~-(JJ
--0 0--- -
////////////////////////////////~
C C. B A
Fig. 7.9 Face survey in stepped-face overhand
stope system

ing, the position of a stope face is determined

7.3.1 .Surveys of Stope Workings
in Steep Seams
The positions of stope faces in steeply
dipping seams of deposits are mainly de-
termined by linear measurements which are
made successivelyalong the entire length of a
face. On deposits which are worked out with
mineral extraction on the strike, the line of a
face is determined by measuring the distances
from the face to the survey traverse points
located in cross adits or entries of the upper
and lower level.
With the overhand stope system of work-
by the tape measurements of bench elements.
Referring to Fig. 7.9, a point C is first es-
tablished along the line of points A and B of
a first-order survey traverse in the hauling
entry. The distance from the point C to the
base of the nearest bench (up dip) is then
measured by a tape, which gives a point a.
The tape is then stretched along the bench
(on the strike) to obtain a point a'. In this
way, all benches are measured by the tape up
to the ventilation entry. After that, the tape
traverse is connected to a point F. The survey
of details is then carried out by the method of
ordinates, and a sketch is plotted which gives
all dimensions and details essential for the
compilation of mining work plan and cal-
culation of the voluII1e of the extracted
mineral.
The orientation of the tape traverse is
performed by means of triangles constructed
on junction sides FF' and CC'.
In steep seams where the mineral is being
worked out from the bottom upwards, the
 7.3. Surveys of Stope Workings in Coal Fields 149

7.3.2. Surveys of Faces

in Gently Dipping Seams
For the surveys of faces in gently dipping
seams, a survey traverse with temporary or
lost points is run along the line of a face
(Fig. 7.11), after which tape measurements
are made from the vertexes (or sides) of the
traverse to determine the position of the face
and the dimensions of left pillars, filled-in
Fig. 7.10 Face survey by means of cord and sections, etc. In this survey, the thickness and
suspension semicircle angle of dip of the seam are also measured,
and the peculiarities of seam structure are
sketched. The traverse points should be loca-
ted as close as possible to the face front.
Horizontal angles in the survey traverse
line of a stope face can be determined by
are measured in one set by engineering
means of a suspension semicircle or special
theodolites or goniometers (such as types
'bar'. In the former case, a fixed point 19 is
UTG and UT -3). The inclined lengths of
chosen on the theodolite traverse in a ven-
tilation entry (Fig. 7.10), and a plumb bob is
sunk through the raise to fix the point A at its
end. Cords are stretched from this point along
the line of the stope face; the lengths of cord
sections are measured by a tape and the
inclination angles of cords, by a suspension
semicircle. The cords should be stretched in a
plane parallel to the wall of deposit. For
control, the line of a face is closed onto the
theodolite traverse via the second raise (onto
a point 16). The survey of details is made by
the orthogonal method from the cord sec-
tions.
Survey by using a 'bar' can be carried
out in practically vertical seams of a low
thickness. The 'bar' is essentially a 2-m
wooden rod with decimetre divisions. A
plumb bob and semicircle are attached in its
centre, which makes it possible to arrange the
'bar' horizontally. Survey is made from a
straight line laid out by means of the 'bar' on
the side surface of a seam. The ends of a
straight line are connected to the points of a
control survey established in raises. The
discrepancies between the heights of points at
the end of a traverse must not exceed 1/200 of Fig. 7.11 Face survey utilizing survey net on
the traverse length. gently dipping seam
150 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory
traverse sides are measured by a linen tape or
by goniometer stadia hairs. If goniometers
with eccentric telescope (types UTG and
UT -3) are employed, the inclination angles of
survey traverse sides should be measured
twice, i. e. forward and back. The actual
inclination angle is found as the half-sum of
measured values.
7.3.3. Survey Work in Faces
with Powered Mining
Complexes
For the normal exploitation of faces
equipped with powered mining complexes, it
is essential to ensure survey control of the
linearity of a face and the position of a
powered complex in it.
For controlling the position of the comp-
lex, pickets are established at intervals of 10
m or 20 m in the main entry and ventilation
entry. The lines connecting like points in
both entries should be perpendicular to the
axes of entries. The position of the complex is
controlled by measuring the distances from
its ends to the like pickets in the entries. With
horizontal and gently dipping seams, these
distances should be equal, i. e. the complex
should be located perpendicular to the axes
of the entries. For dipping seams (with the
angle of dip 15-25), these distances should
not be equal, since in that case the angle
between the face conveyer and the axis of
hauling (conveyer) entry must be equal to
91-93. Thus, the hauling (conveyer) face
must be advanced to some or other extent
depending on the type of complex, length
of face, and mining and geological condi-
tions.
The linearity of a face with a powered
mining complex must be checked at least
once a month. The check for the linearity of a
face ofa small length (60-100 m) can be done
visually or by taping from change points or
theodolite traverse points. The faces of a
large extension (above loo m) are controlled
and Stope Workings
for linearity by means of engineering theodo-
lites or goniometers.
The junction of a goniometer traverse to a
theodolite traverse can be effected by means
of a connection triangle. For this, the
goniometer is set up in a point 1 in the entry
(see Fig. 7.11) to measure the angle 'Y of the
connection triangle and angle 13.The length
of the first side a of the goniometer traverse is
measured. If the first point is chosen so that
the connection triangle angle 'Y does not
exceed 5, the junction angle <p can be
calculated by the formula:
<p= 180 -(I + a/c) 'Y
where c is the length of the polygonometric
traverse side.
If a traverse is run in a face with the sole
purpose to check the face linearity, its con-
nection to the polygonometric traverse is not
needed.
7.4. Surveys of Underground
Chambers and Cavities
As the mineral is being extracted under-
ground, there are formed voids and cavities
of various configuration and size. These cavi-
ties may be filled with air, gases, salt water,
petroleum, etc. From the standpoint of mine
surveying, underground cavities are divided
into accessible and inaccessible. Undergro-
und cavities are regarded to be inaccessible if
observers have no access to their walls or if
this is forbidden for some or other reason.
Accessible cavities can be surveyed by the
methods discussed earlier, whereas the sur-
veys of inaccessible cavities have certain
specific features.
In view of a large diversity of mining
conditions, it may be distinguished between
the following trends in the surveys of under-
ground workings of large volume: surveys
based on the tacheometric principle of deter-
mination of coordinates of inaccessible spa-
ces; surveys based on the photogrammetric
 7.4. Surveys of Underground Chambersand Cavities 151

principles of coordinate determination; and I I

surveys in which coordinates are determined
by the conversion of physical quantities into II Theodolite No.2

geometrical.

7.4.1 .Tacheometric Surveys

~
of Underground Cavities Section 2
~-1 , 2
The tacheometric method of surveying is
based on a polar spatial (spherical) system of I
coordinates. The positions of points of an ~s~!!.o!!.~ --
object being surveyed relative to the stand
point of the instrument are determined by ~
measuring two angles (horizontal and ver-
tical) and a linear parameter.
The volume and contours of a chamber Theodolite No.1
can be determined by the method of in-
tersections by two angle-measuring instru-
ments from two points. Theodolites are set
Ti
up in two points with known coordinates. Fig. 7.12 Tacheometric survey of chambers by
Using a light projector set up in one of the two theodolites
two points, light spots are formed on the
most characteristic portions of walls of the
cavity and fIXed with both instruments by Conned on the chamber wall at the specified
making intersections, i. e. by measuring the height. After that, light marks Conned by a
vertical and horizontal angles. The results theodolite No.2 are aligned with the light
obtained are then used for the analytical marks a1, a2, etc. produced by the theodolite
solution of the problem. No.1. The readings are taken on the horizon-
The method of angular intersections is tal and vertical circle of the theodolite No.2
usually employed in cases when special in- (respectively 13'1'13~,etc. and 0'1' o~, etc.).
struments for surveying of inaccessible spaces These measurements make it possible to
are non-available. determine the positions of the points of
The survey work is started by plotting the specified profiles.
vertical sections of the chamber to be This method is rather simple and not very
surveyed, with intervals of 5-6 m. Horizontal labour-consuming. With the sighting length
angles 131' 132'etc. in the stand point of a up to 50 m, the contours of chambers can be
theodolite No.1 between the direction I-II measured with a relative error of 1/200. A
and the directions onto the points of in- drawback of the method of light marks is
tersection of profiles with chamber walls (01' that it is impossible to survey the wall in
02' etc.) are measured by a protractor with an which a theodolite is set up.
accuracy to 10 (Fig. 7.12). For surveying in Some makes of tacheometers (such as type
the chamber, the theodolite is set up in a BRT-006, GDR) are provided with a double-
point I and oriented onto a point II, and image (coincidence) range finder. The practice
horizontal angles 131' 132' etc. are set out of application of type BRT-006 tacheometer
successively.With each sighting of the theo- has shown that the instrument can measure
dolite.,No.l, light marks 01' 02' etc. are lengths up to 40 m with a satisfactory accura-
152 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings

its width is measured by a measuring device

(Fig. 7.13).
The telescope and projector are focussed
synchronously, which facilitates and speeds
up observations. With measured distances
ranging from 4 m to 100 m, the relative error
is 11100 to 11200.
Recently, lasers have come into use in mine
surveying as sources for making light marks
in the measurements of inaccessible distances.
This increases the range of measured dis-
tances anrl the accuracy of measurements.
The essenceof the method of laser ranging
in underground chambers consists in that a
tacheometer (such as type BRT-006) and a
laser are set up in an approach working near
a chamber to be measured. The laser together
with collimator serves as a laser light-mark
projector. Laser marks are projected on the
walls of the chamber by a specified program-
me. The horizontal hair of the tacheometer
telescope is sighted on the centre of a laser
mark. With an arbitrary position of a mov-
-.., ' , ~ , .'" 1
" ~ ~~,"' /

11 11
Fig. 7.13 Scheme of projecting (I) and measuring II -2
(2) systems of tacheometer type TG-4 I II

11 11 I 11'

il ll !i I
II 1111
cy (1/100). At larger distances, the accuracy 1I
worsens substantially, since double images of 73
-111' 1 1-
a light mark cannot be brought to coincid- .Iii

ence quite precisely. ~

/!1
-IIi
~
i

In recent time, light-projection tacheome- 7

ters have come into wide use; their range
//
finders operate on the principle of two known 6
directions formed by a telescope and light
projector. An example is the type TG-4
Fig. 7.14 Electro-optical tacheometer type
tacheometer which has a projection-visual
MIFT -2: 1- eyepiece; 2- frequency switch; 3- tan-
range finder with a variable basis and ..
gent knobs; 4 -laser switch; 5 -cancel button;
constant parallactic angle at the instrument. 6- scale illumination switch; 7- vertical and ho-
A light mark is formed by the projector, and rizontal circle readings; 8-distance readings
 7.4. Surveys of Underground Chambers and Cavities 153

able pentaprism, two images of the mark are

initially seen in the eyepiece.The two images
are brought to coincidence, and the readings
are taken on the basal scale and vertical and
horizontal circles. Experience has shown that
this method of surveying with type BRT -006
tacheometer is applicable at distances up to
60 m and gives a relative error around 1/400.
An electro-optical tacheometer type
MIFT -2 has been developed in this country
for tacheometric surveys of inaccessible
chambers and cavities (Fig. 7.14). It consists
of an angle-measuring instrument and elect-
ro-optical laser range finder. Laser beams
emitted by the projector are reflected directly
from the rock, rather than from special
reflectors. A survey is done by the polar
method from an approach working. The
root-mean square error of measured vertical Fig. 7.15 Scheme of short-base stereophotogram.
angles is 0.5' and that of horizontal angles, metric survey of underground workings
1.5'. The rms error of distance measurement
in the range from 7 m to 80 m is around 20
cm. This method is principally based on direct
intersections, since the two overlapping pho-
tographs make a stereopair. Measurements
7.4.2. Photogrammetric Surveys
on stereoscopic photographs are made jointly
of Underground Cavities
by the principle of stereoscopic viewing.
The method of short-base stereophoto- A method of photogrammetric surveying
grammetric survey of underground cavities of sections in horizontal workings by means
was proposed at the beginning of the 1950's. of a light beam is employed with successin
A base-measuring bar 1 (Fig. 7.15) is set up the USSR, GDR, CSSR, and other countries.
on a tripod in a safe place in the chamber to In this method, a photographic camera is set
be measured or in an approach working. At up on a tripod in a working, .the camera
its ends the bar carries two wide-angle short- shutter is opened and, by moving a light
focus photographic cameras 2 whose axes are source, the internal contours of the working
parallel to each other. The base-measuring in the plane perpendicular to the camera axis
bar is set by means of a sighting diopter 3 are gradually illuminated.
perpendicular to a survey control-net side The principal complications of this method
and the side wall of the working is photo- are associated with ensuring that the illu-
graphed. The two photographs (stereopair) minated plane is strictly perpendicular to the
are viewed through a stereoscope, which camera axis and also with scaling of photo-
makes it possible to observe a stereomodel of graphs. In order to eliminate these difficulties,
the photographed object diminished in a an instrument set FS-6 has beel;1designed in
ratio b'/b, whet"e b' = 65 mm is the eye base this country, which makes it possible to
(interpupillary distance) and b is the base of obtain the scaling basis together with a
photographic cameras. photograph of the cross section of a working.
154 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory
The instrument set includes a photographic
camera, power supply unit, light projector,
reel with synchronizing cable, and four tele-
scopic scaling rods. The total error in mea-
surements of cross-sectional areas is :t 1.5% .
7.4.3. Sound Ranging
of Underground Cavities
The physical methods of mine surveying of
underground cavities are based on the prin-
ciples of transformation of acoustic, radio
and light waves into values which can cha-
racterize the direction and length of a
measured section. Modern instruments de-
signed on these principles mostly measure the
time of passage of acoustic or radio waves
from an emitter to an object and back.
Sound waves (in particular ultrasonic wa-
ves) have turned out to be most suitable for
measuring of cavities (sound ranging). They
have a relatively low velocity of propagation
in air, because of which the time of their
propagation can be measured with a rather
high accuracy. For instance, ultrasonic rang-
ing can measure relatively short distances
with a root-mean square error :!:20 mm.
Sound ranging has found wide application
for surveys of underground cavities formed
through salt leaching and of vertical work-
ings of large cross-sectional area. A borehole
sonar 'Luch' has been designed in this count-
ry for surveying of brine-filled underground
cavities. The apparatus is mounted on a
truck and consists of two portions: a bore-
hole tool and instrument stand. The borehole
tool is connected with the on-ground equip-
ment by a logging cable which also serves to
hold the tool in a borehole.
Surveying of brine-filled cavities is a la-
bour-consuming procedure. Before making a
survey, it is required to depressurize the
underground chamber to be measured, dis-
mount the rig head, extract the brine-lifting
pipe string, sink the borehole tool to the
bottom of a chamber, and allow time for
and Stope Workings
natural untwisting of the logging cable (the
time of cable untwisting may amount to 1.5 h
in boreholes of a depth of 1000 m). After that,
surveying proper can be carried out, which
consists in measuring the depth to which the
borehole tool has been sunk, the velocity of
sound propagation at the level of the obser-
vation point, and the radii of the horizontal
section of a chamber.
The velocity of sound propagation at the
level of an observation point is determined
on brine samples taken beforehand from the
borehole. The radii of the chamber are
measured by the sonar which automatically
turns on the vertical axis in the borehole.
Ultrasonic waves emitted by the sonar are
reflected from the walls of the chamber and
enter the receiver of the acoustic system. The
received signals are recorded by the receiver,
amplified in an electronic unit, and transmit-
ted as electric pulses through the logging
cable to the on-ground station.
Large vertical workings and other air-filled
cavities can be surveyed by means of a sonar
profilograph type ZPR-2 developed in this
country.
7.5. Surveys of Preparatory
Workings
The surveys of preparatory workings are
carried out for plotting detailed plans and
sections within the limits of a stoping block
or extraction section and for determining the
coordinates of particular points essential
for the solution of various analytical prob-
lems.
These surveys should include all details
large enough to be visible on compiled plans
and profiles. When surveying details, linear
measurements should be made at the level of
the mid section of a working with an
accuracy to 5 cm or, in rough surveys, to
IO.cm.
Angular measurements in the surveys of
preparatory workings can be done by using
 7.6. Surveys of Blast Holes 155

theodolites, goniometers, suspension com-

passes and semicircles.
Preparatory workings in seam deposits
are, as a rule, surveyed by theodolites. The
use of suspension compasses is possible for
surveying preparatory workings in seam and
ore deposits, provided that there are no
magnetic masses which might induce mag-
netic disturbance.
Preparatory workings must be surveyed
twice: the first time during driving a working
(additional survey) and the second time at the
end of driving a complex of workings. All
details obtained by a survey are sketched in a
special field book or on margins of the books
of angular and linear measurements of survey
net traverses.
Surveying of steep preparatory workings
involves certain difficulties compared to that
of gently dipping workings: it is more difficult Fig. 7.16 Survey of connection working by
to transport and set up instruments; the angle non-free plummet method
of inclination of the vertical axis of an
instrument can influence substantially the
accuracy of horizontal angle measurements. the line in several points so as to form a
Central-telescope theodolites can be used broken line A-I-2-B lying in a vertical plane.
for survey work in workings with the dipping Then, the horizontal angle at the point A
angle up to 55. Hanging theodolites are between the junction side of the earlier
more expedient in workings with the dipping theodolite traverse and the side A-l is measu-
angle up to 65. Workings with the angle of red, which makes it possible to calculate the
dip more than 65 are surveyed by eccentric- direction angle of the side A -1. The same
telescope theodolites. direction angle is taken for sides 1-2 and 2-B.
When surveying connecting workings and The lengths of the lines A-l, 1-2 and 2-B are
outlet workings (outlets), it is essential to measured by a tape and the inclination angles
determine the position of their side walls of these lines, by a suspension semicircle. The
relative to the initial directions or points. The results of measurements are used for cal-
surveys of day holes and ore chutes of a small culating the coordinates of points 1, 2, and B.
extension can be carried out by simpler
methods, for instance, by the method of
7.6. Surveys of Blast Holes
non-free plummet, which is essentially as
follows. The efficiency of drilling and blasting ope-
For surveying a connection working rations depends substantially on the correct
(Fig. 7.16), a polyamide line (or cord) is hung position of blasting workings in the rock
freely between the survey point A at the massif, especially when these wbrkings have
lower end of the connection working and the an appreciable length and are intended for
point B where it is connected to a vertical primary (mass) blasting.
shaft. Plumb bobs (1,2) are suspended from The correct position of the centres and
156 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory
axes of blast holes in accordance with the
blasting work plan is closely linked with the
quality of survey and layout work performed
by mine surveyors.
Surveying of deep blast holes consists in
connecting the hole mouth to the points of
the survey net (goniometer traverses) and
determining the depth of the holes and the
directions and inclination angles of their axes.
The error in determining the depth of blast
holes must not exceed 0.2 m and that of their
direction in plan and inclination angles, 30'.
The techniques of surveying of deep blast
holes depend on the drilling direction (ho-
rizontal, inclined or vertical), arrangement of
blast holes (parallel or fan-like), and the
drilling equipment employed.
With a fan-like arrangement of l?last holes
(Fig. 7.17), they are drilled from chambers
constructed so that the point of arrangement
of the drilling rig ( C) is at the intersection of
block boundaries (in plan). Upon driving a
chamber, survey work is carried out to de-
termine the chamber contours and the di-
rection AB and to calculate the coordinates
of the point c. These results serve for de-
and Stope Worki ngs
termining the horizontal angle ARC and
distance RC to set out the point C in the
ground. The point C is then established in the
chamber roof and an angle-measuring in-
strument is set up under it and oriented
relative to the direction CR in order to assign
directions to future blast holes. The oriented
directions are fixed by means of wooden bars
fastened under the chamber roof. Before
drilling, plumb bobs are hung from the bars
to orient the blast holes in plan.
In cases when directions should be assig-
ned to inclined blast holes, an angle-mea-
suring instrument is set up in the point C in
the chamber at the same height with the
rotation axis of the drilling rig. Upon hanging
a plumb bob from the wooden bar, and thus
fixing the direction in the horizontal plane,
the required inclination angle is set on the
vertical circle of the instrument and points m
and n are marked on the chamber wall and
plumb bob line (Fig. 7.18); these points deter-
mine the inclination of the blast hole to be
drilled. After drilling a fan of blast holes, a
control survey is carried out.
When assigning directions to parallel blast
holes (Fig. 7.19), points I, 2, 3, etc. are set out
along the line between points A and R in the
working. An angle-measuring instrument is
Fig. 7.18 Assigning direction to blast hole in
vertical plane
 7.7.
c = 14'IJ~, where n is the number of levels. At
~~~1(
~ 15.41
\ I ~~-~;;;"--o::j
, tablished at the oriented level.
0'
"',
15.0
0,
"'I
0,1
(0)'
'J~~
B
Fig. 7.19 Assigning directions to parallel
zontal blast holes
set up successively on these points to layoff
angles 131'132'133'etc. Looking through the
telescope, the centre and number of a blast
hole are marked on the wall of the working
(most often with chalk). After drilling, a check
survey of blast holes is done. The depths of
vertical blast holes are measured by a tape or
wire cable with numbered I-metre marks.
The depths of horizontal and inclined blast
holes are measured by a steel wire 3-4 mm in
diameter, which is pushed up to the hole
bottom and then withdrawn, and the length
of the immersed portion of wire is measured
by.a tape. It is also possible to make these
measurements by means of self-straightening
elastic steel tapes 50 m long or light-metal
bars 1-1.5 m long which can be joined with
one another to form a measuring bar up to
40 m in length.
7.7. Orientation
of Sublevel Workings
The orientation of survey nets in sublevel
workings should be carried .out so that the
maximum error of orientation in a block of a
size not exceeding 120 m relative to the
theodolite traverse points of the main level
will be not more than 10'. Orientation should
be made twice, and the discrepancy between
two measurements must not exceed 14'. If a
Orientation of Sublevel Workings 157
"...
/ number of levels are to be oriented succe'ssi-
vely, this discrepancy must not exceed m =
least three station points should be es-
Orientation can be effected through two
vertical workings connected on the oriented
level; through one vertical working; through
one inclined working; or by the gyroscopic
method.
hori 7.7.1. Orientation of Sublevels
Through Two Vertical Workings
(Raises)
Orientation through two vertical workings
(raises} is made essentially in the same way as
orientation via two vertical shafts: two plumb
bobs are hung in the vertical workings; the
coordinates of plumb lines on the initial
(upper} level are determined by connecting to
polygonometric or theodolite traverse points;
a theodolite traverse is run on the oriented
level between the plumb lines; the horizontal
angles in this traverse are measured with a
root-mean square error of 40" and the
lengths of sides, with a relative error of
1/1000. The relative discrepancy between the
lengths of a plumb-connection line calculated
on the oriented and initial level should not
exceed 1/1000.
In caseswhen sublevel workings are opened
by two vertical workings with one of them
being stepped (Fig. 7.20}, orientation can be
done by the indirect solution of a triangle
010203. Connecting polygons 01-1-2-02
and O2-3-4-5-03 are run on the levels to be
oriented and a connecting polygon 01-A-B-
C-D-03 on the main level. The coordinates of
plumb lines 01 and 03 are determined by
connecting them to the theodolite traverse on
the main level. The connecting traverses on
the oriented levels are constructed in a con-
ditional coordinate system, and the lengths of
the triangle sides 0102 and 0203 are calcu-
lated. The side 0103 and direction angle
 158 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings

Vertical projection 7.7.2. Orientation of Sublevels

Through One Vertical Working
(Raise)
Orientation through one vertical working
has to solve essentially the same problems as
orientation through one vertical shaft, i. e. the
problem of projection and that of junction
(connection).
Since the depth of a vertical working (raise)
is usually not large, the projection problem
can be solved by using for plumbing a brass
wi,re or polyamide resin line 0.5-0.6 mm in
~-IcF;:-:::::.:::.::::
llrI. I =--!I~-
-.~- , 0-- -- diameter. Plumb bobs should have a rela-
tively low mass, up to 4-5 kg. The distance
between the plumb lines must be not less
than 0.5 m. The discrepancy in the measured
~ Ll! distances between the plumb lines on the
~ oriented and initial level must be not more
b-A 0-8 o.c 0 D
than 3 mm. The mean positions of plumb
Fig. 7.20 Orientation via two vertical workings, bobs are determined by observing the oscilla-
with one of them being stepped tions of plumb lines on the reading scale of a
theodolite telescope. To solve the junction
problem, the bisector of cross hairs must be
set symmetrically relative to the extreme
no o are calculated by the results of survey positions of a plumb line.
The problem of junction in the orientation
on1tfie main level. Having found the triangle
sides 0102 = a, 0203 = b, and 0103 = c, the of sublevel workings is usually solved by
means of connection triangles or by the
angles of the triangles are calculated by the
method of plumb-connecting lines.
formulae:
The angles of triangles are calculated by
b2 + C2-a2 a2 + C2-b2 the same formulae as in orientation through
a vertical shaft (see Ch. 4).
A check of the side lengths of connection
triangles can be done by calculating the
distance between the plumb bobs, for triang-
les with the angle 'Y not more than 5 by the
formula:
ah(l -cosy)
c = (b -a) +
h-a

and for those with the angle greater than 5,

by the forrnula: .
C2= a2 + b2 -2abcosy
The difference between the measured and

~
 7.7. Orientation of Sublevel Workings 159

Q p tripod table until coincidence is attained. The

procedure is repeated until the vertical axis of
the instrument is precisely on the plumb-
connecting line, after which the point, is
fixed. Then the angle !3 between the plumb-
connecting line and the first side CD of a
traverse is measured by a theodolite. The
distance from the point C to the closer plumb
line is measured as well.
By the results of measurements on the
main level, it is now possible to calculate the
direction angle of a plumb-connecting line
and the coordinates x, y of one of the plumb
lines. Now that we know the direction angle
of a plumb-connecting line, and therefore,
that of a line PQ, and the distance QA, we
Fig. 7.21 Orientation via vertical working by
can calculate the coordinates of a point A on
means of two plumb bobs
the oriented level.
Gyroscopic orientation of survey nets in
calculated lengths of sides must not exceed sublevel workings is carried out by the
4mm. techniques disclosed in Ch. 4.
Connection by the method of plumb-con- The orientation of sublevel workings via
necting lines can be used effectively on the inclined raises can be carried out by several
lower level when the depth of the sublevel is methods, in particular, by the popular method
not large; this method is generally applicable of nonlree plumb line which is resorted to in
provided that the distance between the cases when the workings on the main and
plumb lines on the upper level is sufficiently oriented level and the inclined working have
large. the same direction. The essence of the
Connection to the plumb lines of an oriented method (Fig. 7.22) consists in that a polyami-
level can also be performed without using de resin line or soft wire is attached by one
angle-measuring instruments. For this, plumb end in a point B on the upper level and a
bobs are suspended from a wire drawn weight P is fastened to its lower end on the
between the points P and Q tFig. 7.21). In main level. The line or wire is 'broken' in
that case, the direction angle of a plumb- points C and D by two guys AC and DE
connecting line is equal to the direction angle attached to it at the upper and lower level.
of a line PQ. To transfer the coordinates onto Both guys should lie in the same vertical
the level being oriented, it suffices to measure plane.
distances QA and BP. For the connection of Theodolites or goniometers are set up
the plumb lines, a theodolite is set up on the under the points A and E on the upper and
main level in a point C (roughly at the lower level respectively. When sighting in the
plumb-connecting line). The telescope is telescope, the plumb-fastening point B is
sighted on the rear (farther) plumb line and is displaced until the direction AB coincides
focussed on the closer plumb line, the limb with the vertical hair in the telescope. After
and alidade being locked. If the cross hair the plumb line and guys are arranged in the
bisector does not coincide with the closer same vertical plane, the directi()n angle can
plumb line, the theodolite is shifted on the be transferred from one level onto the other
160 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings

the upper level (Fig. 7.23). The second theo-

dolite is set at the lower level and centred
under a point C, and a special staff is
attached to its objective part. The telescope
of the upper theodolite is pointed to the top
centre mark of the telescope of the lower
instrument, and the reading is taken on the
vertical circle. The theodolite set up in the
point Cis first sighted on a point D to take
the reading on the horizontal circle, after
which the instrument telescope together with
the staff attached to it is set horizontally. By
rotating the upper instrument on the vertical
axis, the horizontal hair line of its cross hairs
is roughly aligned with the axis of the staff on
the lower instrument. By operating the
tangent screw of the horizontal-circle alidade
of the upper instrument, the horizontal hair
A B

by measuring junction angles ~ and ~l by

instruments set up in points A and E in a
single full repetition. The distances dl, d2, CD
and the distances from the points A and E to
the horizontal rotation axes of the instru-
ments are measured twice by a tape. The
inclination angle v of the section CD of a
non-free plumb line is measured by asuspen-
sion semicircle with an accuracy to 15'. The
direction angle of the oriented side is cal-
culated by the formula
aAI = a37E+ ~l -~ :t 2 x 180
and the coordinates x, y of a point A, by the
formulae:
xA = XE + (dl + CDcosv -d2)cosaED
YA = YE + (dl + CDcosv -dJsinaED
The method of mutual orientation is also
widely used. It employs two goniometers or
two eccentric-telescope theodolites. In the
latter case, one of the theodolites is set up at

(..8
~
~ SUblevel!!
Y//////////;////////////~
" 7.8. Measurements
////////;~'
Main level ~,
~//////////////////////////////////////;/~
Fig. 7.24 Orientation via inclined
od of plumb-line points
line is aimed 4-5 times precisely on the staff,
and each time the readings are taken on the
horizontal circle, after which the mean of
these readings is calculated.
Upon the completion of the described cycle
of observations, the telescopes of both in-
struments are reversed and a second cycle of
observations is made. After sighting the lower
theodolite on the upper one, it is horizontal-
ized and the upper theodolite is aimed 4-5
times at the staff axis. Mter that, the ob-
servations of points D and A are made by the
upper and lower theodolites respectively.
If an inclined raise has an intricate con-
figuration, it may be recommended to use the
method of plumb-line points. A theodolite is set
up on the main level under the point C of a
survey net (Fig. 7.24), and, using the instru-
ment, two plumb-lines are suspended in
points B and K in line with the point C. A
point E on the plumb line KB is fixed on the
sublevel to be oriented, after which a point D
is fixed on the plumb line EB. Since lines DE
and CK lie in the same vertical plane, their
direction angles are equal to each other.
Having measured the horizontal angles ACK
and KED and using the direction angle of a
line AC, it is now possible to calculate the
11-1270
7.8. Measurements of Mining Workings 161
D direction angle aEDof a line ED, which is the
.." initial angle for the orientation of the survey
~.
net on the sublevel. Then the inclined dis-
tances and inclination angles of line sections
are measured to transfer the coordinates x, y
and z from the point C to the point E.
of Mining
Workings and Reserves
A of Mineral in Stocks
Stope faces are measured to plot a sketch
F~
of the stoping area (Fig. 7.25), and the points
are fixed from which the surveys of details are
raise by meth- carried out (position and dimensions of left
pillars of the mineral, fill-in strips, angles of
dip, thickness and structure of a seam, posi-
tion and bedding elements of tectonic dis-
turbances, seam pinches, etc.).
By the results of survey, the position of the
stoping area is plotted on a large-scale plan
of mining workings on which the mean
length of a face line can be determined from
the expression:
Lm = SlAm
where Am is the mean advance of a face for a
specified period, m and S is the working area
determined by the formula
S = Spllcos v
where Spl is the working area measured
planimetrically on the plan and v is the angle
of dip of a seam.
With coal seamsof an intricate structure, it
is essential to determine by measurements the
total thickness of a seam (from the footwall
to the roof) with all interlayers and the total
useful thickness, i. e. the sum of the thicknes-
ses of all coal bands in the seam. The
thickness of mineral seams is measured by a
linen tape or telescopic measuring rod per-
pendicular to the bedding plane. The results
of measurements are recorded and sketched
in the field book. The data of field books of
working measurements are used as the basis
162 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory
for calculating the volume of mineral extrac-
ted from a stope face.
The quantity of mineral mined in stope
faces in a specified period can be determined
by the formula:
Q = Vy -Lm
where V is the volume of the worked-out
space, m3; y is the density of the mineral in
the rock massif, t/m3; and Lm is the loss of the
mined mineral. The quantity of useful com-
mercial mineral mined in the specified period,
Qc, can be determined by the formula:
Qc = Vy -Lm + Q'
or
Qc = (V'Y -Lm)kckm
where Q' is the quantity of barren rock
present in the mined mineral, t; kc is the
coefficient of contamination of the useful
mineral with barren rock; and km is the
moisture coefficient of the useful mineral.
The coefficient of contamination of coals in
coal deposits is usually determined by the
and Stope Workings
formula
k = A r.b -A c.b
c Ar.b -Ac
where Ar.b' Ac.band Ac is respectively the ash
content of barren rock bands, coal bands and
commercial coal. The moisture coefficient can
be found by the formula:
100 -Wo
k m= loo -W
where Wo is the moisture content of useful
mineral in the massif and W is that of mined
commercial mineral.
Under particular mining conditions, the
determination of the quantity of mined coal
by measurements of mining workings is
carried out with insufficient accuracy or
sometimes is not done at all. In such cases,a
reliable check is to measure the amount of
mineral in stocks at the end of a month. The
quantity of mineral mined during the month
elapsed is then found by the formula:
Q = Ql + Q3 -Q2
 7.8. Measurements
where Ql is the quantity of mineral shipped
to consumers or spent at the mining enterpri-
se,t; Q2' Q3 is the remainder of useful mineral
at the beginning and end of the period
considered in stores, bins, and railway
cars, t.
The quantity Ql is determined by weighing
at shipping of the mineral or is taken
according to accounts, whereas Q2 and Q3
are found directly by the results of the survey
measurements of the mineral contained in
stores, bins and other storage places. Since
the amount of mineral in stocks at the
beginning or end of a month is usually much
less than the monthly output by the enter-
prise, the errors of measurements in stocks
have practically no effect on the montWy
output of the mineral by a mine.
The remaining mass of mineral in stocks
(Q, t) is found by multiplying the volume Vof
dumps (or of the filled-in portion of bins) by
the density y of the mineral in dumps (bins).
The accuracy of determination of the mass of
mineral in stocks depends on the accuracy of
the volume and density determination, which
in turn depends on the difficulties of measure-
ments in stocks. In this respect, it is possible
to distinguish between three categories of
dumps.
Category I includes dumps having an es-
sentially regular geometrical shape: cone-sha-
ped, pyramidal, prismatic with trapezoida,l
cross section (of the type of road embank-
ments) and some other shapes typical of
stockyards with trestles.
Category II includes dumps whose shape is
a combination of cone-shaped, prismatic,
pyramidal, etc. bodies.
Category III includes dumps with a comp-
licated shape of the surface typical of bin-
scraper and scraper stores.
The volumes of dumps related to the first
and second category (except for second-ca-
tegory dump~ of a height more than 5 m) can
be recommended to be determined by tape
measurements, with approximation of these
of Mining Workings 163
dumps to regular geometric bodies when
needed.
In order to determine the volume of a
dump or pile, its height, width, length, ba-
se diameter, etc. are measured by a tape.
Substituting the measured values into suita-
ble geometrical formulae (Fig. 7.26), the vol-
ume of a dump is calculated with an accqracy
to 10% depending on. the shape complexity
and dimensions of the dump. The volumes of
dumps (piles) of category III and partially of
category II (with the height more than 5 m)
are determined on the basis of tacheometric,
plane-table or profile survey. In such cases,
the terrain area allotted for mineral storage is
surveyed topographically to plot a large-scale
plan of the area with horizontals.
The method of profiles is employed mostly
for surveying of elongated dumps. In that
case, profile lines are assigned perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of a dump. The
profile lines are plumbed, and the most
characteristic points are fixed by pickets. The
spacing between the profile lines is taken
equal to 5-10 m depending on the shape
complexity of the dump. Surveying by profile
lines consists in measuring the distances
between the picket (change) points (starting
from the initial points) and the height diffe-
rences between them. Distances are measured
by tapes (twice), and the tape readings are
rounded off to decimetres. The height diffe-
rence is determined by technical levelling.
Theodolite-tacheometers can also be used for
profile line surveying. The measured results
are recorded in a field book. Using the height
difference of the base isolines and the points
(pickets) on the dump surface, the cross
sections of the dump are plotted (Fig. 7.27)
and their areas are measured by a planimeter
(with double contouring).
The volume of a dump is found by the
formula:
S1+S2 S2+S3 8.+8.+1
V=-/ 2 1 +-/ , 2 +..0+ , /.
164 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings

(b)
$,

v=* (SI + S b + 1{S;""";f;:)

(cJ

(e) (f)

--

v=~[( 20-::~)bb +( 2ot + b)bt]

it
(9)

hb b
v=
6(2Ib+I,)

Fig. 7.26 Shapesof dumps suitable for tape measuring: (a) trapezoidal profile pile; (b) truncated pyramid;
(c) circular cone; (d) truncated circular cone; (e) truncated elliptical cone; (f) spherical segment; (g)
truncated trihedral prism; (h) wedge
 7.8. Measurements of Mining Workings 165

9" points are established in all characteristic

places of the dump surface, with spacings
between them not more than 6 m.
60-
The results of survey are plotted on the
plan of the dump (store) on a scale 11200(or a
larger scale),and isolines of the dump surface
50---
~: are drawn with height intervals 0.25-0.50 m
for dumps less than 5 m in height and 1.0 m
for those with the mean height more than
5 m.
40-
The volume of a dump can be calculated
by the method of vertical sections or that of
horizontal sections. In the latter case, the
30- dump is cut into layers by horizontal planes,
and the areas of the sections are measured
twice by a planimeter, the mean value of the
20- two measurements being taken as the final
result. The volume of the dump is the sum of
a ~,
th~ volumes of the layers confined between
the horizontal planes drawn in intervals of
1~ 0.25 m, 0.5 m or 1.0 m. The error of volume
3
measurement by tacheometric survey is not
2 more than 4% .
3. The measurements of preparatory work-
II
Fig. 7.27 Scheme of measuring volume of dump ings are essentially simplified surveys with the
by method of profiles: l-contour of dump; use of simpler instruments (steel and linen
2-cross-sectional profile of dump; 3-fixed points tapes, suspension semicircle, inclinatorium,
of profile lines and longitudinal axis etc.). The measurements of preparatory work-
ings include the following operations: sketch-
ing the working and face in the field book;
where Sl' S2' ..., Sn are the areas of profile measuring the length of a working and the
sections of the dump and I; are the spacings amount of advance during the specified pe-
between two adjacent profiles. This method riod; measuring the cross section of the
can determine the volume of dumps with an working, its area within the boundaries of
accuracy to ::t 3.5% . prospected mineral, seam thickness, and
If the tacheometric or plane-table method bedding elements of the seam.
is employed for measuring the volume of The amount of advance in workings is
dumps, the tacheometric or respectively pla- measured by tapes from fixed survey points
ne-table survey is started from the points of a or other reference points located near the
survey net. The coordinates x, y of surveying face.
points are determined by theodolite traverses, Sketches in the field book should show: the
chains of triangles or other figures or of their positions of the initial points and distances
intersections. The z coordinate is found by from them to the faces according to the
technical or trigonometric levelling, The dis- previous and current measurements; the di-
tances from the instrument to staff (picket) mensions of workings for calculating the
points should be not more than 60 m. Staff worked-out area and volume of extracted

~
166 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory and Stope Workings

1- a -I

Im

aav

~-I~! a1

~/////////////~,
02

mineral and rock; thicknesses of the seam in
measured points .md outlines of structural
elements of the seam (deposit); location and
measurements of bedding elements of the
seam; location of geological disturbances and
their bedding elements; and some other data
that should be reflected in mine survey plan.
An advance of a working may be de-
termined as the advance in coal (Ic)' that in
gangue (barren rock), 19' or that in support
(lining), Is (Fig. 7.28a). The amoUnt of advan-
ce is found as the difference between the
corresponding distances from the initial point
at the beginning and end of the specified
period. Hence, the amount of advance of a
working during the specified period will be:
in coal Ic = Ic2-Ic1; in gangue 19= 192-/91'
and in support Is = Is2-Is1. Upon deter-
mining the advances of a working, the
working cross section is measured. If the
working is driven partially in the mineral and
partially in barren rock, it is required to
measure the total cross-sectional area and the
area in mineral (Fig. 7.28b) as the product of
the seam thickness by the mean width of the
cross section in the seam: 8 = amm,where am
is the mean length of the face line of the
working in mineral and m is the seam
thickness.
The mean cross-sectional area in mineral
by the results of several (n) measurements will
then be:
81 + 82 + ...+ 8n
8 m=
n
The quantity of mineral extracted from the
working during the specified period can be
calculated by the formula:
Q = IcSmY
where Y is the density of coal, tlm3.
 Chapter Eight

Special Surveys in Underground Workings

8.1. Assigning Directions 'conductors', directions are assigned both in

to Underground Workings the horizontal and vertical plane.
For assigning the direction to a working in
One of the most important tasks of mine
these planes, the mine surveyor should know
surveying service in the construction and
the spatial coordinates (x, Y, z) of the points
exploitation of mining enterprises is to
to be used in calculations and be capable of
transfer correctly the designed location of
solving such problems as the determination
underground workings into nature. In that
of direction angles of the projected direction,
connection, the mine surveyor has to de-
terrnine the places of location (intersections) angle between directions, inclination angles
of lines, inclined length (distance) and its
of workings in accordance with the design or
projections onto the horizontal or vertical
calendar plan of mining work development,
to assign, fix and transfer the directions, and plane, etc.
The solution of some most typical pro-
to control the driving of workings along the
blems encountered in practice will be de-
assigned direction with due observance of the
monstrated below.
designed profile and the chart of supports.
I. Figure 8.la gives the coordinates of a
The most common job of a mine surveyor
point A (x A' YA' zA) and a point B (XB' YB' ZB).
is to check the driving- of workings along a
It is required to determine: the direction
specified direction in the horizontal and verti-
cal plane. The method by which directions angle of the direction from a point A to a
are assigned depends on the mining con- point B; the horizontal projection of the line
that connects points A and B; the inclination
ditions and the kind of working, elements of
angle of a line A-B; and the length (distance)
seam bedding, and some other factors. In
of a line A-B.
many cases,the work of direction assignment
is facilitated by the availability of a natural The direction angle of the line AB is found
landmark or element (for instance, the by the formula:
bedding plane of the foot or roof of a seam).
tan aAB= YB -Y A
In practice, such elements are called 'con-
XB -xA
ductors'.
For workings to be driven on dip of an
inclined or steeply deeping seam, where the
line of dip is a good landmark, directions are
assigned only in the horizontal plane. For
workings to be driven on the strike of an
inclined or steeply dipping seam, only the
or
directions in the vertical plane are assigned.
For crosscuts or lateral drifts which have no SAB = J(YB -y Af + (XB -XA)2
 168 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings

(a) (bJ (cl

x x
YO-YA

y ~ (AB)y PL (BC) ~C8)

~rC)
~..: (CG)
A 7
4: ~

'~ B
B
B 8~
..r G/ ',E
"
Fig. 8.1 Schematic diagrams: (a) for solving the inverse problem; (b) for measuring the angle between
directions; (c) for determining the coordinates of intersection point of two straight lines

The inclination angle of the line AB is The coordinates of the point of intersection
found by the formula: (a point D) of these lines can be found by
ZB -ZA solving the triangle BCD:
rany= XD = xB + BDcosaAB' YD = YB + BDsin aAB

where s is the horizontal projection of the where

length S between the points A and B (ho- CB sin a
rizontal distance). BD=-
siny
The inclined length of the line AB can
also be determined from the expression
S = s/cos v or, for checking, from the expres- First, we find the direction angle !lCB
slon: tan !lCB = YB -Yc
s = J(YB -YA)2 + (XB-XA)2 + (ZB-ZA)2 XB-
and the length
2. Figure 8.lb shows two intersecting line CB = YB -Yc XB -Xc
sections AB and BC with known direction sin aBc COSaBC
angles; it is required to find the forward left
and forward right angle of crossing. Tfese The angles O and y can be found as the
angles can be found by the formulae: differences of the corresponding direction
13,= aBc -aBA angles.
13,= aBA -aBc The coordinates of the intersection point D
can also be determined by the combined
3. In practice, the mine surveyor often has solution of the equations of intersecting lines:
to determine the coordinates of intersection
point of two directions, say, of a point D xB tan(1AB-Xctan (1CG-YB + Yc
xD=
where lines AE and CG intersect (Fig. 8.lc). tan (1AB-tan (1CG
The line AE is specified by the coordinates of YBcotan(1AB -Yccotan(1CG -'- xB + Xc
a point B (XBand YB)and the direction angle YD=
a AB. Similarly, the line CG is given by the cotan(1AB-cotan(1CG
coordinates of a point C (Xc, Yc) and the The directions to mining workings are
direction angle aCG. assigned by surveying instruments. The

~
 8.1. Assigning Directions to Underground Workings
choice of a particular type of instrument
depends on the kind of problem to be solved,
type of working, and required accuracy.
8.1.1. Assigning the Horizontal
Direction to a Working
The horizontal direction to the straight
section of a preparatory working can be
assigned by means of a theodolite, compass
or gyroscopic instrument by laying out in
nature the design or calculated angle or by
ranging the direction directly according to
the known direction angle by means of a
gyrotheodolite or gyrocompass.
An assigned direction is fixed by survey
marks (clamps) in at least three points at a
distance of 1-3 m from one another. Plumb
bobs hung above these points form a ranging
line to be used by drivers for the orientation
of a face. As the face is being advanced, the
direction is continued, and the required check
measurements are made. If a working is
designed so that its direction varies, a new
direction must be assigned in each turning
point. In caseswhen a working is to be driven
from two ends, it is required that the geomet-
rical axis of one of its sections be perfectly
coincident with the continued geometrical
axis of the other section.
The direction to a working in the horizon-
tal plane can be assigned by means of a
theodolite by one of two methods depending
Fig. 8.2 Schemefor assigning a direction: (a) with an accuracy less than the instrument accuracy; (b) with
a higher accuracy
169
on whether the accuracy of angle assignment
is lower or higher than the accuracy of the
instrument.
In both cases, the working is marked out
and the theodolite is set up and centred in the
initial point B (Fig. 8.2a). Since the distance
from the initial point to the wells of the
working is smaller than the sighting limit
of the telescope, a provisional direction is
assigned through the telescope of the instru-
ment according to the calculated angle ~.
This direction i~ fixed by at least two points
(Bl, B2); noting the station point of the
instrument, the provisional direction will
thus be fixed by three points (B, Bl, and B2).
Upon driving the working by 5-10 m in the
provisional direction, the permanent direc-
tion is assigned and fixed by three points.
If the required accuracy of laying off a
horizontal angle is lower than the instrument
accuracy, the permanent direction is assigned
in the following order. The theodolite is set
up again in the point B, and two points P 1
and P2 are marked in the range of the
directions obtained by constructing the angle
~ at two different positions of the theodolite
tube. The distance Pl-P2 is then halved and a
survey mark is fixed in the mid point (P). The
angle ABP will correspond to the calculated
angle ~. Upon the fixation of the point P, the
angle ABP should be measured again. The
discrepancy between the measured and cal-
culated values of the angle ~ must be within
CI C
(b) r---,
611 ~S'I
.rs"1
I
6~1
~ .'I
~'
A B
170 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings

r---
Fig. 8.3 Assigning a direction by compass

the permissible limit. If so, two other points, horizontal plane can be assigned by means of
P' and P", are set up by a theodolite along a suspension compass. For this purpose, the
the collimating ray RP, at a distance of 1-3 m plan of a working is oriented along the
from each other. Thus, the "line passing magnetic meridian, and a straight line is
through the points P, P', and P" will be the drawn on the plan from a survey point B at
beginning of the permanent direction. the beginning of the working in the direction
In caseswhen the angle must be constructed of the projected axis. The miner's compass is
with a higher accuracy (for instance, for then laid on the plan to measure the magne-
driving a working from two ends), the pro- tic azimuth of a line. A cord is fixed at the
cedure is as follows. A point Cl is set up in point Bin the mine and tensioned roughly in
one position of the,elescope (Fig. 8.2b), and the specified direction (Fig. 8.3). A suspension
the angle ARCl thus obtained is measured compass is hung from the cord and the free
with the required accuracy. The measured end of the latter is moved laterally until the
angle ~m= ARC 1 is compared with the compass needle points at the specified magne-
specified value ~sP' and the difference 11~= tic azimuth. The cord is fixed in this position,
= ~m-~sP is compared with the required and two or three plumb bobs are hung from
accuracy of angle laying. If 11~is higher than it. The method is, however, employed only
the required accuracy, angle ARCl must be rarely.
corrected. To do this, the distance RC 1 = I is Points for assigning the direction to a
measured and a linear correction is calcula- working in the horizontal plane can be
ted by the formulae: located more conveniently at a certain
distance (20-30 cm) from the walls of the
111 = -111~" working, rather than along the central axis.
p" In that case, plumb bobs hung from the fixed
or points will not obstruct the motion of mining
workers and will be preserved better. Drivers,
L\l = 1sin L\j3
however, must know the distance from these
The point C 1 is then displaced by this points to the face walls, which is called a
correction (to a point C), which gives the 'bracket' and can be found in the following
sought-for angle ARC. The theodolite is way.
sighted on the point C, and two new points, Suppose that a working must be driven
B' and B", at a distance of 1-3 ill from each from a point A (Fig. 8.4) in the direction of a
other, are set up and fixed. Thus, the specified line AC which is its axis. Points At and A2
direction will be given by the line RR"B' . near the walls of the working fix a direction
The directions of auxiliary workings in the that is parallel to the axis. The width of
 8 Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 171

Fig. 8.4 Scheme for calculating 'brackets' when axial direction is transferred closer to working sides

'brackets' Cl and C2 can be determined from plummet has a cylindrical housing 2 with a
triangles AA1D1 and A1A2D2. First, we have cover 1, which contains a dry cell. An electric
to calculate the distances dl and d2 by the lamp 3 at the bottom end of the housing is
formulae: covered with a red or green transparent cap
dl = AA1 sin 11 and d2 = A1A2 sin 12 4. At the top of the housing, there are a
switching knob 6 and eyelet 5 for hanging the
or, since the angles 11 and 12 are small, by plummet from a cord.
the formulae:
Light plummets are hung along the spe-
cified direction so that the line formed by the
dl = AA1- 1~ and d2 = A1A2- 1;
lamps is the direction axis in the vertical and
p" p"
horizontal plane. Light plummets are visible
where 11 = aAA
1
-a AB' 12 = aA
1
B -aA
1
A
2
,
at a distance of 60- 70 m on the average.
and p" = 206265".
As may be seenfrom Fig. 8.4, Cl = 0.51- dl
and C2= 1- (Cl + d2), where I is the clear
width of a working.
Drivers are usually provided with a sketch
of the working which gives the positions of
plumb bobs and the size of a 'bracket'.
Points assigning the direction to a working
are usually fixed in support beams or roof. In
permanent workings, range points are fixed
more reliably by drilling holes 20 cm in depth
in the roof and driving survey markers with
hooks for plumb bobs into them. As the
working is advanced, the plumb bobs are
transferred closer to the face. With the
transfer distance up to 15-20 m, new points
can be marked visually (by sighting along the
line of the earlier plumb bobs) and with
distances up to 50 m, by means of a
theodolite. Fig. 8.5 Light plummet: 1- cap; 2- metal hous-
Directions to workings can also be assig- ing; 3-electric lamp; 4-coloured acrylic plastic
ned by using light plummets (Fig. 8.5). A light cap; 5 -eyelet; 6 -light-switching screw
172 Ch. 8. Special Surveys
Fig. 8.6 Laser indicator: 1 -projector; 2- base in
casing; 3- separate power supply unit
Laser instruments are also coming into
wide use for direction assignment in un-
derground workings. An explosion-proof la-
ser indicator is illustrated in Fig. 8.6. It is
essentially a light projector with a laser
source, which forms a narrow directed beam
of red light to be used for assigning the
directions to underground workings. The
principal element of the instrument is the
projector consisting of a light source (laser
tube) placed together with a collimating sys-
tem into an explosion-proof housing.
For operation with a laser indicator, a
survey point (initial point), above which the
instrument will be set up, is fixed at a
distance not more than 40 cm from the wall
of a working. A theodolite is set up above this
point to layoff the calculated direction angle,
and the direction thus determined is fixed by
two temporary marks located at a distance of
10-20 m from the initial point. The bracket of
the laser indicator set is fastened below
the initial point to the supports of the
working wall. The laser indicator is mounted
on the bracket and connected to the power
supply source. The laser beam is directed'
roughly ('by hand') onto a plummet that has
been hung in advance. Upon fastening the
in Underground Workings
instrument, the sighting micrometer screw of
the laser is turned so as to make coincide the
light beam with the plummet and fix up the
specifi~d direction. For better visibility, a
bright screen may be placed behind the
plummet. It is recommended to use the
focussing ring of the instrument for more
accurate sighting.
For assigning the direction along the
height, it is required to turn the optical
wedges at the exit of the collimating system
relative to each other. The design inclination
(slope) of the working is set up on the scale
connected .with the optical wedges. The light
beam directed onto the face or tunnel shield
forms a bright red spot up to 80 mm in
diameter, which is easily seen from a distance
up to 500 m.
8.1.2. Assigning Directions
to Curvilinear Sections
of Workings
Directions to curvilinear sections of under-
ground workings can be assigned by the
method of perpendiculars or the method of
radii.
Method of perpendiculars. A circular curve
of the curvilinear section of a working on a
large-scale plan (1/20, 1/50) is replaced by
inscribed chords according to the precalcula-
ted turning angles and lengths. Then the
lengths of perpendiculars from a chord to the
wall of the working in intervals of 1-2 m are
measured on the drawing (Fig. 8.7). The
numerical values of perpendiculars are written
on the drawing.
Method of radii. In this method, a large-
scale (1/20, 1/50) drawing (Fig. 8.8) of the
curvilinear section of a working is used for
the graphical determination of radial distan-
ces from a chord to the wall of the working,
after which it is possible to calculate the
distances between the axes of adjacent sup-
ports by the external (dJ and internal (dl)
side of the working. These distances can be
 8. Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 173

...
.!) 0:) .~
~ ~ O

"
"' .~,
'l C? .."
.~~ t?~\:o \:;...,;.~
'X((
8-' ~.O~~
' ; 0 .~ 0 ~ "
:!0
1 "'
,- ?,
0
.~ o
.6] a
'-i0.6~0 ~ 40"15"
,-, 3.00~i-

2.55~
11.05
-1.8 R=17.5m
1.80
~O
1.65~ ....;

1.35 ~li Q95 (X=93.30.

~1.'J5 R=18.5m .
7
Fig. 8.7 Scheme of direction assigning by method Fig. 8.8 Scheme of direction assigning by method
of perpendiculars of radii

found by the formulae: are established as the working is being

dl = d + d(s/2R) and dl = d-
where d is the distance between the support
frames in the straight section of a working
(according to the chart of supports); s is the
average width of a working; and R is the
radius of curvature of the curvilinear section.
All dimensions essential for checking are
indicated on the drawing of the curvilinear
section.
The method of radii is more convenient
and expedient than that of perpendiculars. In
this method, it is easier to check the di-
mensions of a working at both sides of a
chord and to control a correct placing of
support frames along curvature radii.
8.1.3. Assigning the Vertical
to a Working
The direction to a working in the vertical
plane is assigned according to the design
slope which is given as the difference of the
elevation marks of the extreme points related
to the distance between these points. It is
marked by axial or side bench marks which
d(s/2R) advanced.
With inclination angles of workings up to
5-6 (i = :J:0.1), the directions in vertical
planes can be assigned by means of level
instruments, templates with levels, water level
with light instruments, inclinometer, etc.
If a level instrument is used for the purpo-
se, side bench marks are fixed in the wall at a
height of 1-1.5 m above the design position of
the working foot or rail head, i. e. in a plane
parallel to the design. slope. For instance
(Fig. 8.9), a bench mark Rl is fixed in the wall
of the working at a height d above the rail
head. A point A is then marked on the wall at
a distance of 5-6 m from the bench mark,
which is the projection of the collimating ray
of the level instrument. A staff is set up on the
Direction bench mark R1, and the reading a is taken.
Upon measuring the distance i between the
levelling staff and the point A, the height
difference h = ii corresponding to the given
slope i is calculated. The position of the
second bench mark, R2, is found by laying off
vertically the height a + h. The line con-
necting the bench marks Rl and R2 gives in
nature the specified slope. If required, similar
174 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings

A
---
,
a

R1

Fig. 8.9 Scheme of vertical direction assigning to working by a level and wall marks

bench marks may be fixed in the opposite
wall of the working.
Directions to workings can also be assig-
ned by using laser indicators whose optical
system includes a wedge compensator with
the working range :t 2. The desired slope is
set up by means of a special ring arranged
before the collimator and graduated in
thousandths of gradient.
A laser sight (Fig. 8.10) has many applica-
lions, in particular, for direction assignment
diameter of light beam varies depending on
distances and reaches 200 mm.
A level-inclinometer (Fig. 8.11) consisting
of a level 1 and wedge-type inclinome-
ter attachment 2 can be employed for as-
signment and checking of slopes of horizontal
workings and for laying rail tracks in mines
and on the surface. It has the following
operating characteristics:
Range of slopes assigned by the

and control of cutting of heading machines main optical-wedge system, rad . ::t:0.008
Ditto, with the use of additional
and tunnel shields in workings with inclina-
Division
wedges,rad
value of slope scale, rad .. I 0.048
lion angles up to 10. Laser sights of this type I 0.0001
can operate properly at temperatures from Accuracy of slope assignment, rad . I 0.0005
+ 30 to -40 and air humidity up to 80% . Mass of inclinometer attachments,
Their working range is above 200 m and the kg. 0.33
4
/

\
5 2

Fig. 8.11 Level-inclinometer assembled: l-level;

2-wedge-type inclinometer attachment; 3~micro-
meter screw of inclination scale; 4- inclination-
measuring microscope; 5 -clamp screw of inclino-
Fie. 8.10 Laser sight meter attachment
150 Ch. 7. Surveys of Preparatory
traverse sides are measured by a linen tape or
by goniometer stadia hairs. If goniometers
with eccentric telescope (types UTG and
UT -3) are employed, the inclination angles of
survey traverse sides should be measured
twice, i. e. forward and back. The actual
inclination angle is found as the half-sum of
measured values.
7.3.3. Survey Work in Faces
with Powered Mining
Complexes
For the normal exploitation of faces
equipped with powered mining complexes, it
is essential to ensure survey control of the
linearity of a face and the position of a
powered complex in it.
For controlling the position of the comp-
lex, pickets are established at intervals of 10
m or 20 m in the main entry and ventilation
entry. The lines connecting like points in
both entries should be perpendicular to the
axes of entries. The position of the complex is
controlled by measuring the distances from
its ends to the like pickets in the entries. With
horizontal and gently dipping seams, these
distances should be equal, i. e. the complex
should be located perpendicular to the axes
of the entries. For dipping seams (with the
angle of dip 15-25), these distances should
not be equal, since in that case the angle
between the face conveyer and the axis of
hauling (conveyer) entry must be equal to
91-93. Thus, the hauling (conveyer) face
must be advanced to some or other extent
depending on the type of complex, length
of face, and mining and geological condi-
tions.
The linearity of a face with a powered
mining complex must be checked at least
once a month. The check for the linearity of a
face ofa small length (60-100 m) can be done
visually or by taping from change points or
theodolite traverse points. The faces of a
large extension (above loo m) are controlled
and Stope Workings
for linearity by means of engineering theodo-
lites or goniometers.
The junction of a goniometer traverse to a
theodolite traverse can be effected by means
of a connection triangle. For this, the
goniometer is set up in a point 1 in the entry
(see Fig. 7.11) to measure the angle 'Y of the
connection triangle and angle 13.The length
of the first side a of the goniometer traverse is
measured. If the first point is chosen so that
the connection triangle angle 'Y does not
exceed 5, the junction angle <p can be
calculated by the formula:
<p= 180 -(I + a/c) 'Y
where c is the length of the polygonometric
traverse side.
If a traverse is run in a face with the sole
purpose to check the face linearity, its con-
nection to the polygonometric traverse is not
needed.
7.4. Surveys of Underground
Chambers and Cavities
As the mineral is being extracted under-
ground, there are formed voids and cavities
of various configuration and size. These cavi-
ties may be filled with air, gases, salt water,
petroleum, etc. From the standpoint of mine
surveying, underground cavities are divided
into accessible and inaccessible. Undergro-
und cavities are regarded to be inaccessible if
observers have no access to their walls or if
this is forbidden for some or other reason.
Accessible cavities can be surveyed by the
methods discussed earlier, whereas the sur-
veys of inaccessible cavities have certain
specific features.
In view of a large diversity of mining
conditions, it may be distinguished between
the following trends in the surveys of under-
ground workings of large volume: surveys
based on the tacheometric principle of deter-
mination of coordinates of inaccessible spa-
ces; surveys based on the photogrammetric
176 Ch. 8. Special
Fig. 8.13 Water level with plumb bob
direction of the working in the vertical plane.
With the known vertical distance from the
top of a plumb bob to the head of a rail
(which is equal to Ht -ht for the initial
point), it is then possible to check the gra-
dient of the rail track.
It should be noted that the plumb bobs
described can be used for assigning the
direction to a working in the horizontal
plane.
The specified slope during driving of a
working can also be checked by means of a
water level with plumb bob (Fig. 8.13). The
instrument consists of two mutually perpen-
dicular wooden bars: a long bar 1 (up to 2 m)
and a short one 2, which are fastened
together; a plumb bob 3 whose point must
Fig. 8.14 Mining track gauge
Surveys in Underground Workings
coincide with a mark 5 when the longer bar is
perfectly horizontal; and wooden blocks 4
and 6 of different height (H I and H 2) which
define the specified slope. The slope is de-
termined by the ratio (HI -H2)!1 which is
constant for a given instrument. For instance,
with H I = 0.04 m, H 2 = 0.02 m, and 1 = 2 m,
the slope is:
.HI -H2 0.02
1= = -= 0.01
1 2.0
When checking the profile of a working,
the instrument is set onto a rail or a board
placed on the smoothened foot surface of the
working so that the smaller block is 'on the
rise'. If the plumb bob is against the mark 5,
the slope is correct. If otherwise, the foot soil
must be cut off or respectively more ground
must be added.
A more convenient and perfect instrument
for laying railway tracks of a specified gra-
dient and for assigning directions to work-
ings is a mining track gauge (Fig. 8.14). It
consists of a tubular rod 3, two fixed blocks 6
and 8, a movable block 5 with an extendable
stop 4, spring clamp 7, two hinged sighting
stands 9, a transporting handle 2, quadrant
10 graduated in degrees, and a spirit level 1.
For operation, the gauge is placed with

blocks 8 and 5 on a rail so that the block 5 is
on the rise, and fastened by the spring clamps
7. The required slope of the track is set up on
the spirit level. Mter that the forward end of
the rail is moved vertically until the level
bubble is in the centre, and the rail is fixed in
that position.
A check of the specified gradient of a
working is done by means of geometrical
levelling along the rail track laid in the
working in accordance with the recommen-
dations on vertical surveying of rail tracks as
given in Ch. 5.
Automatic levelling of haulage tracks can
be carried out by using a track-measuring
complex, such as shown in Fig. 8.15. It
measures and records on a chart strip three
main parameters of a surveyed rail track: a
longitudinal profile 2 (Fig. 8.16), elevation 3
of one rail above the other, and discrepancy 1
of the track gauge against the specified value.
The complex consists of a carriage 1 with a
standard track gauge (900 mm or 1520 mm),
an explosion-proof casing 2, power supply
unit 3, and a box for spare parts 4. The casing
contains sensors for measuring the specified
parameters and a recorder and has a window
6 where the measured parameters are dis-
played. The main operating characteristics of
the complex are as follows:
Error of recorded longitudinal slope
at a travel length of 500 m, rad ..
Root-mean square
Root-mean
relative rail square elevation,
Relative
trackgauge,mm error of
Limits length. of measurement
Travelling
Temperature
gradient, speed,
rad limits,
Mass of set, kg. ...
Number of operators
12-1270
8.1. Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 177
Fig. 8.15 Track-measuring complex
Before using the complex for measure-
ments, the zero points of all its sensors are
adjusted, the chart paper is charged into the
recorder, and the dimensions of picket distan-
ces are set up on the scheme, which will be
fixed on the chart by a lever 5. The complex
is placed at a distance of 5-7 m from the
initial picket point and is started by switching
on the power supply. The speed of the
complex is increased gradually so as to attain
the optimum speed (roughly 3-4 km/h)
beginning from the first picket. The operator
passes on the lever 5 at all specified pickets
and track switches, and the measured track
parameters are thus recorded on the chart
strip. As a rule, a track section is measured
twice (when travelling forward and back).
At the end of a measuring run, the chart
strip is taken off from the recorder and
up to
:t 0.0005
processed. The day of survey, number of run,
error of measured
track section, and record scale are written at
error of
mm measured 2.5 the top of the chart. All picket and other
characteristic points are numbered on the
recorded travel .5 chart. Then the elevations of all pickets are
determined in a conventional system of co-
of rail track '200 ordinates relative to the elevation of the first
picket, and the gradients of the track are
m/s degrees .
:f:0.05
calculated. For instance, the gradient of the
0.9-1.2
-10 to
track section between the picket points Nos.
+ 40C 15 and 25 (see curve 2 in Fig. 8.16) is
55 determined in the following way. The height
2 difference is found by subtraction: 55.2 -
178 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings

~ ooooooo 000
100
-ii'". ' : F-.'.'i'Y - 5mm
'II 01
2mmt t==M.: 11mrr
0)
"0
la
:1@
80 I~

60

!!!!!i ~2

40
I~ ~
\~.r=
...C)
"Q;:E
=-

3
-of
20
~
...~
~Q)

...0:
.0:"'

".~:c

,CI:
0
o alo O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

Picket15 Picket25
Fig.8.16 Chart strip with recorded data: }-curve of track gauge variation (::t2mrn); 2-curve of
recorded longitudinal profile; 3 -curve of recorded discrepancies between the heights of rails

-52.8 = 2.4 mm on the chart and, con-
sidering that the chart scale is 1/50, the actual
height difference will be 120 mm. Dividing
this height difference by the distance between
the chosen picket points, we obtain the
gradient 120/103, or 12.
The elevation of one rail above the other,
say, in a point H (see curve 3 in Fig. 8.16) is
found by multiplying the distance from the
point H to the zero line by the scale base, i. e.
2x3x5=30mm.
The deviation of the track gauge from the
standard size, say in a point p (curve 1 in
Fig. 8.16) is determined by multiplying the
number of divisions by the width of one
division on a scale 1/1, i. e. 5.5 x 2 = II mm.
By the results of these measurements, it is
possible to judge on the condition of the rail
track and the necessity of repairs.
In mining practice, it is essentiar to control
that underground workings are cut to the
design cross-sectional area. This is especially
important for opening and development
workings, air ways, and haulage ways. With
reduced cross sections of workings, the
clearance for the rolling stock or conveyer
trains will decrease below the permissible
limits and may be the cause of accidents and
 8.1. Assigning Directions to Underground Workings 179

injuries. Further, reduced cross sections can 1---

A

worsen the conditions of ventilation of stopes

and be the restricting factor in the extraction .v/
of the mineral.
Surveying practice employs several me-
thods for checking the cross section of work-
ings, depending on the cross-sectional shape:
the method of measurement by common
staffs and plumb bobs moved on a cord along
the walls; the polar method; the method of
linear intersections; method of direct measu-
rements of the width and height of workings;
etc.
The method of direct measurementsis one of
the simplest and is resorted to when workings
have a trapezoidal or rectangular cross sec-
~
.P..
tion. By this method, one can determine the B
total cross-sectional area of a working (as I-~.-,
formed in the rock) and the clear cross- Fig. 8.17 Measuring cross section of trapezoidal
sectional area. For this, it is required to working
measure the total height ho of the working
between the roof and foot and the clear divisions is applied transversely to them at
height hi (between the top beam and rail intervals of 0.3-0.5 m to measure distances /1
head); the total width A and clear width a at and /2 from the left and right rail to the
the level of the top beam; the total width C respective walls of the working. The results of
and clear width c at the level of the top of a measurements are marked on the sketches of
carriage; and the total width B and clear cross sections in the field book, after which
width b at the foot of the working (Fig. 8.17).
It is also essential to measure the clearances
between the supports and the top of the
carriage, between the rail head level and the
contact wire, etc. The measured parameters
are oriented correspondingly relative to the
assigned direction of the working. The results
of measurements and a sketch of the working
are written in a standard field book.
The method of measurement of cross sec-
tions by means of two staffs (Fig. 8.18) is
mainly employed in workings with temporary
railway tracks. Picket points are arranged in
a working at intervals of 1-5 m, and the axis
of the working at the foot level is marked at
these points. Then the distances from this axis
to the rail heaQs,a and b, are measured. Staffs
with decimetre divisions are set up vertically Fig. 8.18 Measuring working cross section by
on the rail heads, and a rod with centimetre two staffs
180 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings

template placed onto the head of rails. The

Fig. 8.19 Measuring working
method of linear intersections
procedure consists in measuring the distances
from the protractor centre to the contour
points of a working and the angles of these
distances which are read on the protractor.
The cross sections of workings 2-4 m high
can be measured by telescopic (sliding) staffs
such as those illustrated in Fig. 8.21.
The staff shown in Fig. 8.210 consists of a
metallic (light alloy) tube 1 3-5 cm in diame-
ter and 2110 cm long in which a wooden rod
2 of the same length can slide freely. Two pins
3 are screwed into the wooden rod at the
cross section by bottom end and roughly in the mid of its
length. The heads of pins move in a 5-mm
wide slot made longitudinally in the tube.
The tube length at the slot is graduated in
(b)

2
.2

~
"
3.5 3

Fig. 8.20 Measuring working cross section by 3.0. 3

protractor and rule 0 3
I

these cross sections are drawn on a suitable 2.5

scale.
The working cross sections having a curvi-
linear or irregular shape are measured by m..

means of templates, by the method of linear 2.0 2.0 ..

jfJ:4
intersections or by the polar method. ,

The method of linear intersections consists 30

in measuring distances 11 and 12 from bench

marks R1 and R2 to the typical points of the
contour of a working (Fig. 8.19).
Fig. 8.21 Measuring rods: (a) tubular (l-tube;
In the polar method, measurements are 2- extractable rod; 3- pins; 4- bar with hole for
done by means of a protractor arranged on plummet); (b) staff-type (l-graduated staff; 2-
an extendable stand (Fig. 8.20) or on a extractable rod; 3- pins; 4- guide cleats)
 8.2. Surveying of Workings Driven from Two Ends 181

8.2. Surveying of Workings Driven

from Two Ends
For successfulconnection of faces in work-
ings driven from two ends, it is essential to
solve properly and correctly the whole comp-
lex of surveying tasks, the principal ones
among them being: examination of the en-
gineering purpose of a working and of its
design data (cross section, slope, method of
driving, etc.); determination of the place (point)
of connection of faces; determination of
the permissible deviation of faces in the
connection point; compilation of the scheme
of mining workings which connect the ap-
Fig. 8.22 Measuring working cross section up to
proaching faces; compilation of the project of
4 m high by means of telescopic staff, tape and mine surveying work and selection of suitable
plummet methods and instruments; preliminary cal-
culation of the ultimate error of connection
of approaching faces; determination of the
decimetres with numbering in every 0.5 m. A expected ultimate error which is found by
different length of the staff can be chosen preliminary calculation for the established
when needed. ultimate deviation of the faces; survey work
The staff illustrated in Fig. 8.21b consists and calculations for determining the connec-
of a wooden rod 1 with guide cleats 4 for tion parameters (angles, direction of con-
retaining a sliding rod 2 with pins 3. The nection axis, axis length, elevation marks,
stationary rod has decimetre divisions num- gradients, inclination angles, etc.); assignment
bered in 0.5-m intervals. The cleats and and fixation of the connection axis in nature;
sliding rod are bevelled longitudinally at an and systematic survey control of the driving
angle of 75. of a working in the assigned direction and
The cross sections of workings are measu- determination of the actual connection error
red with a sliding staff in the following way of approaching faces by making horizontal
(Fig. 8.22). A plumb bob is hung in the and vertical connection surveys for com-
desired cross section onto the direction line paring the actual discrepancies with the per-
given by a surveyor. A linen tape is stretched missible and precalculated ones.
and fixed perpendicular to that line; it also In the preliminary calculations, it is essen-
serves to fix the position of the plumb bob. tial to consider three principal directions:
The sliding staff is applied to the tape at along the connection axis, y'; perpendicular
definite intervals to measure the heights of to that axis, x'; and in the vertical plane, z.
the working contour. Before every measure- Depending on the availability of a 'con-
ment, the staff is checked for verticality by a ductor', it is distinguished between critical
plumb bob attached to it. The intervals at and less critical (free) directions. The former
which staff measurements are done depend are those whose errors can ,influence the
on the complexity of the working contour technology of mining work.
shape. The results of measurements are indi- The choice of surveying methods and their
cated at sketches in the field book. accuracy for developing the planimetric and
182 Ch. 8. Special Surveys in Underground Workings

height control of workings driven from two (a)

ends depend on the particular mining pro-
duction conditions and requirements. The
principal factor that determines the accuracy
of connection of mining workings is the kind
of mining transport. For instance, for electric
haulage trains, the permissible deviation of
faces is up to 0.5 m in plan and 0.3 m
vertically. In every particular case, mine
surveyors must be informed on the permis-
sible connection error by the engineering
management of the mine.
Main kinds of face connection. For work-
ings driven simultaneously from two ends, it
may be distinguished between the following
kinds of connection:
(a) a working is driven from two ends by
two approaching faces;
(b) faces in a working are advanced in the
same direction and follow each other; and
(c) a working is driven from one end (face)
towards another face in which no mining
work is being done. Fig. 8.23 Scheme of assigning direction to cross-
All these cases of face connection may be cut driven from two ends: (a) plan view; (b) section
divided into three principal types: (a) con- along the axis of projected crosscut
nections carried out within the limits of a
single mine, (b) connections between different
mines, and (c) connections of vertical work- points A and B, which are the initial ones for
ings. Accordingly, let us consider three assigning the direction to a crosscut AB, into
examples of face connection. the seams 14 and 15. For this purpose,
approach points 1 and 2 are established in
the entries by running theodolite traverses
8.2.1. Connection of a Working Driven
from permanent bench marks I, II, III to the
Within the Limits of a Single
Mine
points A and B. The measured angles and
side lengths are used for calculating direction
This case may be exemplified by driving a angles al-l and aIlI-2 and the coordinates of
crosscut AB simultaneously from points A points 1 and 2 (XI' YI; X2' Y2). To establish
and B (Fig. 8.23). the points A and B in nature, it is required to
In the crosscut No.2, which has been calculate angles !31 and !32 and side lengths
driven in the rock between the entries of S2Aand SIB. Besides, for assigning the direc-
seams 14 and 15' there are three fixed per- tion to the crosscut, it is essential to know
manent bench marks I, II, and III. We draw angles !3A and !3Band a side length sAB. For
on the plan the axis of the projected crosscut this, the direction angles and horizontal
No.3 and de'termine the coordinates of the. distances SIB and S2A are calculated by the
points A and B (XA' YA' XB' and YB). formulae of inverse geodetic problem. Mter
The matter consists in transferring the that, it is possible to calculate the angles:
 8.2. Surveying of Workings Driven from Two Ends 183

~l = alB -all, ~l = alA -alIIl, ~A = aAB-

-aAl' and ~B = aBA-aBl.
Theodolites are then set up under the fixed
points A and B, and the horizontal direction
to the crosscut is assigned by setting the
angles ~A and ~B on the limb.
In order to determine the direction of the
crosscut in the vertical plane, a line of levels
is run through the workings between the
points A and B, and the height differense of
the point A above the point B is measured
(L\z). As may be seen in the vertical section in
Fig. 8.23b, the crosscut must be driven in the
direction from B to A with a gradient i = tan v
(v is the angle of inclination of the crosscut
foot), which can be found by the formula:
L\z
sAB -(a + b)

where sAB is the horizontal distance between

the points A and B, which can be calculated
Fig. 8.24 Scheme of (a) elevation and (b) plani-
by the foimula:
metric control for driving crosscut between two
shafts
sAB = YB.=-Y A XB -xA
smaAB cosaAB
where a and b are the distances from the the collars of both shafts, R3 in the pit
points A and B to the corresponding sides of bottom of a mine No. I, and R4 in the wall of
entries, which can be measured by a tape.
a shaft No.2 (near the face). Then a closed
geometric levelling run is laid off between the
8.2.2. Connection of Workings in bench marks Rl and R2 in order to deter-
mine the coordinate z of these bench marks
Non-Communicating Mines
and to transfer this coordinate to bench
As an example of this type of connection, marks R3 and R4. After that the design
let us consider the complex of surveying elevation of the pit bottom of the mine No.2
operations for driving a crosscut between two is determined, for which purpose the eleva-
vertical shafts by approaching faces. One of tion of the bench mark R3 (z;) is transferred
the shafts is sunk to the projected level and onto the pit bottom, and the design length of
has a pit bottom, while the other is in the a crosscut, L, is then determined. Now that
stage of driving (Fig. 8.24). we know the elevation of the pit bottom in
The survey work in the case considered the mine No. I, the design length of the
may be performed in the following sequence. crosscut, and the design gradient, it is pos-
First, it is required to determine the design sible to determine the elevation of the pit
elevations of the inset of pit bottom and the bottom in the mine No.2 by the formula:
required deepening of the shaft of a mine z'5 = z; + iL. The difference between the ele-
No.2. For this, four bench marks are estab- vation of the bench mark R4 and the design
lished: Rl and R2 on the ground surface at elevation of the pit bottom of the mine No.2
 Ch. 8. Special Surveys
(z~) permits us to find the required deepening
h ~ ,
-Z4 -ZS.
Upon deepening the shaft of the mine
No.2 to the design level z's and making the
inset in the pit bottom, both mines are
oriented, and the elevation mark is transfer-
red onto the bench mark Rs. For this pur-
pose, two approach points are established on
the surface near each shaft and three per-
manent points, in the pit bottom of each
mine. A closed theodolite traverse is run
between the approach points, I, II of the mine
No. 1 and III, IV of the mine No.2, which is
given, where possible, a shape stretched in the
direction of a connection axis. The angles and
side lengths of the traverse are measured. For
proper checking, the orientation is done at
least twice for each shaft. The results of
orientation are used for determining the
coordinates x, y of points V, VI, and VII in
the mine No. 1 and of points VIII, IX and X
in the mine No.2.
The coordinates of the points VII and X
are used to calculate the direction angle of
the connection axis avIl- x. The direction
angles 131 and 132 are determined by the
difference of the direction angles of initial
sides VI-VII and IX-X and the connection
axis, i. e. 131= aVII-X -aVII-VI' 132=
= ax -VII -ax -IX .
The calculated gngles 131and 132are laid off
in nature in the points VII and X, and three
points are fixed at each angle side, which
define the direction of the axis of approach-
ing faces in the crosscut.
8.2.3. Connection of Vertical
Workings
Let the shaft of the mine No. 1 (Fig. 8.25)
open the levels + 150 ill and + 50 ill and
the shaft No.2 be sunk to the working
level + 150 ill. At the level +50 ill, mining
operations are advanced under the shaft of
the mine No.2, which should be deepened
froill the bottoill upwards.
in Underground Workings
Level +50 m
Fig. 8.25 Scheme of connection of vertical mine
shafts (axonometric projection)
Surveying work required for this connec-
tion consists in finding a point at the level
+ 50 m, which lies on the same vertical line
with the centre of the shaft No.2 at the level
+ 150 m. For this, it is required (a) to deter-
mine the coordinates of the centre and the
direction angle of the axis of the shaft No.2
at the level + 150 m; (b) to run a theodolite
traverse from the shaft No.2 to the shaft
No. 1 at the level + 150 m; (c) to perform the
orientation of mine surveying at the level
+50 m from the level + 150 m through the
shaft No. I; (d) to run a theodolite traverse at
the level + 50 m from the shaft No. 1 beneath
the shaft No.2; and (e) to determine the
centre of the shaft No.2 at the level + 50 m
and arrange the axes.
The coordinates of the centre and the
direction angle of the shaft axis are deter-
mined by a special technique or according to
the recommendations of specifications on
mine surveying. The theodolite traverse from
the shaft No.2 to the shaft No. 1 at the level
+ 150 m is run from the points for which the
coordinates of the centre and the direction
angle of the shaft No.2 are determined. The
orientation of surveying work at the level
 8.3. Preliminary Estimation of Face Connection Accuracy 185

+ 50 m from the level + 150 m should be

done at least twice.
When the coordinates of the shaft centre at
the level + 150 m, the coordinates of a point
61, and the direction angle of a side 60-61 at
the level + 50 m are found, the centre of the
shaft is transferred onto the lower level. For
this, it is needed to calculate the angle 13of
the direction from the point 61 onto the point
62 (shaft centre) and the distance d from the
point 61 to the point 62.

8.3. Preliminary Estimation

of Accuracy of
Face Connection
For driving a working from two ends, it is
essential to estimate preliminarily the ex-
pected accuracy of face connection in each
critical direction.
For this purpose, a project of surveying
work with explanatory notes is compiled,
which specifies the proposed method of
surveying and the list of instruments to be
used. When compiling the project, the sur-
veyor must consult with the management of
the mining enterprise on the permissible
discrepancies of workings in the critical di-
rections. Upon compiling the project, it is
required to calculate the expected error in the
determination of the point of connection of
approaching faces (M exp).
If the calculated expected error is greater
than the permissible value, it is required to
find out which of the measurements asso-
ciated with the determination of the connec-
tion point is most responsible for the error
Mexp.This measurement should then be done
by a more perfect method or more accurate
instruments. For higher accuracy of face
connection, it is recommended to make addi-
tional measurements of direction angles by
gyroscopic instruments.
In the final result, the expected error must
be smaller than or, in exceptional cases,equal Fig. 8.26 Scheme for preliminal'Y calculation of
to the permissible error (M exD~ M D). error of face connection
186 Ch. 8. Special
the angles and sides in the polygon A-E-
III-II-D-C-B in Fig. 8.26. Let a point k be the
expected point of face connection. We can
draw two axes through this point: y' along
the axis of a working and x' perpendicular to
that axis. We are interested in the deviation
of the axes of faces in the direction perpendi-
cular to the axis x' and in the direction of the
axis z' (vertically).
The mean error of face connection due to
the errors of angular measurements in hang-
ing polygonometric traverses run twice can
be determined by the formula:
m = -.!!!!!-~ I~R;.
Xp p"j2v .
where mIl is the mean square error of angular
measurements, s; Ry. are the projections of
the distances from the connection point to
the corners of a polygon onto the y'-axis, m
(the values of Ry are found graphically on the
plan, see Ch. 4); and p" = 206265".
The mean error of face connection depen-
ding on the accuracy of measurement of side
lengths in polygonometric traverses run twice
can be determined by the formula:
mx =
,
JI.12~SiCOS2
2
a, + A.L2 cas
~~2 "'I
where 1.1 is a coefficient which accounts for the
influence of random errors per unit of mea-
sured length; I.. is a coefficient of the influence
of systematic errors per unit length; Si is the
length of the side of a theodolite traverse, m;
L is the projection of the closing side of a
traverse onto the x'-axis (the distance be-
tween the initial poirits of a polygonometric
traverse in a mine); ai is the angle between the
side of a polygonometric traverse and the
critical direction (to be found graphically on
the plan); y is the angle between the closing
side of a traverse and the critical direction (to
be found graphically on the plan); the term
SiCOS2 ai can be found graphically by double
projection on the plan (see Ch. 4).
Surveys in Underground Workings
The total mean error of face connection in
the horizontal plane in the critical direction
x' is found from the formula:
Mx = Jm~. + m~ (8.3)
p ,
The mean error of face connection along
the height can be calculated by the formula:
Mz = Jm;l + mll (8.4)
where mgl is the root-mean square error of
geometric levelling in the mine and mtl is the
mean error of trigonometric levelling in the
nune.
In caseswhen it is needed to determine the
(8.1) mean error of connection of approaching
faces along the height considering the error of
height transfer through the mine shafts, it is
essential to take into account the following
probable sources of errors:
(a) error of geometric levelling on the
surface mz;
(b) erro~ of geometric levelling in the mine,
mgl;
~(c) error of trigonometric levelling in the
mine, mtl; and
(d) error of height mark transfer through a
vertical shaft, mz (see Ch. 4).
(8.2) The expected total error of face connection
along the height can be found by the formula:
M z = ~; , + m;, + mfl + 2m;' (8.5)
In preliminary calculation of the error of
face connection in vertical shafts (see Fig.
8.24) the following errors must be deterrni-
ned:
(I) errors of angular measurements in
theodolite traverses run at the upper and
lower levels of a mine:
m"
M = --.!!. rr:iii
{1 "V~~i
p
where m{1is the root-mean square error of
angular measurement and Ri is the distance
from the centre of connected shafts to the
corners of a theodolite traverse;
 8.3. Preliminary Estimation of Face Connection Accuracy 187

(2) errors of measurements of side lengths the lower level being connected ( + 50 m):
in theodolite traverses run at the upper
( + 150 m) and lower ( + 50 m) levels: mar
Mar = -Ro
p
M s = ft;;;:;
where mar is the mean error of orientation
where ms is the mean error of length mea- and Ro is the distance between the centres of
surement~; and shafts.
(3) errors of the orientation of surveys at
 Chapter
Surveying in Mine
9.1. General
Survey work in mine construction is an
important part of mine surveying. It consists
specifically in that the angular and linear
measurements which determine the design
dimensions of underground workings and
mine head-gears are transferred into nature
and fixed properly. Further, modern mines
are characterized by intricate underground
complexes with hoisting vessels a few tens
cubic metres in capacity and high lifting
speeds, which sets forth especially rigorous
requirements to the accuracy of their assemb-
ly. These circumstances make the survey
work in mine construction the most comp-
licated and critical part of mine surveying
servIce.
The principal problems to be solved by
mine surveying in mine construction are as
follows:
(a) construction of reference nets on the
surface for making the layout work;
(b) determination of the scope of the earth-
moving work;
(c) instrumental layout of the axes of a
mine hoist on the surface and transferring the
geometrical elements of buildings, structures,
etc. into nature;
(d) special measurements and surveys
during sinking and equipment of mine shafts;
(e) control of the relation between the
geometrical elements of mine hoists during
construction;
(I) assigning directions to underground
workings and surveying control of the di-
Nine
Construction
rections, gradients and cross-sectional di-
mensions of driven workings;
(g) measurements for determining the de-
formations of buildings and structures; and
(h) revision surveys of construction objects
and driven workings for depicting them in
maps, plans, sections, etc.
The layout of buildings and structures and
assignment of directions to underground
workings are carried out according to the
design drawings. For the construction of
mine objects, the following technical and
design documentation should be available: an
engineering report on the topographic and
survey work on the site; the general layout
which is of prime importance, since it gives
horizontal distances of all permanent and
temporary structures, etc. from the axes of a
shaft and their elevations; the design plan of
arrangement of heading equipment on the
mine surface; the design plans and vertical
layout of earth-moving work with distribu-
tion of soil masses; the general plan of
permanent and temporary underground ser-
vice lines; the topographic plan Qf the terri-
tory allotted for construction; drawings of
foundations; and design documentation re-
lating to mine shafts and other mine objects.
The instrumental layout of construction
objects is carried out from the points of a
mine survey reference net, points located on
the axial lines of mine shafts, and the points
of a layout net. The layout work under-
ground is done from the points of under-
ground polygonometric nets and survey nets
'of the first or second order.
 9.1. General 189

The layout control work is understood as D E

the work of transferring the project of a CIj'-
I
v' r-:::
---y
-I
~

structure into nature. The principal layout I ~ ,.,

I

control operations consist in the construction

il i E3J! n ~ FI
on the terrain of the main axes of a con- Bf +-~--- I"---tl-~ ~
structed site (mine camp), such as the axes of II II I ,Main
:11 IAu~iliaryr: shaft . II
mine shafts or the sides of a layout control [] --1
I
net. ~---
I +-I. --~~h.:~- +
2:
The axes of a vertical mine shaft are II I O ,
A0..: t! ~ O J O
essentially two horizontal lines one of them H G
being parallel and the other, perpendicular to
the main buntons (dividers) of that shaft. The Fig. 9.1 Layout control net
point of their intersection is called the centre layout control net covering all the territory of
of the shaft. Detailed layout control is per- the mine camp.
formed by mine surveyors and consists in the In modem mine construction, a layout
construction of the main axes of buildings, control net is formed as a system of rectan-
structures, machine foundations, and hoist gles with vertexes in spaces between the
axes. surface structures and with sides oriented
9.1.1. Layout Control Net of Mine parallel to the axes of a shaft (Fig. 9:I ). A
layout control net should be formed along
Camp
the following recommendations:
Detailed layout work at the construction (a) the main points of a net should be
site of a mine head-gear (mine camp) is arranged at the vertexes of rectangles and the
facilitated by constructing a layout control auxiliary ones, on lines connecting the main
net of reference points. Its construction is points;
based on the results of topographic and mine (b) the sides of rectangles between the
surveys carried out on the territory of mine main points should be 80-350 m long;
construction. (c) the main points should be established
In cases when the objects of a surface in places where their long preservance can be
complex are distributed all over the mine guaranteed; and
camp, layout control can be reduced to the (d) the coordinates of points should be
construction of a layout net consisting of determined analytically in a conventional
points located on the axes of the main and system of coordinates whose axes are di-
auxiliary shaft. At large mines, all main rected along the axes of a shaft.
buildings of the surface complex are Jlsually The construction of a layout control net is
combined into three blocks: main shaft block, carried out in the following order:
auxiliary shaft block, and office and accom- (a) the main points of a net are transferred
modation block. In such cases,the points on into nature and fixed by permanent bench
the axes of shafts do not form a common net marks;
and thus cannot always ensure the required (b) a polygonometric traverse is run
accuracy of layout work. Besides, if the through these points;
objects of a large extension are to be built in (c) the results of measurements are pro-
the central portion of a mine camp, most cessed for the reduction of the system of
points on the shaft axes will be inevitably polygonometric traverses;
lost. In such caSes,it is required to construct (d) the points are reduced, and check
preliminarily (before construction) a special measurements are carried out;
190 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Consl

(e) auxiliary points are established on lines

between the main points; and
(1) the elevations of these points are de-
termined by levelling.
The accuracy of construction of a layout
control net must satisfy the following re-
quirements:
(a) an error in the position of the first
established point of a layout net relative to
)f horizontal angle into nature
the points of a reference net (national geo- Fig. 9.2 Transfe
detic net or densification net) must not ex-
ceed 0.1 m; FL) do not coincide, i. e. there is a collima-
(b) the direction angle of the first side of a tion error, the section between these points is
layout net must differ from the design value halved, and the point C is found in the mid,
by not more than 20"; which determines an angle 13.For checking,
(c) the non-perpendicularity of the sides of the angle 13is measured and compared with
a layout net must not exceed 20"; the design value. If the difference between the
(d) the root-mean square errors of angular specified and measured angles is greater than
measurements must be not more than 10"; the permissible error of angle measurement,
and this difference is used to calculate the linear
(e) linear measurements must be done with correction by which the second side of the
a relative error not worse than 1/15000. angle should be transferred (a point Cl in
The axes of mine shafts are established Fig. 9.2b). This correction can be calculated
from the points of a layout control net and by the formula:
each semi-axis is fixed by at least two points;
AI = IA13"/p"
in that case, the errors of angular measure-
ments must be not more than 40" and those where 1is the horizontal distance between the
of linear measurements, not more than theodolite and the point C; A13is the differ-
1/3000. ence between the specified and measured
angles; and p" = 206265".
Transfer of a specified horizontal distance
9.1 .2. The Concept of Layouts
into nature. The method of transferring the
Layout control is carried out in horizontal specified horizontal distances into nature is
and verti'tal planes and contains a number of chosen depending on the terrain relief, re-
geodetic operations, such as transferring a quired accuracy, length of lines, etc. The
point, design distance, design horizontal an- following main cases may be encountered in
gle, elevation mark, axes, etc. into nature. mine surveying practice.
Transfer of a horizontal angle into nature. If the terrain is flat, the inclination angle
This operation reduces to finding the second does not exceed 3, and the length of a line is
side of that angle on the terrain. For this not more than 50 m, the design distance is
purpose, the theodolite is set up at the vertex laid off on the terrain by taping along the
of the angle (a point B in Fig. 9.2a). The specified direction and is fixed by a point. If
specified angle is laid off from the initial the terrain is an even slope and the line
direction at two positions of the telescope length does not exceed 50 m, the inclination
(FR and FL). If points C' and c" determined angle of the specified direction is first meas-
at the two positions of the telescope (FR and ured by a theodolite, after which the design
 9.1. General

On a rough terrain and with a large design

distance, the layout work is started by setting
up a theodolite in a point A (Fig. 9.4). The
point Bo near the future point B is estab-
lished on the specified direction by means of
a range finder. Then, the line AB is ranged in
that direction and the points where the slope
is measured are fixed by stakes. The lengths
and angles in each inclined section Si are
measured. After calculating the horizontal
Fig. 9.3 Transferof specifiedhorizontal distance distances Si' their sum (~sJ is found and
into nature on terrain of intricate relief compared with the design horizontal dis-
tance. This gives the length of a line section
horizontal distance is laid off. With the angle
L\s = ~s., -s
v being known. the inclined length S is
calculated by the formula: for determining the position of the design
S = s/cos v point B.
Transfer of design points into nature. The
This length is laid off by a tape along the transfer of design points during layout can be
specified direction. On the terrain of an performed by several methods.
intricate relief. an auxiliary point Eo is first I. Polar method. It is essential to have two
established on the specified direction near the points with known coordinates on the terrain
sought-for point E (Fig. 9.3). The inclination (A and B in Fig. 9.5a). The design angle ~ and
angle v is measured by a theodolite and the length s are laid off from the direction AB,
inclined length AHo. by a tape. The hori- which gives the position of a point C. The
zontal distance is calculated by the formula: polar method is the most popular one for
Sf = AEocosv transferring points into nature. The root-
Then the difference between s' and the mean square error of the position of a point
design horizontal distance s is determined can be found by the formula:

As=S-Sf ~ (smpf
mp= ms +~
p
which is laid off from the point Eo. and at last
the point E is fixed. where ms and mp are the rrns errors of

Fig. 9.4 Transfer of specified horizontal distance into nature on rough terrain
192 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

point C (xc, Yc) are known, they can be found

c
by solving the inverse geodetic problem. The
direction angle of a line EC can be deter-
mined by the formula:
tan IlBC= Yc -YB
A 8
Xc -XB
With the known direction angle of a line
EA and the calculated direction EC, we can
An 'c -,
(c) -!
find the angle 13= IlBC-IlBA. The length of
(d)
Oc the section EC will then be found from the
RI =AC / , R =BC expression:
/ ,2 EC = .~= Yc -YB J'l ~ -!..!!.
/ , ---
// , sin aBC COSaBC
o O -O
A B O B 2. Method of angular intersection. The po-
Fig. 9.5 Layout of points: (a) polar method; sition of a point C can be detennined by the
(b) method of angular intersection; (c) method of linear point of intersection of two directions drawn
intersection; (d) method of rectangular coordinates at angles ~A and ~B from points A and B of a
known side (Fig. 9.5b).
measurement of lengths and angles respect- If the angles ~A and ~B are not specified,
ively and s is the distance from the known they can be calculated from the known
point to that to be established. Assuming that coordinates of points A, B, and C by the
the accuracy in detailed layout work is up to fonnulae:
1/3000 for linear measurements and up to I' ~A=aAB-aAC' ~B=aBC -a ' .
BA
for angular measurements and the error in
Yc -y A , Yc -YB
the determination of the positions of corner tan aAC = tan aBC =

and axial points of building foundations is Xc -XA Xc -XB

not more than 0.01 m, the maximum distance The method of angular intersection is used
from a point of the net to the contour being in caseswhen the points A and B are at large
laid out should be not more than: distances from the point C and linear meas-
urements would involye difficulties.
Imax
= I~- 3. M ethod of linear intersection. In this
method, the arcs of radii AC and BC are
drawn on the ground from the centres in
known points A and B (Fig. 9.5c), and their
0.012
-~22m intersection gives the sought-for point C.
4. M ethod of rectangular coordinates. This
Jr., moo~ , (~)2 is employed in cases when the points to be
laid out on the ground are essentially close to
Thus, the points of layout control and a reference (layout) net. The coordinates x
reference nets in the layout work should be and y of a point C relative to a reference net
located at distances not more than 25 m from are determined on the plan and then laid off
the contour being laid out. and fixed on the ground (Fig. 9.5d). The
If the angle 13and length s (Fig. 9.5a) are layout work is checked by measuring the
not specified, but only the coordinates of a distances between the points established on
 9.2.
the ground. In mine construction, a version
of this method is popular with one of the
rectangular (layout) axes being fixed by
means of a stretched wire. A plumb bob is
suspended from the wire, and the required
distance is laid off from it perpendicularly.
Instead of plumb bobs, other means can also
be used for the fixation of points on the wire.
5. M ethod of ranging measurements.In or-
der to transfer into nature design points, say,
A and B, which lie on the line between points
1 and 2 of a layout net, the theodolite is set
up, say, in the point 2. The instrument is
sighted at the point I, and the design distan-
ces S2Aand S2Bare laid off by means of a tape
from the point2; the points A and B found in
this way are t~en fixed.
In the construction of structures and other
construction jobs it is often needed to trans-
fer points with design elevations into nature.
Such points can be transferred by geometric
levelling with two staffs or by means of an
instrument horizon. For this purpose, the
level instrument is set up midway between
the bench mark A with the known elevation
H A and the point B to be established, whose
elevation HB is specified in the project
(Fig. 9.6).
The staff is set up onto the bench mark A,
the reading a is taken on it, and the instru-
ment horizon is calculated by the formula:
IH=HA+a
Mter that, the reading of the staff set up in
the point B, at which the staff foot will be at
the design elevation, is calculated by the
13-1270
Surveying at Mine Camp 193
fomlula:
b=IH-HB
If the design elevation is transferred onto
the well of a working or another object above
the ground, the staff set up in the respective
point should be lowered or lifted until the
reading on it is equal to the design value. A
line drawn at the staff foot will then give the
design elevation mark.
If the design elevation mark is to be
transferred onto the top of a peg, the latter
should be hammered down until the reading
on the staff set up onto it will be equal to b.
9.2. Surveying at Mine ,Camp
The main axes of all buildings and struc-
tures should be laid out in nature and fIXed at
a mine camp before starting the earth-moving
work. The distances from the net being laid
out to the points determining the axes of
structures should not exceed 25 m. The di-
rections onto the points to be established
should be assigned with an accuracy not
worse than I' and the distances to these
points, with an accuracy not worse than
10mm. The main axes of buildings and
foundations should be laid out so as to be
preserved fully for the entire period of con-
struction. Linear measurements of distances
between the layout axes of buildings, struc-
tures, foundations and machinery, between
the axes of columns, and between the layout
axes and the axes of support structures,
embedded parts, anchor bolts, axes of precast
 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

reinforced concrete and steel structures, and

mounting axes of process equipment and
mechanisms are made by standardized tapes.
All measurements are fixed in a layout
book together with the date of the layout
work, coordinates of initial points, numbers
of design drawings, distances and measure-
ments used for layout, and the orientation of
objects relative to the axes of the site.
The layout work at a mine camp is started
from the centre and axes of a shaft. The axes
are laid out and fixed according to the
coordinates x, y of the shaft centre and the
direction angles of the shaft axes, proceeding
from survey net points located at a distance
not more than 300 m from the shaft. The
centre of the shaft is established indepen-
dently twice; the discrepancy between the two
measurements should not exceed 0.5 m. The
angular error of the layout of the main axis of
the shaft relative to points of the survey
reference net should not exceed 31. If the
centre and main axes are established for a
shaft associated with an operating mining
complex, the errors should not exceed respec-
tively 0.1 m and 1'30". The error of the layout
of a perpendicular axis relative to the main
one should be not more than 45". mine camp. The plan position of each struc-
At least six points should be established ture is determined by the distances from its
and fixed at each axial line of a shaft. These characteristic points to the axial points of the
points should be arranged so that they can be mine shaft or points of the layout net.
used for the construction of buildings and When laying out the foundation of a
structures at the site. At least two points building, its characteristic points (A and B in
shQl.11dbe established beyond the limits of the Fig. 9.7) are established by the predeter-
mine camp. The distances between adjacent mined angular and linear elements, and the
points must be not less than 50 m. The layout axes 1-1, 11-11and 111-111of the building are
of the centre of a shaft can be done by the marked in nature. Using these axes, it is then
method of perpendiculars or polar method. possible to layout the axes of the walls
Upon finishing the layout work, a second- (mostly by the method of perpendiculars or
order polygonometric traverse is run through polar method). The main axes of the building
the shaft centre, axial points and points of the are fixed by axial points and the axes of the
survey reference net, and the coordinates of foundation are transferred onto and fixed on
the axial points are calculated. batter boards fastened on poles- (Fig. 9.7).
Before starting the earth-moving work, the The batter boards should be arranged at a
main axes of buildings and structures should certain distance (not less than 3 m) from the
be transferred into nature and fixed at the exterior walls of the building. Wires stretched
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists
between the axial points of opposite batter
boards determine the directions of the buil-
ding axes, and their intersections define cor-
ner points. In the construction of large blocks
of industrial buildings (of a length more than
80 m), batter boards and wires are also used
for the fixation of the axes of exterior walls;
plumb bobs 1,2,3,4 are suspended from the
points of wire intersection (Fig. 9.8).
The vertical layout of foundations is car-
ried out by means of a level instrument and
staff, starting fr.om bench marks usually fixed
on the piles of batter boards. ..
Buildings and structures in mine construc-
tion may have cast in-situ, strip, pile foun-
dations, etc. The layout work for strip foun-
dations consists in checking that the foun-
dation pit has been dug properly, arrange-
ment of a shuttering (formwork), and trans-
ferring the design elevation marks of the
foundation top onto the formwork. The po-
sition of the formwork in plan is checked by
means of plumb bobs suspended from the
points of foundation axes marked on batter
boards. The deviations of the foundation axes
from the design values should be not more
than 2 cm and the deviations of the axes of
wells, columns, beams and girders, not more
than 1 cm. A decrease of the cross-sectional
size of a foundation against the design value
is inadmissible; an increase by not more than
195
5 mm is allowed. The vertical position of a
formwock is checked by a plumb bob; the
permissible error is 2 mm per metre of the
foundation height.
After concreting a foundation, it is cont-
rolled by planimetric and height surveying.
The discrepancy, between the actual and
design elevation marks of the foundation top
must be not more than 20 mm.
The mine survey servicing of precast foun-
dations means the fixation of their exterior
and interior faces by cords or wires stretched
between batter boards. The design position of
a foundation is marked initially, after which
the foundation is laid in place. For this
purpose, the foundation guide blocks are first
laid in place in every 20-25 m, cords are
stretched between them, and intermediate
blocks are then laid.
In the construction of deep foundations,
the axes of the exterior rows of piles or the
axes of pits are first marked in the foundation
pit, and the contour of the cutting shoe of a
caisson ring is established. After pile driving,
levelling is carried out to check that all pile
heads are in the same horizontal plane.
Plane foundations are the most popular
type of foundation for reinforced-concrete
columns. In laying, the foundation plates are
checked by a theodolite or level instrument.
The deviations of the axes of a foundation
from the design values should not exceed
5 mm and those of the support surfaces from
the design elevation marks, 3 mm. Anchor
bolts for fastening metal columns must not be
displaced from the design position by more
than 5 mm in the horizontal plane and by
more than 20 mm, vertically.
9.3. Surveying in Construction
of Mine Hoists
9.3.1. Brief Data on Hoisting
Complexes of Vertical Shafts
Modern hoisting complexes employed in
mining can be characterized by ever increas-
196 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
ing hoisting depths, increased speeds of
hoisting vessels, and larger mass of cargoes.
In addition, the construction of mine comp-
lexes is often oriented at industrial methods.
These circumstances set forth new compli-
cated problems before mine surveyors. In
particular, they must ensure the proper ac-
curacy of mounting the process equipment
and safe operation of mine hoists. The mine
surveyor has to take part in all stages of the
construction and operation of mine hoists.
He is directly engaged in the construction
and installation work, plays an essential role
in the acceptance of a mine hoist, and
performs control during the hoist operation.
A mine hoist has the following main com-
ponents: (I) hoisting plant, (2) shaft equip-
ment, and ,(3) auxiliary hoisting equipment.
The hoisting plant of a mine includes a
hoisting machine, head-gear (head-frame),
hoisting (driving) pulleys, hoisting ropes, and
hoisting vessels.
According to the kind of hoisting vessel,
hoisting plants can be divided into skip
hoists, cage hoists, skip-cage hoists, and
bucket hoists. They may be of the single- or
multi-rope type depending on the number of
hoisting ropes. Further, by the method of
rope winding, it is distinguished between
hoisting plants with a constant winding
radius and those with a variable radius.
Depending on the kind of guides, the
equipment of a shaft may be either rigid or
consist of ropes. Combined equipment is also
employed, in which rigid conductors are used
for hoisting vessels and rope guides, for
counter-weights.
The auxiliary equipment of a mine hoist
includes load-handling facilities and landing
stages.
Hoisting machines, which are the principal
part of mine hoists, may be provided with
either rope-winding drums or friction type
pulleys (Koepe sheaves).Druni-type hoisting
machines may be with a constant or variable
winding radius. Those with Koepe sheaves
may be of the single- or multi-rope type.
Hoisting plants of vertical shafts are equip-
ped with medium-sized or large-sized drum-
type machines. The former have a winding
drum 2.5 m. 3 m or 3.5 m in diameter and
ensure a hoisting speed of 7-10 m/s. Large-
sized hoisting machines have drums 4-9 m in
diameter and up to 1560 m in coiling length.
The hoisting speed of these machines attains
16 m/s.
Multi-rope hoisting machines have several
ropes which are driven from a hoisting pulley
owing to the friction between the pulley
lining and ropes. Each of the ropes is fastened
to both hoisting vessels. Multi-rope hoisting
machines are mainly employed in tower-type
head-gears. Multi-rope machines manufac-
tured in this country have four. six or eight
ropes. a load-carrying capacity from 3 t to
50 t and driving pulleys 2.1-5 m in diameter.
A head-frame is a structure above a shaft
which carries guide pulleys. conductors. cage
rests. unloading curves. etc. There are two
main types of head-frame: jib head-frames
and tower head-frames.
A jib-type head1rame (Fig. 9.9) consists of
a vertical frame 1. a jib 2 which serves as a
strut for the vertical frame and absorbs the
tilting force developed by a hoisting rope.
and a pulley (landing) stage 3 for guide
pulleys. Jib-type head-frames are mostly
made of metal and much rarely of wood and
may be classified as A-shaped. four-stand-
type and tent-type.
A tower-type head1rame carries the entire
hoisting complex. including the hoisting ma-
chine. Tower-type head-frames may have a
metal framework or reinforced-concrete
(cast-in-situ or precast) carrying walls (Fig.
9.10). The walls of a head-frame form an
interior shell of a rectangular cross section
which serves as a support. and an exterior
shell of a circular or rectangular cross sec-
tion.
Hoisting pulleys are mounted on the pulley
stage of a head-frame. They hold the ropes
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists
(b)
Fig. 9.9 Steeljib-type head-frames:(a) A-shaped;(III) with four stands;(c) tent type; 1-vertical frame;
2-jib; 3 -pu1ley (landing) stage
and direct them from the hoisting machine
into the mine shaft.
Hoisting pulleys may be without lining or
with a lining made of soft metals, wood,
rubber, etc. The diameter of a pulley depends
on the diameter (thickness) of a hoisting rope.
For tight contact of a rope on a pulley, the
diameter of the latter must be not less than 80
rope diameters. Non-lined pulleys are made
of high-strength cast iron (with the diameter
up to 3 m) or stamped of steel (with the
diameter more than 3 m).
Hoisting ropes. Only steel-wire ropes are
employed in hoisting plants. Round-strand
right- or left-hand twisted ropes and flattened-
strand ropes are used in hoists of a small or
moderate hoisting height. With a large hois-
ting height, use is preferably made of cross-
twisted round-strand ropes and self-tighten-
ing sheathed ropes, as well as of self-tighten-
ing multi-layer ropes. Hoisting machines with
Koepe sheaves are equipped with flattened-
strand and sheathed ropes.
Hoisting vessels.Buckets, cages, skips and
combined types (such as skip-cage) are
employed as hoisting vessels. Cages may be
of the non-tilting (common) or tilting type
and are divided by the type of load into
man-cargo and man (passenger) cages. Sin-
gle- and double-stage non-tilting cages are
the most popular types. Skips 7-15 m3 in
capacity are employed in single-rope hoists
197
and those 9.5-35 m3 in capacity, in multi-
rope hoists.
Suspensionsof hoisting vessels.Suspensions
(bails) are devices by which hoisting vessels
are connected to ropes. According to safety
regulations, cage bails have a double inde-
pendent suspension with l3-fold safety mar-
gin and skip bails, a single suspension with
lO-fold safety margin.
Loading-unloading devices (stations). Load-
ing and unloading of hoisting vesselsare the
most critical operations of hoisting. Skips are
loaded in a shaft by means of a loading
device which includes an underground bun-
ker, chutes, and gates with drive mechanisms.
Skips and tilting cages are unloaded on the
surface by means of unloading curves moun-
ted in the head-frame.
A cage hoist has landing stagesin the shaft
and on the surface, which are provided with
landing chairs to support the cages during
loading and unloading; they also have arrange-
ments for moving carriages into and from
cages and safety devices. Landing dogs are
the most popular type of landing chairs.
Equipment of vertical shafts. The equip-
ment of shafts is understood as a complex of
elements which ensure the directed motion of
hoisting vesselsunder the specified operating
conditions of a hoist. The shaft equipment
may be either rigid or of the rope type.
A rigid equipment consists of conductors
198 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
Fig. 9.10 Reinforced-concrete tower-type head-
frame: 1 -machine rooms; 2 -level of guide pulleys;
3- metal stand; 4- floors; 5- foundation
and buntons (dividers) which carry the for-
mer. The conductors serve to direct the
moving hoisting vessels. They are made of
rectangular wooden bars, steel rails or rolled
U-shaped steel sections in the form of con-
tinuous cage structures which are arranged
vertically in a shaft. The conductors are
fastened to buntons (dividers) which are es-
sentially horizontal beams built in by one or
both ends in the shaft lining. The buntons are
made of wood or various rolled steel sections.
A rope equipment can be employed in
shafts where one or two hoists are arranged
in parallel and the path of hoisting vesselsis
not curved. A rope equipment (Fig. 9.11)
includes rope guides 1, balance ropes 2, rope
clips 3, rope-tensionirig weights 4, a ten-
sioning frame 5, guides for hoisting vessels6,
and devices for the fixation of hoisting vessels
at the loading and unloading stages, 7 and 8.
The rope guides are usually made from
sheathed ropes. Four rope guides are usually
provided for a hoisting vessel, which are
arranged either at the corners or pairwise
along the larger side of a cage. In shafts with
two hoists, the balance ropes are stretched
between the vesselsin order to prevent their
collisions. The ropes are tensioned by means
of weights arranged in a sump or by means of
a hydraulic device mounted on a head-
frame.
The equipment of a shaft can be mounted
either after driving the shaft or at the same
time. In the former case,all operations can be
carried out by a consecutive, parallel or
combined scheme.With the consecutive sche-
me, buntons are mounted from a suspended
stage, beginning from the top of a shaft, and
after that, conductors are fastened to them
from a cradle, beginning from the bottom.
With the parallel scheme, conductors are
mounted at the same time with buntons, but
the latter are mounted from a sinking plat-
form and the former, from a cradle that
moves behind the platform. With the com-
bined scheme of arrangement of the shaft
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 199

arrangement of metal structures, to make the

profile survey of the head-frame structure,
and to transfer the layout axes of a pulley
stage, guide pulleys, and unloading curves.
For mounting a jib-type head-frame, a
supporting frame is made around the collar
of the shaft and foundations for a jib are
built. The correct position of the supporting
frame is checked relative to the axial points
fixed in the permanent lining of the shaft
collar. The errors in the position of the
supporting frame should be not more than
5 mm in the horizontal plane and 30 mm in
the vertical plane, and the difference between
the elevation marks of the frame corners
should be not more than 5 mm.
The layout of the foundations of a jib is
done according to a working drawing and
the plan of arrangement of foundations rela-
tive to the shaft axes. Upon the construction
of the foundation, the mine surveyor checks
the depth of the foundation pit, the hori-
zontality of the foundation pad, and the
correct mounting of a shuttering. Since the
faces of the foundation are represented in the
working drawing with distortions of their
dimensions, it is essential to determine their
actual dimensions for the manufacture of
shuttering panels.
For the arrangement of the shuttering
equipment, buntons and conductors are along the axes of a head-frame foot
mounted simultaneously. (Fig. 9.12), these axes are first transferred
In cases when the shaft equipment is onto side piles, and cords are stretched
mounted simultaneously with shaft driving, a between the piles. After that, corner points A,
section of shaft lining is first fastened in the B, C and D are marked on the foundation
shaft, after which buntons and conductors pad by means of plumb bobs sunk from the
are mounted on it from a sinking platform. cords. The correct arrangement of the shut-
tering is checked at its top, by using points a,
9.3.2. Survey Control During b, c, and d. A shuttered foundation foot is
Mounting of Metallic concreted partially, anchor bolts are set up,
Jib-Type Head-Frames and concreting is finished.
Metallic jib-type head-framescan be mount-
During mounting a jib-type steel head-fra- ed by two methods: (a) the head-frame is
me, the mine surveyor has to layout the axes preassembled on an assembling stage and
of the supporting frame and foundations for then lifted and mounted on a supporting
the head-frame jib, to check the correct frame or (b) the sectiQfis of a head-frame are
200 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

\, ,0/. ~"~

"
\ \ 1!11

~1\\
I
.I~i'!'Y \I \ I

\ 1\1 , I

A
l\ \

Fig. 9.12 Arrangement of shuttering of head-frame jib foundation

mounted successively on a supporting frame. the conductors (the permissible deviation is

Before lifting an assembled head-frame, the not more than 10 mm); the corresponding
design positions of the shaft axes should be points of external and internal curves should
marked on the pulley stage and the hori- not deviate from the same level by more than
zontal ties of the jib. The axes are fixed finally 10mm.
after they have been transferred onto the A check of the correct arrangement of
pulley stage of the erected head-frame. In that guide pulleys is done after the final fixation of
case, the deviations of the axes of the pulley the jib and head-frame foundation. For this
stage from the design positions must be not purpose, the layout axes of the shaft and
more than 25 mm in directions perpendicular hoist are transferred onto the landing stage.
to the hoisting axis and not more than The distance from the pulley rim to the
50 mm in the direction parallel to the layout axis (hoisting axis) should not differ
hoisting axis. from the design value by more than 10 mm
In cases when a head-frame is erected by for pulleys up to 6 m in diameter and by
mounting individual sections one on top the more than 15 mm for those above 6 m in
other, the survey work consists essentially in diameter. If it turns out that these distances
checking that each section has been mounted exceed the specified values, the pulley must
correctly. be readjusted. A check should then be made
For mounting unloading curves, it is re- that the axis of the pulley is perfectly hori-
quired to transfer their layout axes. An error zontal (the permissible discrepancy between
of arrangement of unloading curves in plan the elevations of the shaft ends is 1 mm).
relative to conductors should not exceed A check of the arrangement of a pulley on
10 mm; the planes of the plates to which the a landing stage is done by the mine surveyor
unloading curves are fastened should be in the following sequence.
perpendicular to the plane passing through A cord is stretched along the hoisting axis
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists
(Fig. 9.13), from which horizontal distances
to the pulley rim are measured (/1' /1,4 and
/2). These measurements are then repeated
after turning the pulley through 180. The
final results are found as their mean values,
i. e.:
11+/1 12+/2
a1=-
2
a2=-
2
If the distances a1 and a2 are not equal to
each other, it is then required to calculate the
angle'Y = a 1--a 2 n thrO1lgh whicJ, thp n1111p\T
r 0-- , .,'~
Dp
must be turned (here D p is the diameter of the
pulley). The position of the axis of the pulley
shaft is determined by measuring the distan-
ces Si and S2from the shaft axis to the plumb
bobs hung from wires which fix the shaft axis
on the landing stage.
201
The horizontality of the shaft of a head-
frame pulley can be controlled by a frame
level with a division value not worse than
20", hydrostatic level, or level with a com-
pensator, which permit the measurements of
the elevations of shaft ends with an accuracy
up to 1 mm. The permissible deviations of
the pulley axis from the horizontal are estab-
lished by specifications on assembling parti-
cular hoists.
t'.."~J
9.3.3. Survey Control In Construction
of Tower Head-Frames
The layout work for the construction of
steel tower head-frames consists mainly in
laying out the axes of columns of the first and
upper stages of the frame structure.
Before mounting steel structures on the
202 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

foundation, a mounting network is marked

whose points should be principally coinci-
dent with the centres of columns. For con-
venience, however, the reference points are
shifted somewhat aside, which makes it pos-
sible to use them during the entire period of
mounting work. The spacings between adja-
cent sides of the network should not differ
from the design values by more than 5 rnrn.
The upright position of columns is checked
by the method of vertical plane with the use
of two theodolites which are set up on two
mutually perpendicular axes of columns or
on axes of the mounting network. At each
theodolite station and with two different
positions of a telescope, the upper axial
marks of a column are projected onto the
column base. The displacement of the upper
centre relative to the lower one is measured
by a millimetre-graded staff; the permissible
deviation is up to 15 rnrn for columns up to
15 m high and 0.001 of the column height
(but not more than 35 mm) for higher
columns.
Mter mounting each stage of the frame
structure, the schemes of column rows are
drawn in the vertical projection in planes
parallel to the two axes of the shaft Upon erecting the walls to a height of 2 m,
(Fig. 9.14). As the frame structure is being the shaft axes are fixed by brackets from the
erected, the shaft axes are laid out on each external and internal side of the head-frame.
platform; upon the construction of reinforced Later in the course of the erection of the
concrete stage floors and arrangement of head-frame, the position of the slip form is
wall panels, these axes are transferred onto controlled by means of a vertical sighting
brackets. device, preferably by an automatic zenith-
In the construction of cast-in-situ concrete telescope (Fig. 9.15). The instrument is inten-
tower head-frames in slip forms, the survey ded for vertical projection of a point from the
work consists in the following. bottom upwards; it gives an error not .more
The mine surveyor checks the dimensions, than I mm per 100 m of vertical distance.
shape and position of the slip form which is The zenith-telescope or another similar
assembled on the head-frame foundation. In instrument is sighted at sighting marks
the first place, he makes a check by mea- (Fig. 9.16) which are fastened on slip forms.
suring the distances from the shaft axes Each sighting mark is essentially a square
transferred onto the slip form to the plane of network drawn or printed on a transparent
each panel that divides the slip form into material (such as triacetate film). Sighting
sections; he also makes the levelling of the marks are fastened to wooden bars that
working floor in the corners of sections. support the working floor of the slip forms.
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 203

The zenith-telescope is set up successively

Fig. 9.15 Zenith-telescope
tective glass; 2- housing; 3 ~ telescope eyepiece;
4- focussing screw; 5- reading-olT microscope;
6- pivoting mirror; 7- clamp screw; 8- sighting
screw; 9-base; JO-tripod
under each sighting mark, which makes it
possible to control the verticality of the
tower, hoisting compartments, and exterior
walls. The arrangement of sighting marks
depends on the shape of slip forms. The
principal diagram of the arrangement of
sighting marks for the construction of a
tower head-frame of rectangular cross section
is shown in Fig. 9.17.
In order to determine the height of the
working floor of the slip forms, control staffs
are fastened at the corners of the shaft
portion and external portion of a tower
head-frame. These staffs are extended period-
ically as the slip forms are lifted. In addition,
as the slip forms are advanced through every
20 m, the mine surveyor measures the height
of the working floor relative to a bench mark
concreted in the bottom portion of the head-
frame. If the heights of the working floor
determined by the check measurements differ
from the readings of the staffs on the slip
PZL (GDR): I-pro- forms by more than 20 mm, the staff readings
are corrected.
The results of control of the position of slip
forms are presented as a scheme of matched

Fig. 9.17 Principal diagram of arrangement of

sighting marks for construction of head-frames of
Fig. 9.16 Sighting mark: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25-num. rectangular cross section: I-sighting mark; Land
bering of smaller scale; 55, 60; 65, 70, 75-num. S -increasing numbers of larger and smaller scale;
bering of larger scale x. y-coordinate axes
 204 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

sections of the headframe constructed in The total hoisting height H is the vertical
intervals of 2-4 ill, which makes it possible to distance from the lowermost point of a
check the positions of the headframe walls hoisting vessel when this is in the lowermost
and thus to take measures for preventing position to the same point of the vessel in the
further deformations and deviations of the uppermost position at the end of unloading
slip forms. (Fig. 9.18): H = h + ht + hb, where h is the
depth of the shaft; ht is the distance from the
zero stage to the lowermost point of the
9.3.4. Geometrical Elements hoisting vessel at the moment of unloading;
of a Mine Hoist and hb is the maximum sinking of the hoist-
For efficient and safe operation of a mine ing vessel below the pit-bottom level during
hoist, its individual elements should have the loading.
The height of a head-frame Hhf is the
specified geometrical relationships.
Geometrical elements of a single-rope hoist. vertical distance between the axis of rotation
The principal geometrical elements of a sin- of the guide pulley and the zero stage:
gle-rope hoist are as follows. Hhf = ht + hv + hp + hz + O.75Rp

5000 dia
---

5000 dia
/

"/'~

ii
;,,;

~
~~
, '~
Level
,
of discharae curves

--~
'.
"
~
:" , ,,,
"
" ,
>
~.
"',
"
~
~Receiving stage level

5000 dia
~r~or level \, ~

~
~
+
~

30000 17500

Fig. 9.18 Geometrical elements of single-rope mine hoist

~
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists
Rp
11'-"
,
, Lu
~'a,
" L~ ,"
"
!.0.0 ~ L R 17' Rdr
p the straight line connecting the axes of the
r ~~/&'/~~~
~
Fig. 9.19 Inclination angles of hoisting ropes
"'-'
where hv is the height of a hoisting vessel; hi
is the height of overlifting; hp is the elevation
of the top pulley axis over the bottom pulley
axis; and Rp is the pulley radius.
The hoisting axis of a vertical shaft is the
straight line that passes through the point
midway between the two vertical hoisting
ropes perpendicular to the axis of the main
shaft of a hoisting machine.
The hoisting centre of a single-rope hoist is
the point that <;:oincideswith the projection of
the rope axis onto the horizontal plane; for a
double-rope hoist, this is the point of inter-
section of the hoisting axis with the straight
line passing through the axes of the two
vertical hoisting ropes.
The centre of the shaft of a hoisting machine
is a point on the axis of the main shaft
midway between the internal edges of the
rims of a drum (for single-drum machines) or
midway between the internal edges of the
rims of drums (for two-drum machines).
The axial plane of a guide pulley is the
straight line that passesperpendicular to the
axis of a pulley shaft midway between the
internal faces of pulley rims.
The inclination angles of hoisting ropes are
the angles <P,and <Pumade by the rope axes
with a horizontal plane when there is no rope
sagging (Fig. 9.19); they can be determined
205
by the formulae:
<PI= <P+ A<p,; <Pu= <P-A<pu
where <PIis the inclination angle of the lower
string; <Puis the inclination angle of the upper
string; A<p,and A<puare the inclination angles
of the lower and upper strings relative to the
line that connects the rotation axes of the
drum and pulley; <pis the inclination angle of
./
~
~ pulley and drum of the hoisting machine,
which can be found by the formula:
tan <p -p H-H d..
L
where H p is the height of the pulley axis
above the zero stage; Hdr is the height of the
drum axis above that stage; and L is the
horizontal projection of the line connecting
the axes of the pulley and drum.
The terms A<p,and A<pucan be found by
the formulae:
Rdr + Rp
tan A(D..-tan A(D - Rdr -Rp
Loc 'I Loc
where Rdr and Rp are respectively the radii of
the drum and pulley of the hoisting machine
and Loc is the distance between the centres of
the drum and pulley (0 and C).
The length of a rope string is the distance
between the point of run-off of the rope from
the drum and the point of run-on of the rope
on the guide pulley. It is distinguished be-
tween the string of an upper rope, Lu, and
that of a lower one, L (see Fig. 9.19).
Among various types of hoisting machines,
those with cylindrical drums are the most
popular, that is why the characteristics of
rope coiling will be discussed for this type of
machine.
The distance between the internal faces of
the rims of a drum is called the construction
width and denoted Ldr. Various portions of
the construction width of a drum serve
different purposes and accordingly the fol-
lowing zones are distinguished (Fig. 9.20).
206 Ch. 9. Surveying
The zone of working coils of a width hw
which depends on the total hoisting height
and can be determined by the formula:
H
h=-
cw (d + e)
1tDdr
where H is the total hoisting height; d is the
rope diameter; D dr is the drum diameter; and
e is the spacing between the adjacent coils of
a rope.
The zone of reserve coils, br, which is
needed to take on the additional length of a
rope. Its width can be found by the formula:
30
b. = -=--(d + e)
1tl}dr
where 30 is the additional length of a rope, ill,
required for strength tests.
The zone of friction coils, hfr , which is
provided for stronger holding of the rope on
the drum. This width is usually determined
by three or five rope coils, i. e.
hfr = n(d + e)
where n = 3-5.
The empty portion of a drum, hemp,is the
difference between the construction width of
a drum Ldr and the SUm of the zones indi-
in Mine Construction
cated:
( H+
hemp = Ldr ~
30
+ n ) (d e)
where a is the distance from the hoisting axis
to the pulley plane at the pulley axis; bl and
b2 are the distances from the hoisting axis
respectively to the farther and closer end of
the working portion of a drum; and L is the
vertical distance between the centre lines of
the drum and pulley of the hoisting machine.
In order to make the fleet angles on a
pulley equal to each other (131 = 13u)'the axial
plane of the pulley is oriented onto the centre
of the working portion of the hoist drum. In
cases when the axial plane of a pulley is
arranged parallel to the axis of a mine shaft,
the fleet angles of the rope on a pulley and
drum ar~ equal to each other (al = 131,
au = 13u).If the axial plane of a pulley is not
parallel to the hoisting axis, the fleet angles
208 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

takes place when

a,-au
1'=
2 cos q>

Substituting the expressions for a, and au

into this formula, we obtain the condition
that makes it possible to find in each parti-
cular case the magnitude a2 -al , i. e. the
magnitude by which a pulley should be
turned so that its axial plane will be oriented
onto the centre of the working portion of a
drum:
+b2 - 2a
D,
2Lcos <p

Geometrical elements of a multi-rope hoist.

The scheme of the most popular four-rope
hoist with pulleys which deflect one system of
ropes is shown in Fig. 9.22. The main geo-
metrical elements of this hoist are as follows:
the axes of hoisting ropes of a non-deflected
rope system (2); the axes of intermediate rope
strings between the drive pulleys and guide
pulleys (9); the axes of hoisting ropes of a
deflected rope system (6); the mean points of
suspension devices (4, 5); the mean point of
rope run-off from guide pulleys (3); the mean
point of rope run-off from drive pulleys (1);
the axis of the non-deflected rope system (8)
which is a straight line connecting the mean
run-off point and the mean point of a sus-
pended balancing device; the axis of the
on the pulley can be found by the formulae: deflected rope system (7) -a straight line
13,= a, -ycos <I>, 13u= au + ycos <I> connecting the mean run-off points and the
mean point of a suspended non-balanced
where y = [(at -a2)/Dp] p' is the horizontal device; the hoisting axis v-v which is a
angle of the turn of a pulley relative to the horizontal line passing perpendicular to the
hoisting axis; at and a2 are the distances from main shaft axis through the mean run-off
the hoisting axis to the pulley plane at the point on drive pulleys; the vertical axes of the
ends of the horizontal diameter of a pulley; <I> hoisting compartments of a tower head-fra-
is the angle of inclination of a hoisting rope; me; and the angles of bending of hoisting
and D p is the pulley diameter. ropes by guide pulleys.
For normal operation of pulleys, which In multi-rope hoisting machines, it is dis-
prevents one-sided wear, the fleet angles on a tinguished between the following fleet angles:
pulley must be equal to each other, which (a) the fleet angles of descending ropes on
 (c)
10 3
\

I~-

L.u ~- - J1~
j -/-
10 ~ 11
Fig. 9.23 Geometrical elements and parameters of multi-rope hoisting plant: (a) and (6) vertical
projections; (c) plan view; 1-drum of drive pulleys; 2, 3-mean run-off points of ropes on drive and guide
pulleys; 4- guide pulleys; 5 -level of guide pulleys; 6- numbers of ropes; 7- bunton; 8- hoisting vesselclip;
9-conductor; 10-mean point of suspension device (clip); 11- hoisting vessel; l-length of intermediate
rope string; h-elevation of main shaft axis above guide pulley shaft axis; hi, hl -elevation of main shaft
axis and guide pulley shaft axis above guide pulley stage level; h3' h4 -elevation of main shaft axis and
guide pulley shaft axis above mean points of suspension devices; R"p. Rgp- radii of drive and guide pulleys
14-1270
210 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
drive pulleys, ai, Fig. 9.23 (an angle formed
by the axis of a rope with the plane of a drive
pulley); (b) the fleet angles of descending
ropes on guide pulleys, Pi (an angle between
the axis of a descending rope and the plane of
a guide pulley); and (c) the fleet angles of
intermediate rope strings on drive pulleys (~J
and guide pulleys ('1'J. In addition to fleet
angles, of essential importance are also the
angles of deviation from the vertical axis of
symmetry of the system of ropes and the
angle of contact (wrapping angle) of a rope
on a guide pulley, 11 (see Fig. 9.23).
The elevated fleet angles of ropes are the
main cause of quick wear of a pulley lining,
while the deviation of a rope system from the
vertical may cause increased horizontal loads
exerted by hoisting vesselson the shaft equip-
ment.
The fleet angles of ropes on drive and
guide pulleys of multi-rope hoisting machines
must not exceed 30-40'.
The control of the relation between the
main geometrical elements of hoisting ma-
chines of this type consists essentially in
observing the following requirements: (a) the
axes of the main shaft and guide pulley shaft
should be horizontal and parallel to one'
another; (b) the axes of main hoisting ropes
should be perfectly vertical; (c) the drive and
guide pulleys of a rope string should lie in the
same vertical plane; (d) the straight line
connecting the mean run-off point of a rope
and the mean point of a suspension device
should lie on the vertical axis of a hoisting
compartment; (e) drive and guide pulleys
should have the same diameters correspond-
ing to the design specifications; and (1) the
angles of deflection of ropes by guide pulleys
should be within the limits of 8-15.
The experience of operation of multi-rope
hoists has demonstrated that the design di-
mensions of these machines should be obser-
ved with a high degree of accuracy, since
their deviations may influence substantially
the operating conditions of a hoisting ma-
chine, lead to uneven wear of a pulley
lining, and cause uneven loads on ropes and
elevated forces acting .on conductors. The
main causes which may lead to the dis-
tortions in the relation between the geomet-
rical elements and deviations of main ropes
from the vertical are as follows: (a) inaccu-
rate assembly of a hoisting machine and
equipment; (b) wear of a pulley lining, and
(c) displacement of a hoisting machine or
equipment due to underworking a tower
head-frame or mine shaft.
9.3.5. Survey Work During Mounting
of Hoisting Plants
Survey work for mounting a hoisting plant
consists in transferring the hoisting axis and
the main shaft axis into the hoisting plant
building and laying out the foundation for
the hoisting machine and its elements. The
layout work is started by transferring into
nature the point of intersection of the axis of
the main shaft and the axis of the hoist shaft.
Upon erecting the walls of the hoisting
machine room to a height of 1-1.5 m above
the ground, the axis of the main shaft and the
axis of the hoisting machine shaft are trans-
ferred by means of a theodolite inside the
building and fixed by brackets on the inner
walls. Mter erecting the building walls to the
full height, a second row of brackets (mount-
ing brackets) is built in at a height somewhat
below the ceiling floor level. The axial points
are transferred onto these brackets from the
lower ones by a theodolite or plumb bobs.
The hoisting axis and the machine shaft
axis are laid out twice. The mean direction
angle of the main shaft should differ from the
design value by not more than 2', and the
angle between the two fixed perpendicular
axes should differ from a right angle by not
more than 1'. The distance from the centre of
the mine shaft to the machine shaft should
differ from the design value by not more than
100 mm, and the side displacement of the
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists
point of intersection of the hoisting axis and
machine shaft axis, by not more than 50 mill.
The permissible deviation of the machine
shaft axis from the horizontal position is
established by the specifications for hoisting
machine assembly.
Mter laying the supporting frame of a hoist
into its place, it is checked for horizontality
and correct position relative to the hoisting
axis and the main shaft axis of the machine.
The position of the frame along the height is
checked by levelling the corner points of the
frame in plan relative to the axes by means of
plumb bobs. The deviation of the frame from
its design position should not exceed 10 mill
in plan and 100 mill vertically. The highest
difference of elevations of the corner points of
the frame should be not more than 15 mm.
The arrangement of the main shaft bear-
ings is checked along the height by levelling
the lower points of their internal surface and
in the horizontal plane, by means of plumb
bobs hung from a cord stretched between the
axial brackets of the main shaft of the
hoisting machine. The deviations of bearings
in plan and vertically should not exceed
1-2 mill. The actual position of the shaft of
the hoisting machine is checked by the same
method as the position of bearings.
Mter the completion of the machine as-
sembly, the position of the drum relative to
the hoisting axis is checked by hanging two
plumb bobs and measuring the distances
from the plumb bob lines to the drum rims.
9.3.6. Survey Work for Checking
the Geometrical Elements
of a Single- Rope Hoisting Plant
After the assembly of a hoisting plant, it is
required to check the horizontality of the
axes of machine shafts and drive pulleys, the
positions of the axes of hoisting ropes relative
to conductors at the level of the zero stage,
and the fleet angles of hoisting ropes on drums
and pulleys. For this purpose, a theodolite
14.
211
traverse A-I-2-3 (Fig. 9.24) is run from the
layout axis of the main shaft which is taken
as the initial direction. The point 4 of a
traverse is fixed approximately on the hoist-
ing axis near the zero stage. The angle 2-3-1
is laid up at a point 3 (from the side 3-2),
which is calculated so that the direction 3-1 is
perpendicular to the axis of the machine
shaft. This direction is transferred onto the
pulley stage and fixed by a wire I-II. At the
pulley stage, the distances a1, a'1' a2 and a~
from the wire I-II to the external edges of
pulley rims at the ends of a horizontal
diameter are then measured. The distance 1
between the external faces of the pulley rims
is also measured. In the machine room build-
ing, there are measured the distance between
the internal faces of drum rims ho, the width
of empty portion of the drum h and h', the
width of the working portion hw and h;., the
+x
I
'~~
""\
~
~,
~ SItB
~~
/. 2
/
Fig. 9.24 Theodolite traverse for checking of re-
lation between geometrical elements of hoisting
plant
212 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

total width of the zone of friction coils and The distances a and a' for hoisting ma-
reserve coils (bfr + br) and (bfr + b~)for two- chines of the first and second type are found
drum machines; for single-drum and bicy- by the formulae:
lindrical machines, it is required to measure a = 0.5(a1 + a2) + 0.5/ :t c
the total width of the empty portion and of
a' = 0.5(a'1+ a~) + 0.5/ :t c
the zones of friction coils and reserve coils
(b + bfr + br) and (b' + bfr + b~)and the to- where c is the distance between the transfer-
tal width of the drum, B. red I-II direction and Ox axis, which is equal
Taking the system of coordinates with the to the ordinate of point I.
axis of machine shaft being the y-axis and the For hoisting machines of the third type, the
axis of symmetry of the machine, the x-axis, it distances a and a' are determined by the
is now possible to calculate the coordinates formulae:
of theodolite traverse points and of the axes a =10.5(a1+a2)+0.5/-cl
of ropes and conductors. For each rope, there
a' = 10.5(d1+ a~) + 0.5/- cI
are determined the maximum exterior (a.x)
and interior (ain) fleet angles on the drum of The inclined distance L (of a rope string)
the hoisting machine: can be found from the expression
(a) for a hoisting plant with two cylindrical
L=~
drums and pulleys:
where Lo = x.. -D J2 (here x.. is the abscissa
b.x -a, a -bin ,
of a rope in the adopted system of coordi-
a.x= p, ain=-p
L L nates and D p is the pulley diameter); Ah is the
(b) for a hoist with one cylindrical or height difference of the pulley axis above that
bicylindrical drum: of the machine shaft.
Since the axis of a pulley may turn out to
b.x -a, bin + a , be unparallel to the machine shaft axis, the
= .p Uin =
u"x -:--p
L 1 fleet angles on the pulley may respectively
differ from those on the drum. For pulleys,
where p' = 3440'; hexand hin are the distances
we determine the two maximum fleet angles
from the axis Ox to the rope on the drum in
of ropes: an exterior angle ~ex and interior
its extreme (exterior or interior) positions; a is
the distance from the axis Ox to the axial angle ~in' by the formulae:
plane of the pulley; and L is the inclined ~ex= a ex -'Y cos <p, ~in = ain + 'YCOS<p
distance between the axes of the machine where 'Y is the horizontal angle of turning of
shaft and pulley, which should be determined the pulley plane relative to the axis Ox
with an accuracy to 1 m.
The terms hex and hin can be found by the
(h ...
olstlng
)
axis ,
a2 -at
y =
,
~ p an
d
<p
.
lS t h e

following formulae: Dp
for two-drum machines (see Fig. 9.21a): angle of inclination of the hoisting rope
string, which can be found, with an accuracy
hex = 0.5ho + h + hw + hr
to 10, from the formula
or hex = B- hfr + 0.5ho, hin = 0.5ho + h
tan <p= L\h/ L
for single-drum and cylindrical machines
(see Fig. 9.21h and c)
hex= O.5B -hfr
h,- = 0.5B -(h' + h: + h'..-)
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists
9.3.7. Survey Work for Checking
the Relation Between
the Geometrical Elements
of a Multi-Rope Hoisting Plant
Surveying a multi-rope hoisting plant is
carried out in order to determine the angles
of deviation of the axes of rope systems from
the vertical in projections onto the axes x and
y (ex, ey, mx' and my),fleet angles of the main
and intermediate ropes on drive and guide
pulleys (a, ~, <p,and 'I'), angle of deflection of
the rope by a guide pulley (11), angles of
inclination of the axes of the main shaft and
guide pulleys (0, 0'), and the angle of turn of
the axes of guide pulleys relative to the main
shaft axis (I:).
The sequence of survey work for checking
a four-rope hoisting plant is as follows.
Determination of radii of drive pulleys. The
radii of drive pulleys should be determined to
obtain the abscissae of the rope axes in
run-off points, which, with the hoisting
vessels in the lowermost position, are con-
sidered practically coincident. Because of this
the run-off points are ,projected onto the
measuring levels.
Fig. 9.25 Determining radii of drive
213
One of the probable methods for deter-
mining the radii of drive pulleys consists in
the following. A line parallel to the main shaft
axis is fixed in the machine room, after which
the distances from that line to hoisting ropes
are measured.
The point A is fixed on the floor of the
machine room (Fig. 9.25). A theodolite is set
up on that point and sighted roughly along
the rope line (direction AaIl). The readings aI
and all are taken on two staffs set up in points
I and II horizontally and tangentially to the
machine shaft. The distances SI and SII from
the point A to staffs I and II are then
measured. The shaft is measured circum-
ferentially in the points I and II (CI and CII)
and its radii are calculated by the formulae
rI = cJ21t and rIl = cIJ21t
These radii and the measured values aI and
all make it possible to take readings on the
staffs with the theodolite telescope sighted
parallel to the main shaft axis:
sIlaI -sI(aIl + rIl -rJ
bI=
SII-SI
pulleys
214 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

SIl(aI + rI -rIJ -sIall

bll=
SII- SI
The vertical hair of the telescope is sighted
at the reading bll of a staff, provided that the
sighting line passesthrough the reading bI.1f
it turns out that (bll + rll) -(bI + rJ is less
than 0.5 mm, the direction parallel to the
main shaft axis is fixed on a bracket or plate
(point B) concreted in the wall of the machine
room. Mter that, the telescope is sighted at
the point B and the readings 15,16,17,and 18
are taken, with an accuracy to 1 mm, on a
horizontal staff set successively to ropes 5, 6,
7, and 8 in points of their run-off from
pulleys. The radii of drive pulleys are calcu-
lated by the formulae:
R5 = bll + rll -(b5 + rr)
R6 = bll + rll -(b6 + rr)
R7 = bll + rll -(b7 + r r)
R8 = bll + rll -(b8 + rr)
where r r is the radius of the rope.
Fixation of auxiliary axes on the measuring
level and determination of coordinates of ref-
erence points. The points which fix auxiliary
axes are called referencepoints. They are laid
off on a cross-piece below the machine room
where the ropes descending into the mine
shaft are easily accessible.
The hoisting vessel is sunk into the lower-
most position, and a staff is laid on the
m~asuring level to the non-deflected ropes (5,
6, 7, 8, see Fig. 9.26). The shortest distances
from the staff to plumb bobs 5 and 8 are then
measured. Then, using the calculated radii of
drive pulleys, the distances from the main
shaft axis to the staff axis are calculated. The
staff is then placed in a position so that its
axis can be parallel to the main shaft axis,
and this direction is fixed by points C and D.
Using the method of corner sections, points
A and B are marked from these points. They
determine the direction parallel to the line of
deflected ropes (I, 2, 3 4). Non-parallelity
between AB and CD should be not more than
10'.
The coordinates of points A, B, C, and D
are determined by ordinate surveying of
non-deflected ropes, with the hoisting vessel
in the lowermost position, and by measuring
the sides and diagonals of rectangle
ABCD.
The distances from the rope axes to the
staff axis and the staff readings corresponding
to the projections of the rope axes onto the
staff are determined in the following manner.
The staff is fixed on points C and D. After an
extreme rope, say 5, has dampened, an angle
is placed to it (Fig. 9.27a), and an ordinato-
meter is placed to the staff and moved to the
angle. The reading /51is taken by means of a
rule against the edge of the angle and the
reading! 51is taken on the staff against the
ordinatometer edge. The angle is turned into
another position (Fig. 9.27b) and new read-
ings 15II and !5II are taken. Similarly, the
readings 151II,15IV'!51II'and!5lV are taken in a
third and fourth position of the angle
(Fig. 9.27c and d). The positions of other
ropes are determined in a similar way.
The readings are reduced to the staff axis
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 215

and rope axes by the formulae: If aCD::!:90 < 10', then Xc = Xr5 and YC=
= v -f 5' where v is the staff reading corres-
liI + lill + 2d -lillI -liIv
'=k+ ponding to the centre of a hole for the
4
fixation of the staff in the point C (see
1; =
J;I + J;II +J;III
4
+ J;IV Fig.
The9.27).
angles of rectangle ABCD are found
by solving the triangles into which the
where i is the number of a rope; k is the rectangle is divided by diagonals AD and CB.
distance from the staff axis to the beginning Taking the coordinates of the point C as the
of the ordinatometer scale; and d is the length initial ones and knowing the direction angle
of the ordinatometer scale. aCD' it is possible to determine the coordi-
The values of abscissaeon the staff can be nates of points A, B, and D.
found from the expressions: Determination of the angle of turning of
x r5 = -R 5 + 15' x r6 = -R 6 + 16 guide pulley shaft axis relative to the main
..
--R + 1 --R + 1 shaft axis. In order to determIne the angle &,a
Xr7 -7 7' Xr8 -8 8 staff is fixed on points A and B laid up
where R is the radius of a drive pulley. parallel to the line of deflected ropes (Fig.
The direction angle ofa side CD (staff axis) 9.28). Two plumb bobs 01 and O2 are hung
can be found by the formula: at one end of the shaft in a point IV, and a
(x -x) metal rule is laid below them perpendicular
aCD = 90 +
r5 r8 p'
.
to a staff AB. A series of readings n1, n2' n3'
f8 -f5 n4' etc., and m1, m2, m3, m4, etc. are taken
The coordinates x, y of a point C are under the centres of plumb bobs, and their
calculated by the formulae: mean values are found (n and m). The dis-
tance CIVfrom the metal rule to the axis of the
Xc = Xr5 + (V -f5)tan(aCD -90)
staff AB is measured, after which the distance
Yc = v -f5 + 15tan(acD -90) from the shaft axis to the staff axis AB is
216 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

Staff

Fig. 9.28 Determining angle of turning of guide pulley shaft axis relative to main shaft axis

AHI-II + Arl-ll
II- p'
SI

where Arl-Il is the difference of radii of the

The rule is displaced through several cen- shaft in the measured sections (in points I
timetres, and a new distance d;v is deter- and II) and SI-II is the distance between
mined, which should differ from the fornler points I and II.
by not more than 2 mill. Similarly, two The angle of inclination of the axis of guide
distances from the end III of the shaft of pulley shaft, OIV-III is determined by a similar
guide pulleys to the staff axis AB are deter- formula.
mined (dIll and d{lI). Determination of the coordinates of rope
The turning angle E is calculated by the axes on the measuring level. The coordinates
formula: of ropes in two extreme (upper- and lower-
(dIv + d;v) -(dIll + d;lI)0' + (a.D -900) most) positions of hoisting vesselsare needed
E= for determining the angles of their deviation.
2s
The coordinates of plumb bobs are deter-
where s is the distance between points III and mined from reference points CD and AB on
IV. the measuring level (see Fig. 9,26) by means
Determination of the angles of inclination of of a staff-type coordinatometer.
the axes of the main shaft and guide puUey With the hoisting vessel in the lowermost
shaft. These angles can be determined with position, we determine the coordinates of the
the aid of hydrostatic levels by measuring the axes of non-deflected ropes (Xi' Y;) and those
height difference L1Hbetween the end points of of deflected ropes (xr, Yr). Similar measure-
the axis of a shaft. The inclination angle of the ments are made with the hoisting vessel in
main shaft axis is calculated by the formula: the uppermost position (respectively x;, Y;
 9.3. Surveying in Construction of Mine Hoists 217

measurements; Yr and Y~are the ordinates of

the axes of deflected ropes respectively in the
lowermost and uppermost positions of a
hoisting vessel; Xr and X~are the abscissaeof
the axes of these ropes; h2 is the elevation of
the axis of the guide pulley shaft above the
measuring level; h4 is the elevation of the axis
of the guide pulley shaft above the adjacent
point of a suspension device; and R9,dand Rg
is the design radius and actual radius of guide
pulleys at measurements.
Thefleet angles ofmain ropes can be found
by the formulae:
on drive pulleys:
a = ey + 8 + A.,
on guide pulleys:
~ = my + 8' + Ar
where 8 and 8' are the inclination angles of
the main shaft axis and guide pulley axis and
Ai and Ar are the corrections for the position
of balancing devices, which can be deter-
mined by the formula:
s -s.
A=---2
h
where s is the distance from the system axis
to the axis of a rope at the level of balancing
devices; Si is the distance from the system axis
to the axis of a rope in a run-off point; and h
is taken equal to h3 for determining Ai and
equal to h4 for determining Ar.
Thefleet angles of intermediate rope strings
can be found by the formulae:
on drive pulleys:
where n is the number of ropes in a system; Yi
and Y; are the ordinates of the axes of t1.y" .
non-deflected ropes respectively in the lower-
most and uppermost positions of a hoisting
vessel; hi is the elevation of the main shaft
axis above the measuring level; xi and x; are
the abscissae of the axes of these ropes; h3 is
the elevation of the main shaft axis above the
mid point of a suspension device; Rdr,dis the
design radius of a drive pulley; Rdr is
the actual radius of a drive pulley at
218 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

11is the wrapping angle of a rope on a guide dimensions of the shaft, the arrangement of
pulley; E is the angle of turning of the axis of equipment and hoisting vessels, the line of
the guide pulley shaft relative to the main vertical section along which records are being
shaft axis; and 0' are the angles of inclina- made, and conventional symbols of rocks
tion of the axes of the main shaft and guide and lining materials. The second page con-
pulley shaft; and 1 is the length of an inter- tains data on the course of shaft sinking. On
mediate rope string: the third and subsequent pages, a vertical
1 = [h -(Rg + xr) tan 11] section of the shaft on a scale 1/100 and
sketches of shaft elements are drawn. Mine
where h is the height difference between the surveying work during the sinking of a shaft
axis of the main shaft and that of the guide can be divided into two periods: (I) initial
pulley shaft and Xr is the abscissa of the axis period during which the shaft is provided
of a deflected rope. The permissible values for with mining (heading) equipment and the
the indicated angles are as follows: Ox,Oy,rox shaft collar is constructed and (2) shaft sin-
and roy not more than 015'; angle of incli-
king proper.
nation of the main shaft axis, 0, not more
than 005'; angle of inclination of the axis of
the guide pulley shaft relative to the direction 9.4.1 .Survey Work During the
of the main shaft axis, not more than 045'; Initial Period of Shaft
fleet angles a and ~, not more than 1030' and Sinking
those for intermediate strings (<p,'11),not more The survey work at this stage consists in
than 030'. transferring the axes of temporary buildings
and structures into nature, which is required
for arranging a layout network and marking
9.4. Survey Work During Sinking
the axes of a shaft according to the dimen-
of Vertical Shafts
sions indicated on the general layout and on
The construction of mine shafts include.s the drawings of the arrangement of mining
sinking a shaft and the arrangement of a equipment. During the mounting of hoisting
lining and equipment. The main object of machines, special attention should be given
mine surveying service in the construction of to checking the arrangement of the hoist
mine shafts is to ensure the design position of frame relative to the predetermined hoisting
the shaft and its elements. To achieve this, the axis and machine shaft (drum) axis, as wen as
mine surveyor has to perform the following to correct arrangement of the shaft of the
procedures: to transfer the axes of hoisting mine hoist. The deviation of the hoist frame
plants into the driven shaft; to assign the from the hoisting axis should not exceed
design direction to shaft sinking; to transfer 50 mm; the deviation of the elevation marks
and mark the layout net for the assembly of of frame corners from the design level should
hoisting machines; to make check measure- be not more than 300 mm, and the elevation
ments in the shaft; and to layout shaft marks of corners should differ from one
workings and chambers. another by not more than 15 mm. The de-
All mine surveying measurements are re- viation of the hoist shaft axis from the axis of
corded in a register which is the main docu- a layout network should be not more than 2',
ment reflecting the actual state of the const- the height difference on one end of the shaft
ruction of a shaft (Fig. 9.29). The first page of above the other being not more than 0.001 of
the register gives the design section of the the shaft length.
shaft on a scale 1/50 and the principal The sinking frame should be mounted
 9.4. Survey Work During Sinking of Vertical Shafts 219
Intermediate
shoe at -25.5 m
properly relative to the shaft axis; the displa- a zero frame are carried out relative to the
cement of the pulley stage in the horizontal axial lines of the shaft. The displacement of
plane from the design position should be not the zero frame axes relative to the design
more than 60 mm. position should not exceed 5 mm, the devia-
The layout of the pit for the shaft collar, tion of the elevation marks of the frame from
construction of a cap, and the arrangement of the design position should not exceed 50 mm,
220 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

and the difference of elevation marks of the

support points of the unloading bedframe
should not exceed 5 mm. Since the zero
frame defines in nature the contour of the
shaft cross section, its dimensions and shape
should correspond strictly to the design cross
section of the shaft. The centre of the shaft is
fixed on the zero frame, and the directions of
the shaft axes are indicated by marks. The
positions of the shaft centre and axial marks
are determined twice by independent meas-
urements; the discrepancy between the
measurements should be not more than
5mm.
The directions of the shaft axes are then
transferred from the zero frame into the shaft Fig. 9.30 Main heading frame: l-opening for
mouth and fIXed by marks on brackets built bucket; 2- rescue ladder; 3- ventilation column;
4- concrete pipeline passage; 5- compressed air
in at a distance of 50-100 mm from the walls
column; 6-central plumb bob
of the shaft lining. Elevation marks are
transferred onto the axial brackets. The dis-
placement of the marks from the axial line are not allowed. The centre of the shaft is
should not exceed 2 mm. transferred instrumentally from the axial
If upon sinking the shaft mouth to the points onto the heading frame, and the guide
design level it turns out tpat the actual pulley of the central plumb bob is fixed so
geological section corresponds well to that that the plumb bob line is not displaced from
designed, permission is given to make the the shaft centre by more than 5 mm. The
first circular cut for a foundation CUl;b. survey control of shaft sinking is performed
Otherwise, the problem should be coordinated from the central plumb bob and side plumb
with the designer. bobs suspended from the main heading
Upon sinking the shaft to the first founda- frame.
tion curb, the position of the shaft along the
depth and in the horizontal plane is checked
9.4.2. Survey Work During
by taping the vertical distances and the
Sinking a M ine Shaft
distances from the zero frame to the cut floor.
The position of the shuttering for the foun- In shaft sinking by the conventional dril-
dation curb is checked in the vertical and ling-and-blasting method, the survey work
horizontal plane by measuring the radii from consists in checking the positions of vertical
a temporary central plumb bob to the exte- directions, determining the scope of the mi-
rior surface of the shuttering, and the distan- ning work performed, locating the places and
ces from the frame to curve pieces. dimensions of rock inrush and backfilling
Upon the construction of the shaft lining, behind the lining, and checking the position
the zero frame is replaced by the main of travelling forms and the dimensions of the
heading frame which is placed .onto the per- shaft section and vertical walls of a lining.
manent lining of the shaft mouth and orien- For the horizontal and vertical control of
ted properly relative to the centre and axes of shaft sinking, there is formed a geometrical
the shaft (Fig. 9.30). Deviations above 20 mm basis as a system of plumb bobs, light
 5. Survey Work for Arranging
indicators or projection meters. Plumb bobs
are mostly employed for the purpose. Their
number and arrangement depend on the
cross-sectional shape of the shaft and the
arrangement of mining and hoisting equip-
ment in it. For instance, a single central
plumb bob is employed in shafts of a circular
cross section, four plumb bobs hung at a
distane of 20-30 cm from the shaft walls, in
shafts of a rectangular cross section. In shafts
of an oval cross section, two plumb bobs are
suspended near the walls at each axis of an
ellipse. The positions of plumb bobs during
sinking a shaft should be checked at least
once a month.
The deviations of vertical directions from
the design values are checked by making
measurements from the axial points fixed in
the shaft mouth or on the main heading
frame. These measurements can be made by
using plumb bobs, light indicators or projec-
tion meters. In order to minimize errors, the
cables of projection meters should be fixed in
every 300 or 400 m. The error in the position
of fixation points of light indicators relative
to the previous level should not exceed
15 mill.
The state of shaft walls is controlled by
measuring the radii from the central plumb
bob to walls in vertical intervals of 3-4 m.
The measured results are used to calculate
the actual cross-sectional area of the shaft
which should not differ from the design value
by more than 4-10% for shafts up to 20 m2 in
cross-sectional area, by 3-8% for those
20-40 m2 in area, and by 2-5% for those
above 40 m2 in area.
The permanent lining of vertical shafts is
constructed by means of travelling forms
which are placed into the working positions
relative to the central plumb bob. The posi-
tion of the travelling forms and shaft walls
should be checked by the mine surveyor at
least after every three or four travel cycles.
The correct position of the travelling forms
relative to the central plumb bob is checked
of Shaft Equipment 221
at least in eight points around the periphery
of the forms. The vertical axis of the forms
should not deviate from the mean position of
the plumb bob by more than 20 mm. The
vertical position of the forms is checked by
hydrostatic level with an accuracy not worse
than 10 mm. The errors of measurement of
distances from the central plumb bob to the
forms of a shaft lining should not exceed
10 mm. For cast-in-situ concrete and rein-
forced-concrete linings, the deviations of
radial distances from the centre should be not
more than 50 mm.
A concrete-tubbing lining is built from the
top downwards, support tubbings (crib seats)
being placed after every 20-24 m. They are
placed in the presence of the mine surveyor
who checks that the distances from the
central plumb bob to the internal faces of
tubbings differ by not more than 10 mm from
the design value.
All placed tubbing crib seats and each
tenth ordinary tubbing should be controlled
by mine surveying. The plan position of a
tubbing ring is controlled by measuring the
distances from the central plumb bob to
selected points at tubbing joirits. Vertical
control is effected upon mounting 6-8 rings. If
it turns out that the deviation of a tubbing
column from the vertical is more tban 30 mm,
the lining should be corrected.
9.5. Survey Work for Arranging
of Shaft Equipment
The main task of the mine surveyor during
the arrangement of shaft equipment is to
control that buntons and conductors are
mounted strictly in their design positions.
The equipment of a mine shaft is a
complex of structures and elements which
ensure correct motion of hoisting vessels.The
main elements of equipment are conductors
and buntons; the latter are divided into the
main and auxiliary ones depending on their
position in the shaft. The main buntons are
222 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

built in into the shaft lining at both ends,
whereas the auxiliary ones are either fastened
between the main buntons or attached at one
end to a main bunton and built in at the
other end into the lining. The main bunton
arranged in the centre of a shaft or near it is
called the central bunton. The combination of
main and auxiliary buntons located in the
same horizontal plane is called a bunton
stage. The distance between adjacent bunton
stages is called the pitch of equipment.
Conductors (of the rigid or rope type) are
fastened to buntons.
The arrangement of equipment in a shaft
may be done by a consecutive or combined
scheme. In the former case, first all buntons
are mounted to the entire depth of the shaft,
after which conductors are fastened to them.
In the latter case, conductors are suspended
upon mounting three or four bunton stages.
The survey work during the arrangement
of the equipment of a vertical shaft includes
three stages: (I) the control of preparatory
work and the arrangement of hoisting and
mining equipment; (2) the control of the
arrangement of buntons and suspension of
conductors; and (3) the final control of the
accuracy of mounting the equipment by
making the profile survey of conductors and
buntons.
At the first stage, the profiles of the shaft
and drawings of cross sections at various
levels are prepared, and it is checked that the
dimensions of buntons, points of connection
of buntons, etc. correspond to the design
specifications. Upon sinking the shaft, the
profiling of the shaft walls (control survey) is
carried out in order to determine the minimal
gaps between the shaft lining and the most
protruding portions of hoisting vessels. The

(a) (b) Geological section ~Deptli-

from Sections through shaft walls

Mouth level surface,

+193.5 m m II III IV

Soil O 0

5 +30 mm

10 +10
Clay
15 -10

20 +10

~, 25 +20 0

Sand 30 +10 0

35 +10 -10
~
Floating
-- earth 40 0 0

Clay shale 45 0 0

Sandstone 50 0
~
~ 55 0
Shale
60 -10
Coal

Fig. 9.31 Profiling of walls of

~
65 -10
;[;1 Sandstone
vertical mine shaft: (a) arrangement 70 -40
of plumb bobs; (b) profiles of walls ,i~\;~(i~ ~
 9.5. Survey Work for Arranging of Shaft Equipment 223

results of profiling are used for revealing the

lining defects and making decisions on chan-
ging the scheme of equipment or eliminating
the detected curvatures of the shaft. The
profiling survey is done by measuring the
distances from plumb bobs to shaft walls.
The number and arrangement of plumb bobs
are determined by the cross-sectional shape
of the shaft and the arrangement of hoisting
vessels in it (Fig. 9.31a). The measuring
interval is usually taken equal to the pitch of
equipment. The results of profiling are used
for plotting the vertical profile of the shaft
wall. The profile is drawn on a vertical scale
(along the plumb bob line) of 1/100-1/200
and horizontal scale 1/10-1/20 (Fig. 9.31b). At
the preparatory stage, the mine surveyor
should also compile the scheme of arrange-
ment and fastening of plumb bobs in the
shaft, work out templates for the arrange-
ment of buntons, and control the correct
positioning of winches, pulleys, buckets and
other mining and hoisting devices. At the
second stage, the mine surveyor controls the
design dimensions of the first bunton stage
and then checks with especial care that the
first bunton stage is mounted properly in its
place, since plumb bobs will be later hung
from it to control the positions of subsequent
bunton stages. The correct mounting of the Fig. 9.32 Schemes of plumb bobs for arrangement
first bunton stage is controlled by measuring of shaft equipment

the distances from the shaft axes to the ends

of each bunton, sleepers, and the points of
connection of buntons and by levelling the
ends of each bunton by a striding level. The
displacement of the axes of buntons in the
horizontal plane should not exceed 3 mm
and the difference of the elevation marks of
bunton ends, 5 mm.
The number and arrangement of plumb
bobs in a shaft depend on the scheme of
equipment and arrangement of buntons.
With the consecutive scheme of arrangement
of equipment, plumb bobs are arranged aga-
inst sleepers;with the combined scheme, they
are arranged so as not to obstruct the placing
of conductors. The distances from the sus-
pension points of plumb bobs tobuntons and
side faces of conductors should not exceed
200 mm. A scheme of suspension of plumb
bobs 1-6 for arranging the rigid equipment of
a shaft of a unified cross section is shown in
Fig. 9.32.
The survey work for controlling the pla-
cing of buntons and suspension of conduc-
tors consists in checking the vertical distances
between bunton stages, the positions of con-
ductors and buntons relative to the horizon-
tal axes of a shaft, the points of junction of
buntons in a stage, and the positions of
 224 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

3~ p:C9 51

2F

lA
6

A-A

'r=='
~ 88:z.tzA

Fig.9.33 Templates for arrangement of shaft equipment: I. 2. 3-spacing templates; 4. 5-vertical

templates for marking holes for buntons; 6. 7- horizontal templates; 8- templates for correct placing of
buntons relative to plumb bobs

plumb bobs proper. Since the positions of the
characteristic points of the shaft equipment
are repeated from one bunton stage to another,
it is possible to employ templates for the
control of mounting operations. The number
and design of templates are chosen depen-
ding on the arrangement of buntons and
plumb bobs and the technology of arrange-
ment of the equipment. The templates are
usually made from steel sheets, angles or
tubes.
According to their application, templates
can be divided into the following groups: (1)
templates for marking the lengths of buntons
and places of location of sleepers or moun-
ting holes; (2) templates for placing the bun-
tons at specified vertical distances from one
another (spacing templates); (3) templates for

~
 9.5. Survey Work for Arranging of Shaft Equipment 225

marking holes for buntons; (4) templates for

coordinated arrangement of buntons in a
stage (horizontal templates); and (5) templa-
tes for correct placing of buntons relative to
plumb bobs. Some types of templates for
these purposes are illustrated in Fig. 9.33.
After mounting the equipment of a vertical
shaft, the surveying of conductors is carried
out in order to compile the profiles of con-
ductors, buntons, and shaft walls. In this
country, vertical shafts are surveyed by
means of a complex for automatic control of
the parameters of the equipment and lining.
The complex comprises stations for the
profile surveying of conductors, apparatus for
the surveying of shaft walls, an instrument for
measuring the safe spacings in mine shafts,
apparatus for measuring the wear of conduc-
tors, and straightening instruments for the
control of conductors.
The stations are provided with instruments
for measuring the angles of deviation of
conductors from the vertical and distances
between conductors and for checking the
mutual arrangement of conductors in the
shaft. Two instruments for measuring the Fig. 9.34 Carriage: 1- box frame; 2 -detachable
vertical deviation angles are arranged at an covers; 3- springs; 4- telescopic rod; 5- clamp;
angle of 90 to each other and mounted on 6- supports; 7- auxiliary safety rollers; 8- manual
carriages (Fig. 9.34) which are run along winding mechanism; 9-axles; 10-shackles
conductors. In this way, the angles of devia-
tion of conductors in two mutually perpen- records of distances is 1I 1 and the vertical
dicular planes are recorded. Records are scale, 1/500; the measuring accuracy is
made on 35-mm perforated photographic :to.5 mm, the range of deviations of con-
film together with the base line and eleva- ductor spacings from the rated value is
tions of buntons. The accuracy of measure- :t40 mm, and the range of measured dis-
ments is 30" and the measuring range, :t20'. tances, 350-3000 mm. The speed of motion of
The instrument for measuring the distances the carriage on conductors is up to 0.8 mls
between conductors is essentially a mecha- and the largest depth of shafts which can be
nical recorder fastened on one of the sections profiled by this complex is 1700 m. The
of the carriage. Records are made on a survey of conductors of a single compartment
paraffin-impregnated tape on which one sty- of a shaft 500-800 m deep requires only 0.5-1
lus draws the curve of deviations of the actual hour.
distances between conductors from the rated The photograms of deviation angles ob-
measure, whereas another stylus draws the tained in this way are processed in the office
base line. The elevations of buntons are also to construct the profiles of conductors. This
marked on the tape. The horizontal scale of is done by means of a semiautomatic integra-
15~1270
 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

Fig. 9.35 Integrator

Fig. 9.36 Aligning inclinometer

 9.5. Survey Work for Arranging of Shaft Equipment 227

",1 partment, etc. The measuring range is from 0

to 500 mill and the accuracy of measure-
ments is I5 mill.
The apparatus illustrated in Fig. 9.38 is
designed for continuous measurements of the
wear of conductors and spacings between
conductors. It contains two mechanical re-
corders which simultaneously register the
degree of wear of two conductors separately
at each side of each of them and the spacings
between the conductors. The apparatus can
be used for measurements of conductors in
combination with a station. In that case, the
apparatus is connected to a carriage on which
the instruments of the station are mounted.

Fig. 9.37 Profiling instrument: I-photographic

camera cap; 2-measuring drum; 3-lock screw;
4- wide-angle objective; 5- handle; 6- illuminator

marked on 35-mm photographic film. The

distance range of the instrument is from 0 to
3000 mm; the scale of recorded distances to
the shaft walls is 1/25 or 1/50; and the
root-mean square error of measured distan-
ces is I 5 mm in the range from 0 to 500 mm
and I 10 mm in the range from 500 mm to
3000 mm.
The instrument for measuring the gaps
between the protruding portions of hoisting
vessels and elements of shaft equipment is
based on the same principle as the instrument
for profile surveying, but has substantially
smaller dimensions and mass. It is mounted
on the top of a hoisting vessel or in a cage.
The instrument can be set up for measuring
the gaps between the guide paws of a hoisting Fig. 9.38 Apparatus for continuous measure-
vessel and equipment elements; the distances ments of wear of conductors and spacings between
to the lining, tube stand, cables, ladder com- conductors
15.
 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
When used individually, the apparatus is
fastened to a hoisting vesselor to the hoisting
cable of a mine hoist. The measuring accu-
racy is:!: 1 mm, the scale of recording 1/1,
and the working speed of lifting or lowering
in a shaft, 1-2 m/s.
The survey work during mounting of a
rope equipment consists in transferring the
layout axes onto the mounting levels; check-
ing the tensioning frame; control of arrange-
ment of suspension clips, guide and ten-
sioning devices;control measurements during
mounting of auxiliary conductors; checking
the track gauge of guides for hoisting vessels;
and final surveying of shaft portions with
hoisting and mining equipment.
The layout axes of tower head-frames are
transferred onto the mounting levels (head-
frame ceilings) by using the layout axes of a
multi-rope hoisting machine. For jib-type
head-frames, the axes are transferred onto the
mounting level from the axial points by
means of a theodolite and plumb bobs hung
from a pulley stage. The axes of a shaft are
transferred onto the fixation levels of guide
ropes by means of plumb bobs at an earlier
stage (during sinking a shaft). The discrepan-
cies between the positions of axial marks
obtained in two measurements should not
exceed 20 mm on a suspension level and
50 mm on a fixation level.
The arrangement of a tensioning frame and
auxiliary conductors at loading levels is cont-
rolle.d relative to the layout axes of the
fixation level of rope conductors and the
axial points set up in the lining near the shaft
bottom. The displacements of axes of bun-
tons on a particular level should be not more
than 3 mm in the horizontal plane, and the
difference of elevations of the ends of buntons
should not exceed 5 mm.
The mounting of hoist clips and jacks on a
suspension level is controlled relative to the
axes of a shaft or multi-rope hoisting machi-
ne which are fixed on that level. The axes of
these devices are laid out by the method of
ordinates. The design positions of hoist clips
and jacks are denoted by axial marks op
supporting surfaces.
Rope conductors are fixed in the vertical
position by using a projection meter; for this
purpose, the vertical sensor of the projection
meter is fastened on a rope conductor above
the tensioning frame.
The final surveying of rope conductors is
carried out after mounting the hoist clips and
fastening the guide sleeves and consists in
measuring the linear distances from the
layout axes. The results of measurements are
processed to compile a scheme of fastening of
rope conductors on a head-frame ceiling and
tensioning frame. The actual distances be-
tween the axes of ropes (devices) and layout
axes should differ from the design values by
not more than 7 mm.
9.6. Survey Work During Driving
of Shaft Workings
The survey work during driving of un-
derground workings near a shaft may involve
certain difficulties, since such workings often
have a rather intricate configuration with
many joints, curvatures and with variable
cross sections, combinations of straight and
curvilinear sections, an intricate profile of
haulage tracks, and contain large-sized sta-
tionary equipment units.
Before constructing the shaft bottom, a
design polygon on a scale of 1/200 or 1/500 is
drawn (Fig. 9.39) which serves for checking
whether the dimensions of underground work-
ings are correct and for obtaining the initial
data for the instrumental transfer of the axes
of designed workings into nature.
The drawing of such a polygon contains
numerical data on the dimensions of straight
and curved sections of workings, angles of
turn of circular curves, elevations of parti-
cular pqints, etc.
The axes of curved sections are replaced by
chords whose number is chosen so that the
 9.7. Survey Work by Special Methods 229

assigned from two side plumb bobs sunk into

the shaft. The mining work for insetting a
working is permitted at a distance not more
than 40 m from a plumb bob sunk into the
shaft. The working can then be driven further
only after the points and bench marks of an
~ underground survey reference net have been
fixed on its level.
As the face is advanced in a working, the
mine surveyor checks all parameters of the
working being driven, marks the actual di-
Fig. 9.39 Design polygon of shaft workings
mensions of the working on a survey plate
chords do not touch the lines of the walls of and compares them with the design dimen-
workings. sions, and determines the actual discrepan-
Check calculations determine the design cies. The discrepancies of the cross-sectional
angles of a closed polygon and the coordinate area of a roughly driven working should be
increases at all its vertexes. The check calcu- not more than 5-12% for a cross-sectional
lations are done by the formulae: area up to 8 m2, 5-10% for an area up to
~13-180 (n -2) = 0, ~Ax = ~Ay = 15 m2, and 3-7% for an area above 15 m2.
All cases of rock inrush and caving that
where n is the number of vertexes of a took place during driving of a working are
polygon. recorded in the mine surveyor's documents
If the conditions described by these for- where their locations and main dimensions
mulae are not fulfilled, the polygon should be are indicated. The voids left in the rock
redesigned. Mter the plan adjustment of the massif due to inrushes and cavings should be
polygon, a design profile is drawn, whose supported reliably and backfilled with non-
characteristic points are those where the combustible rocks in order to prevent further
workings intersect one another or the angles rock displacement and the possible harmful
of their inclination change. effects on the shaft lining.
The insets of conjunctions of workings and Directions are assigned to workings by
vertical shafts are determined after transfer- means of a theodolite and fixed by at least
ring the elevation mark from the ground three plumb bobs hung at a distance not less
surface onto the bench marks concreted in than 3-5 m from one another. Miners engaged
the walls of the shaft. These bench marks are in the driving work can use the direction line
usually set up somewhat above a conjunction defined by the plumb bobs on advancing to a
so as to enable a convenient transfer of the distance not more than 40 m from the last
elevation mark onto the roof (bottom) of an plumb bob. With a larger distance, instru-
adjacent working or onto the head of a track mental surveying is needed to set up new
rail. Conjunction axes are usually transferred plumb bobs in the face.
from two plumb bobs sunk from the surface,
'
which define the axis of the shaft. This axis is
9.7. Survey Work During Driving
fixed by means of two or three brackets
of Vertical Shafts
driven into the shaft walls somewhat above
by Special Methods
the level of the projected conjunction.
The direction of inset for a conjunction Geological and hydrogeological conditions
between the mine shaft and a working is of mineral deposits are not always quite
230 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
suitable for the construction of vertical shafts
by conventional methods. In such cases,
special methods are resorted to, in which
measures are taken for strengthening the
rock massif, ground water lowering, plugging
and soil freezing, which can facilitate the
driving of mine shafts. Under complicated
conditions, vertical shafts can also be driven
by drilling. In mine shafts driven by these
special methods, the mine surv~yor has to
solve certain specific survey problems.
9.7.1 Survey Work During Driving
of Vertical Shafts
with Artificial Rock Freezing
During driving of a mine shaft with artifi-
cial freezing of the rock, the mine surveyors
perform the following operations: the layout
of the centre of a shaft and the mouths of
freezing and monitor holes; checking the
construction of a drilling site, assembly and
5'
Fig. 9.40 lnclinometric station: 1- automobile
level; 5- counterweight block
position of drilling equipment, and the verti-
cality of surface casings; surveying drill holes
during drilling; and the compilation of level
plans of ice-rock enclosure.
The centre and axes of a shaft are trans-
ferred into nature by the method described in
Sec. 9.2. The most popular method of layout
of holes in the terrain consists in the fol-
lowing. A theodolite is set up at the centre of
the shaft and oriented along one of the shaft
axes, after which the required angle is laid off
and distances to each drill hole are measured
by a tape according to the design data. The
accuracy of laying out of holes should be not
worse than :J:50 mm. The mouth of each
hole is marked by pegs.
Before drilling the holes, a geometrical
check is made (for verticality, centring above
the hole mouth, linearity of the kelly, etc.) in
accordance with the direction assigned by the
mine surveyor, and the hole mouth is drilled
for the surface casing. The length of the latter
,Jf
3
with logging hoist; 2- inclinometer; 3- tripod; 4- striding
9.7. Survey Work by Special Methods 231

depends on the thickness of alluvium and

upper caving rock and is usually of an order
of 20 m.
Before mounting a drilling rig, the rings of
a drilling site are checked for horizontality by
geometrical levelling at the top edge of the
rings with an interval of 1 m. The. difference
of height marks should not exceed 10 mm.
A drilling rig is regarded to be ready for
operation provided that the difference of
elevations of the corner points of a platform
does not exceed 5 mm; the error of centring
of a rotary table above the hole mouth is not
more than 10 mm; the difference between the
height marks of the axial points of a rotary
table is not more than 2 mm; and the devia-
tion of the kelly in a rotary table from the
vertical is not more than 0.001 of the kelly
length.
Deep vertical freezing and monitor holes
can be surveyed by means of gyroscopic
inclinometers which measure zenith angles in
the range from 0 to 4-6 with an accuracy of
1.5-2' and direction angles, with an accuracy
of 3-6, The interval for measuring zenith and
direction angles is not more than 30 m.
Figure 9.40 shows an inclinometric station
for measuring drill holes up to 1000 m in
depth with a casing string and drill string of
96-127 mm in diameter. The station is moun-
ted on a truck chassis,
The main instrument of the station is an
inclinometer (Fig. 9.41) with a gyroscopic
direction stabilizer and zenith attachment for
the orientation of the inclinometer from the
surface. The measuring portion of the incli-
nometer consists of an azimuthal gyrostabi-
lizer unit and zenith angle measuring unit.
The latter has two penduli which make it
possible to determine the zenith angle of the
axis of a drill hole. The measured values of
zenith angles are transmitted onto the sur-
face.

Fig. 9.41 Inclinometer with gyroscopic direction

stabilizer
 232
The inclinometer consists of a housing 2,
measuring portion 8, and guide rollers 1.
The measuring portion includes the unit of
azimuthal gyrostabilizer and unit for deter-
mining the zenith angle. The gyrostabilizer
has a sensitive element 5, semiconductor
amplifier 4, actuating motor with a reducer 3,
and a m9tor with a rocker 7.
When the inclinometer moves in a hole,
there appears an external moment which
rotates the housing 2 on the longitudinal axis
of the instrument. This moment is transferred
onto the measuring portion 8 and tends to
turn the latter. Under this action, a gyro-
motor together with an angle sensor frame 6
deviates from the neutral position, and the
sensor pulse is transmitted to the actuating
motor 3. The motor develops (through the
reducer) a compensating moment which re-
tains the measuring portion of the instrument
Field sheet No.5
Shaft No.1 Hole No.3
JuneI5,'83900
M 110
01 g2S0r.1
~
1230 Or.2
"I
1
0;1
Fig. 9.42 Plate with inclinometer
~
Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction
in the given direction, so that its orientation
is not changed.
The unit for zenith angle measurements
has two measuring elements which determine
the zenith angles in two mutually pocpen-
dicular planes. Each element has a flat pen-
dulum 9 contained in a h()rmetically closed
cylinder which is filled with a viscous liquid.
Each pendulum carries the frame of an
induction sensor;
Surveying a drill hole is started from
centring the inclinometer on a tripod above
the hole mouth, after which the first orien-
tation is carried out by means of an orien-
tation attachment fastened on the inclino-
meter housing. For this purpose, a distinct
object is chosen on the terrain at a distance
not less than 30 m from the inclinometer, and
the direction angle of this object relative to a
line OlHl is measured (Fig. 9.42). The incli-
~ ~
HI
02
records
 9.7. Survey Work by Special Methods 233

N
the lines HlOl and 02H2. The angular
correction is then introduced into the two
orientation directions obtained during sin-
king and lifting of the inclinometer. The
corrected directions are brought to coinci-
.--J dence in the points of the hole mouth, which
, e 5 26, gives two positions of the inclinogram.
23/
/
24/

~ 3
~ -;,~, 3
The results of surveying of freezing holes
are used for plotting the level plans of an
/' \ 4
)~ ,1 ,
\ ice-rock enclosure (Fig. 9.43), which make it
\
\ I--, possible to estimate the thickness of the
(21( " enclosure and determine the boundaries of
I
,201
--r-
~, , frozen rock (to the centre and to the rock
19\ massif). The radii of ice-rock cylinders can be
" 6'r
~ 18 "
calculated by the formula:
17 ,

,
18'
16
\ ..
,If
,f~
I
Fig. 9.43 Level plan of ice-rock enclosure
nometer is then unclamped and sunk into the
drill hole. As the instrument is being sunk,
the planigraph records an inclinogram with
elevation marks of depth intervals. Upon
reaching the face of the drill hole, the
orientation (inclination) of the inclinometer
axis 0191 is recorded, and the gyrostabilizer
is turned through 180 to record a new
orientation of the inclinometer axis, 0292.
Mter that, the inclinometer is lifted in the
hole to make measurements from the bottom
upwards. As the inclinometer appears on the
surface, it is again oriented, and the
direction angle of a line H2O2 is measured.
The lines 0 1H 1 and H 20 2 are shifted parallel
to themselves until points 0 1 and H 2 coin-
cide. The angle 'Y formed by these lines (and
called the angular correction) is determined
graphically. A similar procedure is done for
~ r = J(I/2 + af + k
'--
14 ~ where 1 is the spacing between freezing
holes; a is the deviation of a hole from the
vertical; k is a coefficient depending on the
/ thickness of an ice-rock enclosure; it is taken
equal to 0.6L for the inner boundary and
0.4L for the outer one (L is the thickness of
s
the ice-rock enclosure as specified in the
project). The permissible deviation of freezing
holes from the vertical is 0.5 + 0.002 H,
where H is the depth of a shaft, m; in all
cases, the maximum deviation of freezing
holes from the vertical to the shaft centre
should not exceed 0.6 m.
9.7.2. Survey Work During Drilling
of Vertical Shafts
The drilling method is used widely for
driving of mine shafts. It allows one to
mechanize completely the operations of rock
disintegration and rock lifting onto the sur-
face and eliminates the dangerous and hard
work of underground miners. The method is
mainly employed for shaft driving in soft
water-bearing rocks (drift sand, water-bea-
ring sands, chalk, clays, etc.); in coarse-grai-
ned sands, the method is not quite efficient in
view of large losses of a clay drilling mud.
Mine shafts are drilled by drilling rigs
234 Ch. 9. Surveying
permitting the drilling out of the rock allover
the face.
Drilling a shaft is started from drilling a
pilot hole of a depth exceeding by 5-10 m the
design depth of the shaft and of a diameter of
0.5-1.2 m. The pilot hole serves for guiding
the drilling tool in subsequent widening of
the shaft. Upon drilling, the shaft lining is
constructed by the float-on or sectional
method.
With the float-on method, a number of
lining rings are mounted on one another on a
reinforced concrete bottom plate. The cyl-
inder thus formed is sunk into the fore shaft
filled with washing fluid and floats, as it were,
in the latter. New ring sections 4-6 m high
are then put on top of the floating cylinder.
After placing a ring section on the cylin-
der, ballast fluid is pumped in to ensure
sinking the cylinder to a certain depth. After
building the lining to the entire height of the
shaft, the space between the lining and rock is
plugged with a cement mortar.
With the sectional method, a fixing section
of the lining is first sunk onto a concrete pad
prepared on the shaft bottom. Upon check-
ing whether the section is placed correctly, it
is fixed by a cement mortar poured into the
space behind the lining. Mter that, the lining
sections 15-20 m high are placed successively
onto the fixing section and secured by plug-
gmg.
Mine survey servicing during drilling of
min shafts consists in checking the vertica-
lity of the shaft axis and observing that the
lining is errected properly. The deviations of
the shaft axis from the design (vertical) posi-
tion should not exceed the spacing between
the outer surface of the lining and the surface
of the rock, which is taken equal to 200-
350 mm. The control of verticality of a shaft
axis is complicated by the fact that the shaft
is filled by clay drilling liquid during drilling.
In shaft drilling without lifting the drilling
tool onto the surface, the verticality is con-
trolled by the position of the centre of the
in Mine Construction
drilling tool, which is done by the optical or
geometrical method. With the optical meth-
od, the surveyor observes a light signal
projected through a drill string; with the
geometrical method, a cable is stretched
through the drill string from the shaft mouth
to the drilling tool, and its deviation is
measured. In the former method, which is
applicable at depths up to 200-250 m, use is
made of instruments of the type of direction
projectors. In the latter method, the de-
viations of the cable from the vertical can be
measured at any desired depth with an
accuracy to 20" by means of a projection
meter. The error in the position of the cable
relative to the drill string axis does not
exceed 20 mm.
Shaft walls are surveyed during drilling by
means of ultrasonic locators which make it
possible to take measurements in mud-filled
shafts with an error up to 2% along the
radius and 3%, in the orientation of a
measured radius.
9.8. Survey Work During
Deepening of Vertical Shafts
Deepening vertical shafts can be performed
from the top downwards or vice versa. In the
former case,the survey work is essentially the
same as that during sinking of a shaft from
the surface, though some specifics relate to
the restoration and fixation of the centre and
axes of the shaft in the deepened portion.
Deepening a shaft from the top downwards
can be done by one of three probable
schemes: (I) under a platform constructed
below the floor level of the working connec-
ted to the shaft bottom; (2) by means of a
special passageway driven in the shaft por-
tion to be deepened;and (3) through auxiliary
workings driven sideways of the shaft.
In deepening by the first scheme, the
survey work consists in determining the
centre and axes of the shaft in its section
adjacent to the conjunction between the shaft
 9.8. Survey Work During Deepening of Vertical Shafts 235

(see Fig. 9.44) whose coordinates are

/
0 I"
l..v
I:o'~
A-A
-r-- AL
b~ -=
~n 2l
t.k~~
W//////&
Fig. 9.44 Restoration of centre and axes in
deepenedportion of shaft through sinking pas-
sagewayby meansof plumb bobs and theodolite
and pit bottom, after which the restored axes
are fixed by brackets below the future
platform. In that case, the centre of the shaft
is determined by the point of intersection of
wires stretched between the brackets that fix
the shaft axes.
With the second scheme of shaft deepening
(Fig. 9.44), the survey work is started from
determining the centre and axes of the shaft
in the bottom portion, by using the points of
an underground survey reference net.
The centre and axes are transferred under
a pillar by means of plumb bobs 01 and O2
determined from the points of the reference
net of the workings near the shaft bottom.
Mter cutting a chamber under the pillar, the
centre and axes of the shaft are laid out by
means of plumb bobs 01 and O2. For this
pu~ose, the theodolite is set up in a point A
which is chosen so that the shape of a
connection triangle A01O2 can be convenient
for solving the junction problem. The
theodolite is sighted at points 01 and O2, and
points a and b are marked on the shaft walls.
Solving the connection triangle A01O2, it is
then possible to determine the coordinates of
the point A and the direction angles of lines
A01 (Aa) and A02 (Ab). The coordinates of
the shaft centre determined at the level of
shaft workings and the coordinates of the
11A point A just found are used for solving the
inverse geodetic problem of determining the
layout angle aAC and the distance AC. By
constructing the angle aAC and distance AC
in nature, we then determine the position of a
point C, the centre of the shaft, which is then
transferred and fixed in the safety pillar. With
the known direction angles of the shaft
axis and of direction CA, we can now cal-
culate an angle ~ and lay it off from the
direction CA by means of a theodolite set up
in the shaft centre point. The direction of the
shaft axis determined in this way is fixed by
brackets on the shaft walls.
The transfer of the centre and axes of the
shaft under the safety pillar is performed
twice. The discrepancies between the two
results should be not more than 5' in axial
directions and not more than 20 mm for the
position of the shaft centre.
If a shaft is to be deepened through
auxiliary workings driven beyond its limits
(winzes, blind pits, inclined workings, etc.),
the coordinates of the shaft centre and the
direction angle of one of the shaft axes are
determined on the desired level from the
points of an underground reference net
(H and D in Fig. 9.45). A polygonometric
236 Ch. 9. Surveying in Mine Construction

A-A

p
Fig. 9.45 Transferring centre and axes in deepened portion of shaft through winze

traverse is then run from these points to the
auxiliary working. In the case illustrated in
Fig. 9.45, the auxiliary working is oriented by
means of plumb bobs 01 and O2. This
orientation makes it possible to find the
direction angle of a certain direction fixed by
points A and B on the level to which dee-
pening should be done. The coordinates x, y
of these points are also determined.
With the known coordinates of the shaft
centre and the coordinates of the point B of
the polygonometric traverse on the lower
level, it is possible to solve an inverse geode-
tic problem and calculate the layout angle
ARC = 13and layout length RC = I, which
are laid off in nature and determine the
position of the shaft centre. Then, as in the
previous case,the direction of one of the shaft
axes is assigned and fixed by points F and G.
For a shaft to be deepened from the
bottom upwards, the coordinates of the shaft
centre and the direction angle of the shaft
axis are determined before starting the layout
work. The survey work in the workings on
 9.8. Survey Work During
the level of deepening is also carried out. All
measurements essential for laying out the
centre and axes of the shaft on the level of
deepening are carried out. The centre of a
shaft on the lower level is usually fixed in the
foot of a working, and the shaft axes are fiXed
by brackets in the walls or roof of the
working. The verticality and cross-sectional
area of the shaft are checked by means of
plumb bobs hung under the sinking platform
from brackets in the temporary lining. The
Deepening of Vertical Shafts 237
positions of the plumb bobs are checked by
measuring the distance between them and the
centre of the shaft. The centre of the shaft in
the face is found by means of templates
or measurements from temporary plumb
bobs which are centred above the permanent
plumb bobs. The shaft should be checked for
verticality in every 3 m of face advance, and
the shaft axes should be transferred onto the
brackets of permanent plumb bobs after
every 10 m of shaft advancement.
 Chapter
Surveying
10.1. General
The principal aims of the mine-surveying
service in open-cast mining are as follows: the
provision of the geometric basis for the
surveying work in the form of a reference net;
surveying of mining workings and land sur-
face; compilation of graphical documents for
the normal operation of a mining enterprise;
participation in the planning of drilling and
blasting; control of the specified parameters
of working systems and the dimensions of
structures; calculation of the output of a
mineral, volume of burden rock, dynamics
of losses and the dilution of a mineral;
observations on the motions of quarry flanks
and development of measures for their
prevention.
The results of mine surveying are used for
compiling calendar plans of mining work
development, investigations of the geolo-
gical structure of deposits, solution of vari-
ous problems associated with the activity of
production sections, etc.
The objects of surveying in quarries in-
clude the following main groups:
(a) exploratory, draining and drilling-
blasting workings, crests, accesstracks, work-
ing trenches, catchwater ditches, etc.;
(b) tectonic disturbances, contacts of the
lying and hanging wall with the mineral,
boundaries of sections with different grades
of ore or different ash content of coal, as-
saying points, boundaries of landslides, etc.;
(c) haulage lines in a quarry, pay-ore area
Ten
in Quarries
structures, hoists, trestles, power transmission
lines, pulp pipelines, etc.;
(d) flooded workings, cavities left after
underground mining work, fire zones, etc.
10.2. Reference and Survey Nets
and Surveying Work
10.2.1 Mine-Surveying Reference
Nets
Mine-surveying reference nets on deposits
extracted by open-cast methods are de-
veloped in accordance with the requirements
set forth to reference nets on the land surface
for the territories of economic interest of
mining enterprises. They may include tri-
angulation points, trilateration points, and
polygonometric points. Levelling bench
marks can be used as the reference basis for
surveying nets in quarries.
Modem organization of mine surveying in
open-cast mining of deposits is character-
ized by that the work proceeds successively
'from the general to particular', with mea-
surements at each stage of the work being
made with the specified accuracy. On the
land surface of a mining enterprise, a ref-
erence net beyond the limit of the design
contour of a quarry is formed initially. After
that, as the mining work is developed on the
quarry flanks, and sometimes inside a
quarry, reference points are set up in these
places, which are called approach points and
serve for the formation of a surveying net.
 10.2. Reference
A ,"
B \
-, ,
--
Fig. 10.1 Insertion of point into
development of reference net
Depending on the configuration of a quarry,
local conditiQns, methods of stripping
and provision of technical facilities, the ap-
proach points can be determined by the
methods of triangulation or polygonometry.
The method of triangulation is employed in
cases when approach points are readily vi-
sible from reference points. In such cases,use
is most often made of the insertion of one
(Fig. 10.1)or several points into a rigid angle,
construction of a chain pf triangles between
two fixed points (Fig. 10.2) or the construc-
tion of a geodetic quadrangle. In triangle
chains, the number of figures should be not
more than five. The angles of triangles should
1 2
/"7 JA 13\ """
'/134 fi5y
I 1'10
M N
~L~
4
3 on a scale 1/5000 should have at least three
Fig. 10.2 Construction of chain of triangles be-
tween two reference points
~
and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 239
I
,I
2 3
/-~ '>f'
~2' "1'
~.J
\ 6
~
.~-
) 6
B
Fig. 10.3 Construction of reference net by poly.
gonometry
~ be not less than 30 in chains or 20 in
c
rigid angle for
geodetic quadrangles.
The method of polygonometry is resorted to
in cases when there is no visibility between
the reference points and the points to be
determined (approach points), but the land
surface is quite convenient for linear meas-
urements to determine the approach points.
The polygonometry can also be used with
successon a rough terrain if it is possible to
employ light or radio range finders. Polygo-
nometric traverses are commonly run be-
tween the points of a mine-surveying reference
net (for instance, points A, B, and C in
Fig. 10.3).
10.2.2. Surveying Nets
Surveying nets are constructed on the basis
of points of a reference net. In surveying the
land surface, waste dumps and quarries,
surveying nets are constructed according to
the following requirements: the main points
R
of a surveying net should cover evenly the
1"12 survey surface area; their density is determi-
ned so as to have four points per km2 in
surveyings on a scale 1/5000, 10 points per
km2 on a scale 1/2000, or 16 points per km2
on a scale 1/1000; each surveying plate made
main points fixed by permanent centres; two
such points are sufficient on plates on a scale
240 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
of 1/2000 and one such point, on those on a
scale 1/1000.
Depending on the terrain relief, shape of a
quarry in plan, mining technology and some
other factors, surveying nets can be con-
structed by the following methods: method of
geodetic intersections; method of analytical
nets; method of theodolite traverses; method
of range lines; polar method; and method of a
rectangular network.
Since a survey control net has to exist only
for a relatively short time, it can be fixed by
permanent or temporary points in the form
of wooden page or metal rods driven into the
soil. In hard rocks, temporary points are
usually fixed by cross marks made on the
protruding portions of the rock. Survey
points are usually located on the lower
platform of each working bench at distances
not more than 400 m from one another.
Method of geodetic intersections is em-'
ployed in cases when the points of a survey-
ing net are located at appreciable distances
from those of a reference net. Right and side
intersections and reverse intersections (resec-
tions) are usually employed.
Right and side intersections are drawn from
at least three initial points. A resection is
drawn from four points, provided that the
point to be determined lies near the circle
passing through three of the four initial
points.
The coordinates of the points determined
by r.ight or side intersections are calculated
from two triangles; in the method of
resections, they are found from two versions.
In all cases,the final coordinates are taken as
the arithmetic means from two measure-
ments. The maximum discrepancy should not
exceed 0.8 m.
Method of analytical nets is employed in
quarries where both flanks are working
(moving). Analytical nets are constructed as
chains of triangles or other figures (geodetic
quadrangles, a central system, etc.) which are
supported by sides and points of a reference
net. Triangle chains and central figures are
used most often. The latter are employed for
constructing a surveying net on the lower
levels of quarries of a small area or of some
portions of a quarry, whereas triangle
chains are preferred in the quarries of an
elongated shape and appreciable depth. The
number of points detennined by an indi-
vidual triangle chain or figure should be not
more than seven. Triangles should have a
shape close to equilateral. The angles at the
points being determined should be not larger
than 120 or smaller than 30 and the side
lengths, not smaller than 300 m or greater
than 1000 m.
Angular measurements are commonly
made by means of theodolites. The permis-
sible angular discrepancy in triangles with
the side length up to 1000 m is l' and in those
with the side length more than 1000 m, 40".
Method of theodolite traverses is employed
in quarries having a large extention of the
front of mining and stripping work and
benches of a form convenient for linear
measurements. Theodolite traverses are run
between two known points A and B (points
of a reference net) or between closed poly-
gons. At junctions of theodolite traverses to
the initial points, there are measured the
angles between the junction side of a theo-
dolite traverse and two directions onto the
points of a reference net (Fig. 10.4).
The distances between the points of theo-
dolite trayerses should not exceed 400 m and,
as a rule, should be less than loo m. The
length of a traverse should be not more than
2.5 km.
The angles in theodolite traverses are
measured by theodolites. An angular dis-
crepancy should not exceed f fJ= 30"J~ ,
where n is the number of measured angles.
The three-stand scheme can be recommended
for angular measurements. The theodolites
should be centred with an accuracy not worse
than 2-3 mm.
The length measurements in theodolite
 10.2. Reference and
Fig. 10.4 Providing survey control by means of theodolite traverses
traverses can be made by means of steel or
cloth tapes or range finders. In some cases,
the lengths of traverse sides can be determined
by indirect methods, but in all casesall mea-
surements should be done in the forward and
reverse direction, and the relative difference
between two independent measurements
should be not more than 1/1000. The linear
discrepancies in theodolite traverses should
be not more than 1/3000 of the traverse
length. The corrections for temperature, tape
standardization, and horizontalization of
lines should be introduced into the measured
lengths. A temperature correction is intro-
duced in cases when the temperature at
measurements differs by more than 5 deg. C
from that at which the tapes have been
standardized. A correction for horizontaliza-
tion is introduced when the inclination angle
is larger than 10.
Linear measurements can also be carried
out by the optical method with the use of
optical range finders and range finder attach-
ments and a base-measuring (subtense) bar.
In some cases when the form of benches is
inconvenient for length measurements on the
ground and optical range finders are not
16-1270
Survey Nets and Surveying Work 241
available, it is possible to measure the lines of
a theodolite traverse by the indirect method of
geodetic intersections which is essentially as
follows. A theodolite traverse is run on the
working platform of a bench and connected
at the ends to the points of a reference net (I,
II, Fig. 10.5).Auxiliary points A, B, and C are
chosen at certain distances away from the
theodolite traverse line. Angles ~1' ~2' ~3' ...,
~17 are measured from the points of the
theodolite traverse line and lines I-I and 6-1I,
which are the refere~ bases, are measured
by a tape. The side l-A of a triangle IAl is
calculated by the sine theorem:
A-l
1-2= sma2
sin P4
In a similar way, the side 2-3 is calculated,
which is the connecting side for solving the
triangles constructed from the point B. The
calculations of the next series of triangles give
242 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries

~
I I
B C !
A
I'~ \ ): ~
~17
/~,
~,
\\ l~n ~
(15
6
" a-,'l: 8m
i \
\
\ {, I
I ,
Pel

"

Fig. 10.5 Indirect measuring of sides of theodolite traverse

a side 4-5 which is the basis for solving the nates of the point p 1 are found, In order to
last series of triangles constructed from the have an optimal shape of triangles, it is
point C. A check is done in this method by essential that the angles a and 13 be not
comparing the calculated length of the last smaller than 30, If however these angles are
line of a theodolite traverse, 6-11, with its smaller than 30, it is possible to sight the
length measured in the field. instrument at reference points located on
Method of range lines is employed in adjacent range lines (for instance, a point p 2
quarries where the working front is advanced and sighting at points B and F).
in one direction only, so that the reference Polar method of providing survey control
points fixed on the non-mining flank can be has become popular with the appearance of
easily observed from the working benches.
This method is especially convenient in cases 123 456 7
when the platforms of working benches have y ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~
III 111 IV v VI VII
a certain elevation above the ground surface I I I I I I
of the opposite flank of a quarry (Fig. 10.6). A B C D F G
For laying out a range line, a second- ~~~
order .polygonometric traverse is first run (A,
B, C, ..., G). With the known direction ~
angles of range lines, it is possible to calculate -7
the angles 'I' and <p according to which the
direction of a range line is assigned and fixed Oj:l=.: JJI.::.--I~ -:::.
by points A-l, B-2, C-2, ..., G-7. The points
of profile lines are laid off as follows. A point 1--

(say, p J is first fixed on a range line. The

theodolite is set up on that point and angles
a and 13 are measured. With these angles
being measured and the angles 'I' and <pand
~
P2
;:J
distances CD and DE being known, two side Fig. 10.6 Providing survey control by method of
intersections are calculated and the coordi- range lines
 10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 243

e
A< , ( I oB
[3
4

Aa<

.2 \{5
I l5 \ I
b\ ~

~ 2
~

DO .
j ~c
Fig. 10.8 Providing survey control by method of
rectangular network

geodetic light range finders. For successful
application of this method, a greater por-
tion of a quarry must be readily visible from
a few number of points ofa reference net. For
the construction of a surveying net, a light
range finder i.s set up on a point (A) of the
reference net, and light reflectors are set
(Fig. 10.7) up on surveying net points 1, 2, 3,
...which are to be determined. Upon
measuring the distances, the light range
finder is replaced by a theodolite to measure
polar angles ~l' ~2' ~3' etc.
Method of a rectangular network for the
construction of surveying nets is applicable in
quarries of a shallow depth and with a flat
relief of the surrounding land. A network of
rectangles is laid out on the territory of
deposit, and survey points are fixed in their
corners (Fig. 10.8).It is a common practice to
layout two systems of rectangles: the main
network with the side length d equal to 50 m,
loo m or 200 m and the densifying network
of rectangles with the side length dl equal to
5-40 m, which is used directly for surveying.
The orientation of the sides of a network is
chosen parallel (perpendicular) to the main
mining front or coincident with the orienta-
tion of a coordinate network.
For laying out a rectangular network, a
plan of the surface is compiled, which gives
the technical boundary of a quarry and a
number of reference net points (1, 2,3,4, 5)
near it. Then the directions of the axes of a
rectangular survey net are chosen, the rectan-
gular network is laid out, and the coordinates
of its corners are calculated on the plan. After
that, a project of the densification of the
reference net is designed so that its points can
be as close as possible to the corners of the
rectangular network; the densification net-
work is transferred into nature and fixed on
the ground. The corners of the network can
be fixed by laying off the distance and
direction angle from the closest reference
point or by the method of angular intersec-
tions with the use of one or two theodolites
(see Fig. 10.8).
For the transfer of surveying net points
onto the lower levels of a quarry or the
restoration of annihilated points, use is most

~
244 Ch. 10. Surveying
(a)
Fig. 10.9 Transfer (restoration) of surveying
angular intersection
often made of the method of range lines in
which two theodolites are set up on two
closest existing points (Fig. 10.9a),and a new
point is fixed at the intersection of their
collimation lines. It is also possible to use the
method of direct angular intersection. In that
case the position of a point of the reference
net is determined on the ground by laying off
two horizontal angles ~1 and ~2 by means of
two theodolites (Fig. 10.9b); the sought-for
point is then found at the intersection of the
collimation lines of the two instruments.
10.2.3. Elevation Control of Quarries
Elevation control is required for determi-
ning the heights of the points in a quarry.
The heights of the points of a surveying net
are measured by geometric or trigonometric
technical levelling.
Geometric levelling is usually employed in
quarries with railway transport. Technical
levels and levelling staffs of any type are
suitable for the purpose. Technical levelling
between the points of a reference net may be
done in one direction only; hanging lines are
permitted, provided that they are run in the
forward and reverse direction.
The readings in levelling are taken only
relative to a single line. The difference of
elevations determined on the black and red
face of staffs should not exceed 10 mm. The
permissible discrepancy of level lines is
in Quarries
(b)
L--L.
r--r- :J=' --r-!
.+-~
, ~ ' ,
.(, ~-+ --1
L 1 !
net points: (a) by method of range lines; (b) by method of
50JL mm, where Lis the length of the level
line, km.
Trigonometric levelling has found use in
quarries with railless transport and in cases
when a surveying net is formed by the
method of geodetic intersections. When de-
t.ermining the elevations of points by trigo-
nometric levelling, vertical angles are mea-
sured by means of theodolites at the same time
with measuring the horizontal angles; the
accuracy of reading-off devices of the vertical
circle of the instruments should be not worse
than 30". The heights of an instrument and
sighting target should be measured with an
accuracy to 1 cm. The measurements of ver-
tical angles can be controlled by the constant
place of the zero point of the vertical circle.
The deviations of the zero point should be
not greater than thrice the reading-off error
on the vertical circle.
Trigonometric levelling lines should be
connected to the points whose elevations
have been determined by geometric level-
ling. Their length should not exceed 2.5 km.
The permissible discrepancy between a for-
ward and reverse elevation is not more than
0.041cm where I is the length of a line, m. The
discrepancy of a levelling line, cm, should be
not more than
mh = 0.04[1]/J~
where [I] is the length of the levelling line, m,
and n is the number of levelling lines.
 10.2. Reference and
If the points of a surveying net are deter-
mined by the polar method or method of
geodetic intersections, the elevations between
the points are found by trigonometric level-
ling in the forward and back direction or in a
single direction only, but from at least two
points. In such cases,elevation discrepancies
(in centimetres) should be not more than
0.031for distances up to 1 km or 0.021for dis-
tances above 1 km (where 1 is the length of
the lines, m). If a side in one-sided levelling
exceeds 700 m, a correction for the Earth
curvature and refraction should be intro-
duced into the measured elevation.
10.2.4. Surveying in Quarries
The surveys of quarries and complemen-
tary surveys of benches can be carried out by
the following methods: tacheometry, method
of perpendiculars, plane-table survey, stereo-
photogrammetry, and their combinations.
For the compilation and complementation
of mining working plans, it is advisable,
where possible, to perform aerial and ground
stereophotogrammetric surveys.
Tacheometric survey is employed for:
(a) surveying of quarries where the mining
technology is such that the volume of ex-
tracted burden rock and that of the mineral
in the pillar can be determined directly from
the results of bench surveying;
(b) for surveying of quarries of a relatively
low capacity;
(c) for surveying of'dead' spaces obtained
in ground stereophotogrammetry; and
(d) for check surveying of mining workings
in the selective control of their plan posi-
tions and for surveys in cases where stereo-
photogrammetric methods are inefficient
or inapplicable.
Plane-table survey has found no wide ap-
plication. It is mainly used for single surveys
of small quarries or their portions when a
general plan of mining workings is to be
compiled.
Survey Nets and Surveying Work 245
The periodicity and sequence of surveys in
quarries are as follows: surveys of contours of
bench crests and blast holes are made only in
places where blasting work is to be perfor-
med. All other objects except for mineral
stores are surveyed only when a need arises.
Mineral stores are surveyed every ten days or
once a month depending on the method
adopted for calculating the amount of the
extracted mineral.
Surveys in quarries are made from the
points of a survey net. The distances between
these points on a bench should not exceed
300 m for a scale 1/1000 or 400 m for a scale
1/2000. It is permissible when needed to
determine the additional points of a survey-
ing net by running a single-sided hanging
theodolite traverse. The length of sides
should be not more than 300 m in surveys on
a scale 1/1000 or 400 m on a scale 1/2000.
The staff is set up on all characteristic
points of the contours and surfaces being
surveyed. In surveys on a scale 1/1000, the
distances between the staff points should not
exceed 20 m for the bench crests of intricate
shape or 30 m for the extended crests. In
surveys on a scale 1/2000 the respective
distances are 30 m and 40 m.
In the surveys of the surface of blasted rock
the distances between the staff points should
not exceed 10 m for a scale 1/1000 or 20 m,
for a scale 1/2000.
A sketch of bench contours is drawn at
each survey station (Fig. 10.10a).
A sma[[-sized geo[ogica[ a[timeter
(Fig. 10.11) has been developed in this coun-
try for the geological documentation of
quarry benches. The instrument is intended
for the remote measurements of vertical thick-
ness and dip angles of visible seams. It can
also determine the relative elevations of the
position of geological elements and other
objects.
The altimeter is essentially an optico-
mechanical goniometer provided with a di-
rect-image telescope and self-adjusting verti-
246 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries

(a) (b)

~ : 10--:~-- :~ ~
("I cpi "' LO ~
~~-,I.:Lg--- o-~~ -13 ("II ("I.
c.;
(I)
c-.
~ v.:.-~ -- 39.71-
0:
~ ;15 -:.~,;~5~~
~
~ 3 \

~I-- --'0
ir::::njt1r~

Fig. 10.10 Sketch of bench contours: (a) by tacheometric method; (b) by method of perpendiculars

cal circle with scales of elevations and (b) eliminates the need in staffmen and thus
vertical angles. The working portions of increases the safety of work;
measuring scales are visible directly in the (c) provides a large choice of points in
telescope. compiling plans by photographs and thus
The range of measured elevations is better characterizes the section surveyed; and
:t 10 m for a sighting length up to 10 m or (d) involves all visible objects including
:t 20 m for a sighting length of 20-40 m. The those which are inaccessible for tacheometry.
range of measured visible dip angles is :t 90.
The error in the measurements of the vertical
thickness of seamsis not more than 5 cm and
that of the visible dip angles of seams, 1. The
mass of the instrument is 1.5 kg.
Method of perpendiculars can be employed
efficiently for the surveys of bench crests with
simple contours when the required number of
staff points is not large (Fig. 10.10b).
The surveying net for the method of
perpendiculars is constructed in the form of
theodolite traverses or as a rectangular net-
work. The length of ordinates, as a rule,
should not exceed 30 m. For a length more
than 15 m, they should be set up by means of
a right-angle mirror. Lengths are measured
by tapes and rounded off to decimetres. The
distances between the staff points are chosen
according to the recommendations given for
tacheometric surveys.
Stereophotogrammetric surveying of quar-
ries. In recent time, stereophotogrammetry
Fig. 10.11 Geological altimeter: l-eye-piece;
has come into use in many quarries in place
of tacheometric surveying, which offers the 2-housing; 3-adjusting level; 4-reading-otT
magnifying glass; 5- horizontal circle; 6- base;
following advantages: 7-levelling wedges;8-handle; 9-horizontal sight-
(a) increases the labour productivity of the ing screw; 10-vertical sighting screw; ll-tele-
field work; scope; 12-focussing device
 10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 247

Ground and aerial stereophotogrammetry A

can be employed.
Ground stereophotogrammetry can be used
either independently or in combination with
tacheometric surveying.
Stereophotogrammetry can determine and
represent graphically the shape, dimensions, c
and spatial positions of objects and relief of
the Earth's surface. It is especially efficient in
large quarries. To compile a plan of a quarry
section, this section is photographed stereo-
scopically from two points at the ends of a
I
base S1S2 (Fig. 10.12). The two photographs
of the same portion of land, when viewed
through a stereoscopic device, produce a 'I
three-dimensional effect. When made from s -1J / B~h ~S
two ends of a base line they represent a
stereoscopic pair whose principal elements
are as follows:
(1) the left-pand (PJ and right-hand pho-
f!i!f: 1

~
C1
/ ~

a
'y-

I
~
,11\ 2

tograph (P 2);
t2) the centres of projection of the left-hand
and right-hand photograph, SI and S2' or the
rear optical centres of the two objectives of
stereophotogrammetric camera;
(3) the photographic base Bph = S1S2
which is also equal to the distance between
the centres of projection of the photo-
graphs;
(4) beam bundles alSlA, ~ISIC, a2S2A,
C2S2C,etc., i. e. the combination of projecting
beams which form images on the photo-
graphs;
(5) the main beams S101 and S202 which
are perpendicular to the planes of photo-
graphs;
(6) the main points 01 and O2, i. e. the
points of intersection of the main beams with
the planes of photographs;
(7) identical points a1 and a2' c1 and C2'
etc.;
(8) the images of the same point on the
land on the photographs of a stereoscopic
paIr;
(9) corresponding beams Slal' S2a2' etc.;
and
J
C2
a.,
Fig. 10.12 Elements of stereoscopic pair
(10) the focal distances of photographs
!1 = 8101 and!2 = 8202.
In stereophotogrammetry, the'position of a
point on the land is determined by a direct
spatial intersection which is formed by the
projecting beams passing through tq~ left-
and right-hand point of the base. For in-
stance, the position of a point C (see
Fig. 10.12)can be determined if the directions
of projecting beams c181C and c282C are
known. The surface formed by the plurality
of the points of intersection of corresponding
projecting beams is called the geometrical
model, or simply model.
Photographic cameras for making stereo-
photographs are provided with devices which
ensure their definite and fixed position
during exposure. A photographic camera can
also be combined with a theodolite, and the
combination is called a photo theodolite.
The stereophotogrammetry of quarries can
be performed from a fixed base on the
248 Ch. 10. Surveying
ground or from a flying object (aeroplane). It
is distinguished between two principal cases
of ground photogrammetry: with a hori-
zontal position of the optical axis of a
photographic camera (horizontal stereo-
photogrammetry) and with the optical axis
inclined substantially relative to the hori-
zontal (oblique, or perspective, stereophoto-
grammetry).
Horizontal stereophotogrammetry is easier
to make and has an essential advantage over
the oblique method, since the latter requires
more intricate techniques of photoreading.
Horizontal stereophotogrammetry is usu-
ally done as a combination of three cases:
with the optical axis of a photographic ca-
mera directed perpendicular to the base and
deviated by 30-35 to the left and right from
this position (Fig. 10.13).
The coordinates of points on photographs
are determined in a rectangular system of
coordinates (x'x' and z'z' in Fig. 10.14).The
point of intersection of coordinate axes, 0', is
the origin of coordinates. The coordinates of
a parti<;ular point a, as measured on a
photograph, are commonly called the pho-
tocoordinates (xa, Za).
Coordinate marks are fixed so that the
point 0' which is the origin of coordinates,
and the main point 0 of a photograph, are
perfectly coincident. In that case, the coor-
Fig. 10.13 Horizontal stereopho togrammetri c
survey
in auarries
dinates of the main point, Xo and Zo, are
equal to zero.
The coordinates of points on the land are
determined in the coordinate system adopted
for a quarry. In contradistinction to photo-
coordinates, they are designated by capital
letters xYZ.
The coordinates of points on the land are
determined on photographs according to the
positions of the bundles of projecting beams
at the instant of exposure. The characteristics
that determine the positions of beam bundles
are called the elements of the orientation of a
photograph (which are subdivided into
external and internal).
The elements of internal orientation in-
clude the focal distance (focal length) of a
camera and the coordinates of the main point
Xo, Zo. Among the elements of external
orientation (Fig. 10.15)are the coordinates of
the left-hand end of a photographic base,
Xs , ys and Zs ; the angle of inclination of
thelmaih beam 6f the left-hand photograph,
(J)1;the angle of turn of the left-hand photo-
graph in its plane, "1; the oblique angle of the
left-hand photograph <Pl which is equal to
the angle between the projection of the main
beam of that photograph onto a horizontal
plane and the perpendicular to the projection
of the photographic base onto the same
plane; the direction angle of the photographic
Fig. 10.14 Coordinate system of photograph
 10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 249
xph

<p
/ /~ :..'
Yph
ZPh / // /
//
/
1112
(111
~ c /

/ --\-"' ff 2

x /
190 8
~ ./

/
~
HoLta,
/ x ,.../ S1 i , Xph /

01 xI I Base
B ,
ys z X ,.ls, z 2
---1 I
x ~ / / Horizontal.11
,I
/
02 X X2
I':/
/ / Xs1 1

Fig. 10.15 Element of external orientation of stereoscopic pair

base QB; the projection of the photographic
base onto a horizontal plane; the height
difference of the right-hand- end of the
photographic base above the left-hand end,
Az; the angle 'of inclination of the main beam
on the right-hand photograph, m2; the angle
of the turn of the right-hand photograph in
its plane, "2; and the angle made by the main
beam projections of the photographs onto a
horizontal plane, y (Figc 10.16). With a posi-
tive angle y, the main beams are convergent,
and the angle y formed by them is caned the
angle of convergence; with a negative y, the
main beams are divergent, and y is called the
angle of divergence.
The coordinates Xs , ys , and Zs , the
photographic base Bp~, arid its dirbction
angle QBare determined by geodetic methods.
The oblique angles of photographs are set up
by the orientation device of a phototheo-
dolite. The inclinatio~ angles of the main
beams of photographs, m, and the angles of
the turn of photographs, ", are reduced to
nearly zero values by means of spirit levels
mounted on the camera.
The mine-surveying plans of land surface
and mining workings art: usually constructed
in a left-hand system of coordinates, whereas
stereophotogrammetry employs a right-hand
coordinate system. In both cases, however,
the z-axis is arranged vertically.
Let us analyse a case of normal stereo-
photogrammetric survey (see Fig. 10.16) in
which the optical axes of the photographic
cameras set up in points SI and S2 are
parallel to each other and perpendicular to
the photographic base Bph. It is assumed in
this example that:
(a) axis Xphcoincides with the direction of
the photographic base;
(b).axis yph coincides with the direction of
the optical axis of the photographic camera
set up in the point SI (the left-hand end point
of the base); and
(c) axis Zphhas a direction perpendicular to
the plane formed by the two other axes.
250 Ch. 10. Surveying
-:4
<
"-
Fig. 10.16 Normal stereophotogrammetric survey
We have to determine the photogram-
metric coordinates of a point K on the land.
Let the image of the point K on the
left-hand photograph be denoted by k, and
that on the right-hand one, kr (see Figs. 10.16
and 10.17). The designations adopted in the
figures are as follows: Yph'Xph'and Zphare the
photogrammetric coordinates of the point K
on the land (Yphis also called the distance to
the point K); XI is the abscissa of the point k,
on the left-hand photograph; Xr is the ab-
scissa of the point kr on the right-hand
photograph; ZI is the ordinate of the point k,
on the left-hand photograph; Bph is the
photograI'hic base; and fc is the focal length
of the photographic camera of a phototheo-
dolite.
Noting the similarity of triangles KK'Sl
and k,k~Sl (see Fig. 10.17), we can write:
Yphlfc= Bphl(XI -Xr)
Denoting X, -Xr = p (which is called the
horizontal parallax, or x-parallax), we can
write the formula in the form:
BpJc Bp,jc
Yph=-=- (10.1)
xi -Xr p Yph .and the maximum permissible distance
in Quarries
~
..A'
From the similarity of triangles SlOK
and Slojkj, it may be written:
Xph/Yph= Xj/!c or Xph= (Xj/!c)Yph
Substituting for Yph' we get:
Xph= BphX,/P (10;2)
Similarly:
Zph= BphZj/P (10.3)
As follows from these formulae, in order to
determine the photogrammetric coordinates
Yph' Xph' Zphof points, one has to know the
photographic base in nature and the focal
length of the photographic camera of a
phototheodolite and to find on the photo-
graphs the values of X" Z" and p. The length
of a photographic base, the distance from the
photo theodolite to the objects being pho-
tographed, and the focal length of a photo-
graphic camera are considered the principal
parameters of a stereophotogrammetric
survey.
All objects of a stereophotogrammetric
survey should always lie within a range
between the minimum permissible distance
mln
 10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 251

Fig. 10.17 Determining photogrammetric coordinates of point on terrain

Y ph from the pho-tographic base. The for- Depending on the length of the photo-
mer IS needed "lor the appearance of a stereo-
max
graphic base, accuracy requirements, and
scopic effect and the latter ensures the possibilities of photoreading, the length of the
specified accuracy of measurements. photographic base can be determined by one
The minimum permissible distance de- of the following methods:
pends on the technical characteristics of (I) if a quarry or land portion is surveyed
stereoscopic devices and the specifics of the for mapping, the base can be calculated by
stereoscopic vision of an observer. It can be the formula:
determined by the formula: 2
Yph .= (3-4)Bph (10.4) B=Q~ (10.6)
mln
Mfctmin
The maximum permissible distance is
where y f is the distance to the farther boun-
found by the formula:
Mfc ~ dary of the working portion of a given
Yph = 1.25-tmin (10.5) stereoscopic pair and Q is a coefficient which
max loo is taken equal to 15 for a single survey of a
quarry and to 20 for mapping of the land
where fc is the focal length of a phototheo-
surface;
dolite; M is the denominator of the scale of (2) in monthly complementary surveys for
the plan to be compiled; tmin = COS~ = calculating the volumes of excavator cuts, the
= (x2/fc)sin~ (here ~ is the oblique angle of
base length is found by the formula:
a photograph and X2 is t~e largest coordinate y} .
x on the right-hand photograph within the Bph = ( 10.7)
limits of the stereoscopic pair working stage). 1.8 Mfcdmvtmin
252 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries

Fig. 10.18 Determining useful area of stereogram
where d is the width of a cut, m; mv is the
specified root-mean square error of the vol-
ume measurement, %; and YI'fc, tmin and M
as in formulae (10.5) and (10.6).
It is also essential to know the overlapping
area in a stereoscopic pair taken from a
particular photographic base. Consider, for
example, the photographic base SlS2
(Fig. 10.18). We construct the horizontal vi-
sion angles (working angles) a of a photo-
theodolite on the land from the ends of the
base. The useful area F us' confined by points
abcd, is depicted on each photograph of the
stereo pair and later processed in a stereo-
comparator.
It can be written by reference to Fig. 10.17:
Fus= (D/t)(Lmin + Lmax) (10.8)
where D is the depth of a survey; Lmin is the
closer base of a trapezium; and Lmax is the
farther base of a trapezium. The trapezium
bases can be found by the formulae:
a ( Bph
Lmin = 2tan 2 3.5Bph-Tcotan
a
2 )
Lmax = 2tan-
a (Yph Bph
--cotan-
a
) (10.10)
2 max 2 2
Noting these expressions, the formula for
the useful survey area will be as follows:
(10.11)
Ground stereophotogrammetric surveying
includes reconnaissance, geodetic measure-
ments, and land photography.
Reconnaissance is done for selecting the
locations of the points of a referenee net,
photographic bases, and fiducial (correcting)
points. Since the length, number and dire:c!-
tion of photographic bases can influence
substantially the productivity of the survey
work, it is advisable to have a minimum
number of bases that is sufficient to cover the
entire survey area without leaving 'dead'
spaces (Fig. 10.19).
In order to obtain the required accuracy in
the determinations of the coordinates of
points on the photographs of stereoscopic
pairs and the horizontal parallax at each
station, it is essential to establish a number of
fiducial (correcting) points whose coordi-
nates are determined by the photogram-
metric or geodetic method. Thus, it is pos-
sible to compare the coordinates obtained by
two independent methods and to check the
ste~eophotogrammetric survey. Three cor-
recting points are usually established for
each photographed stereoscopic pair at each
station. One of these points should be located
in the closer plan and the other two, in the
farther plan of the area being photographed.
In order to decreasethe number of correcting
points, some of them are usually made com-
mon for adjacent stereoscopic pairs.
Places for establishing the photographic
bases are chosen so that the bases can be
(10.9)
~llel to the working front and at the same
level with the objects to be photographed (or
somewhat above them). It is also essential
that the height difference of the ends of the
photographic basesbe as small as possible. In
stereoscopic photographs of a quarry taken
from an inclined base, the like points will be
displaced relative to each other (vertical f)a-
 10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 253

Base3 (200 m) photographic bases can be located on the

Base3a (BOm) ~
flanks of a quarry if the quarry depth is not
Base2 (170m) ./1 \ large; in deep quarries, photographic bases
Base2a (60 m) ./ .I;:-, ~ i are arranged on bench berms;
1/ .';Z:A'.-~ (2) in working systems with internal waste
I ~, 'x::i .\',. \-
I .1 ~' I ~// \ - dumps and in those with conveyer bridges,
, .i" <." zee""7-:7'\ -.) -
~ --' ,~ / /-r- . photographic bases are located directly on
\ ( \~ /
\ ---"t;..~:7 the dumps;
.\ (3) in combined working systems where
Basel(80m) ...\ Base4(100m:
\ rocks are transported to external and
\ internal waste dumps, the upper and lower
t;') \
I I H8 ~ benches are photographed separately. The
1 Base 5 (100 m)
~I
upper benches are photographed from the
"'1 ,.\
\ ,
baseslocated on a non-working flank and the
.. \ lower ones, from the bases on internal waste
Fiducial'
)
points I
dumps.
To take photographs, tripods are set up at
~ the ends of a base. A theodolite is arranged
on the left-hand end of a base (relative to the
direction onto the objects to be photo-
J graphed) in order to measure the length of
the base line. After that, the photographic
100 0 100 200m camera is oriented relative to the base, and
Fig. 10.19 Example ,of stereophotogrammetric photographs are taken from the left-hand
survey of quarry and right-hand end of the base. The optical
axis of the camera is arranged normally to
rallax). This effect can be fully avoided or at the direction of the base line.
least minimized to a tolerable level in a Geodetic work in ground stereophoto-
stereocomparator only in cases when the grammetry includes the following operations:
height difference between the ends of the I. Determination of the planimetric co-
photographic base is not more than O.3Bph. ordinates of the left-hand points of basesand
Besides,base points should be established in measurements of base lengths. The length of
places where they can be preserved for a long a photographic base can be measured by a
time. Adjacent bases should be chosen so as tape, wire or other instruments, provided that
to ensure the specified overlap in adjacent the discrepancy between the forward and
stereoscopic pairs. Places for the location of back measurements is not more than
photographic bases should be chosen so that 1/5000-1/2000 of the base length. The pla-
a porti~~ of quarry or land can be photo- nimetric coordinates of the left-hand base
graphed With the least possible number of points can be determined by triangulation,
stereoscopic pairs. method of analytic network, by intersections
Depending on the size of quarries, working and resections, polygonometric or theodolite
systems, and the orientation of the mining traverses, polar method, and photogram-
front, the following versions of the arrange- metry.
ment of bases in quarries are possible: 2. Determination of a direction angle. The
(1) in working systems with overburden direction angle (aB) of a photographic base is
transportation to external waste dumps, found by measuring in the left-hand base
254 Ch. 10. Surveying
point of horizontal angles between the di-
rection from that point onto the right-
hand point of the base and the direction
formed by two certain points of a geodetic
reference net. These angles are measured with
an accuracy not worse than 5". The error in
the measured direction angle of a base should
be not more than:
me
ma =
D (3) the phototheodolite is oriented onto the
2yphmax
where p" = 206265" and meis the permissible
root-mean square error in determining the
positions of contour points.
3. Determination of the elevation marks of
bases and correcting points by technical
geometric levelling.
The correcting points are fixed by placing
marks on them, which are made as screensof
plywood or another material. The vertical
and horizontal sizes (b and a) of screens are
calculated by the formulae:
b = O.12yp h /j~, a = O.O6yPh /fc
max max
(10.13)
Photography proper is a critical procedure
in stereophotogrammetric surveys of quar-
ries, since the quality of negatives produced is
decisive for the accuracy with which the point
coordinates and parallax will be detemlined.
The best results are obtained on sunny cloud-
less days. During exposure, the Sun should be
behind or sideways of a surveyor. On cloudy
days, it should be observed that the objects
being photographed are not shaded by
clouds at the instant of exposure. Photo-
graphs are made on high-contrast repro-c
duction films or plates.
When making the photographic field work,
the phototheodolite is set up on one of the
base points so that two of its foot screws are
arranged along the direction of a base line. A
lifting apparatus with a sighting mark is
established on the other base point; the foot
screws of this apparatus should also be
in Quarries
oriented along the direction of a base line.
Photographs are taken by the techniques
including the following procedures:
(I) tripods with lifting devices are set up on
both points of a base line, and the elevation
of the left-hand base point is measured;
(2) the phototheodolite is then arranged on
the left-hand point, and the sighting mark, on
the right-hand point;
(101?)
, ,
right-hand point of the base, and it is checked
that the camera lens is closed;
(4) a plate-holder (film-holder) is set in
place, and its shutter is withdrawn;
(5) the plate-holder is pressed against the
focal frame of the camera by means of a
screw on the back cover; the serial number of
the photograph to be taken and the number
of a station are set up on the numerator, and
the kind of photograph (normal or with
right- or left-hand deviation) is recorded;
(6) the positions of spirit levels and the
orientation of the phototheodolite are
checked;
(7) the correct exposure time is deter-
mined;
(B) the plate is exposed, and the positions
of spirit bubbles and phototheodolite orien-
tation are checked again;
(9) the holder shutter is closed, and the
plate-holder is taken off from the camera;
(10) new photographs are taken irl this
way, with the camera axis shifted first to the
left and then to the right;
(II) the phototheodolite is taken off, and a
sighting mark is set up in its place; and
(12) the photo theodolite is set up on the
right-hand base point to take new photo-
~\ graphs as described.
Stereophotogrammetric office work includes
the processing of exposed plates (films) in a
laboratory, preparatory work, and the com-
pilation of the plans of mining workings.
The preparatory work includes the fol-
lowing procedures:
(a) calculation of the geodetic coordinates
 10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work

and elevations of base points and reference Zphi

points;
(b) preparation of the processing appara- al,
tus; and
(c) preparation to the correction of a
model.
The results of the planimetric and ele-
vation surveying of bases and correcting
points are processed in the office by common
geodetic methods. The most popular one is rph

the graphometric method with the use of

stereoautographs and other devices operating
by the principle of photogrammetric inter- ordinates of points of bench crests. Volumes
sections. These devices can solve mechani- are calculated by means of digital models or
cally the formulae for the normal and tables of positions of benches with their
equi-deviated cases of photogrammetric sur- characteristic cross-sectional areas. If vertical
vey. sections are used (Fig. 10.20), the areas are
The coordinates of the points of a terrain calculated by the following formulae:
are determined on stereophotographs by a -" , a -" ,
means of stereocomparators. The operating ;,u-Yph;,u-Yph;.u' ;,I-Yph;,I-Yphi,1
principle of a stereocomparator reduces to a; = 0.5 (a;,u + ai,,)
the reconstruction of the land portion photo- h 'i = Zi,u, -Z;,I' , h "; = Zi,u" -Z;,I "
graphed at a particular instant by construc-
ting a geometrical model. Each point of the h=0.5 (h~+h'~
, ,
), S.=a.h.
, , ,

model is obtained by making intersections

from the ends of the projection base.
The planimetric coordinates of points, x
and y, are found graphically in the stereo-
autograph and fixed by counters, in mil-
limetres, on the scale of a model. The eleva-
tions of points are read off, in metres, from
the altitude counter of the stereoautograph.
By combining the stereoautograph with a
plotting table (coordinatograph), it is possible
to construct plans and profiles and deliver
the planimetric and height coordinates of
points onto a perforated tape or printer.
Plotting a plan is started from drawing the
elements of hydrography. After that, hori-
zontals are plotted. In the plans of moun-
tainous regions, plotting horizontals is star-
ted from the highest points.
The results of the stereophotogrammetric
survey of a quarry can be used for calculating
the volume of mined rock. This can be done
by using the measured photogrammetric co-
256 Ch. 10. Surveying
oblique stereophotogrammetry, the optical
axis of a camera is held at a specified angle to
the vertical.
The planimetric aerial stereophotogram-
metry of quarries is carried out from specially
equipped aeroplanes and helicopters control-
led by an on-board electronic computer. This
ensures automatically that the aircraft will
follow very accurately the given survey route
at the specified altitude. The computer also
calculates the paths of turns and takes into
account descending and ascending air cur-
rents and the velocity and direction of wind.
The equipment of an air-survey aircraft can
control automatically the frequency of expo-
sures. The brightness of the land surface is
measured continuously by exposure meters,
and the variations of the terrain relief are
traced by locators.
Since aerial photographs are taken from an
appreciable altitude, aerophotogrammetric
cameras are of the fixed-focus type, i. e.
focussed at the infinity. Photographs are
made mostly on a photographic film. A large
number of photographs (up to 200-300) can
be taken without recharging the camera. The
size of photographs can be 18 cm x 18 cm or
30 cm x 30 cm.
As may be seen from Fig. 10.21 which
shows the scheme of taking an aerial photo-
graph of a terrain, an aerial photograph is the
central projection of the terrain with the
projection centre in a point S.
The distance fc along the perpendicular
drawn from the projection centre S onto the
plane of an aerial photograph is ,called the
main focal distance (length) of an ~rial pho-
tographic camera. The point of intersection
of that perpendicular with the plane of a
photograph (point 0) is the main point of an
aerial photograph. The vertical line SN is
called the photographic altitude (or clearance)
(H), and the point where this line intersects
the plane of a photograph is called the
photographic nadir. The angle OSN (a) is
conventionally called the angle of inclination
in 01
Fig. 10.21 Taking aerial photograph of terrain
of a photograph. If this angle is equal to zero,
a photograph is called horizontal.
A horizontal photograph of a flat hori-
zontal terrain is virtually the plan of that
terrain. The scale of a horizontal photograph
is equal to the main scale, i. e. 1 : m = fc : H.
Aerial photographs with the angle of incli-
nation to the horizontal up to 3 are termed
planimetric. With the inclination angles more
than 3, oblique, or perspective, aerial photo-
graphs are obtained.
Before making an aerial photogrammetric
survey, it is required to make calculations for
selecting the survey parameters.
For quarries with the rate of face advan-
cement not more than 30 m, the recom-
mended scale of an aerial photogrammetric
survey is l/Ms = 1/10000; if the rate of face
advancement exceeds 30 m, it is advisable to
use the scale l/Ms = 1/15000.
The selected values of l/Ms are then com-
pared with its value calculated by the
formula:
--- 1.4m~
(10.14)
D
Ms-(~).
where m~ = 0.02 mm is the root-mean
 10.2. Reference and Survey Nets and Surveying Work 257

Table 10.1 ""'

Maximum fc, 'M, Maximum J;.
depth of rnrn depth of mm
quarry, m quarry, m

15000 up to 300 100 '10000 up to 300 100

18000 up to 200 100 300-400 140
200-300 140 400-500 200
300-500 200

square displacement of contour in plan .x v

expressed on the scale of a photograph;
mv/v = 2.5% is the specified accuracy in de-
termining the volume of extracted rock; and
D is the width of a face.
If it turns out that the survey scale cal-
culated by formula (10.14) is larger than that
adopted initially, the aerial survey should be
carried out on a larger scale.
The focal length fc of the aerial photo-
graphic camera for quarry surveying is cho-
sen depending on the selected scale M. and
the depth of the quarry by reference to
Table 10.1
The photographic altitude H ph above the
medium plane of the quarry is calculated by
the formula:
Hph = fcM.
Fig. 10.22 Making two courses of flight for aerial
photography of quarry of intricate configuration
should have a longitudinal (forward) lap (Fig.
10.23)which is denoted by p and expressedas
percentage of the side I of a photograph. The
longitudinal lap can be calculated by the
formula:
h
p = 62 + 50 ~ (10.15)
2Hph
If parallel courses are plotted, the photo-
graphs of adjacent courses should have a
lateral (side} lap q which is e~pressed as
percentage of the photograph side length and
calculated by the formula:

The photographed materials are processed

in stereophotogrammetric apparatus with
projector cameras similar to those used for
taking photographs. The projector cameras
and negatives are arranged mutually in the
same positions they had at the instant of
exposure. In this way there is formed a
spatial model of the surveyed terrain on a
reduced scale, which is analysed by means of
a binocular microscope and spatial marks.
For aerial surveys of quarries, a flight
course for a photoairC!:alt should be plotted.
For most quarries, a single course is usually where 1 is the size of a photograph and m is
sufficient. For those of an intricate confi- its scale.
guration and large dimensions, a number of An inclination angle of a photograph caus-
courses are plotted (Fig. 10.22). es the displacements of points on it. For
Aerial photographs taken along a course planimetric aerial photographs, it can be
17-1?70
 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries

~
Fig. 10.23 Longitudinal and lateral laps of photographs in courses

taken approximately that the displacements displacements on aerial photographs (Fig.

take place in the direction of a line con- 10.24). Introducing the designations: AAo = h
necting a particular point with the main is the height difference of a point A above a
point of the photograph. Depending on the point N; SN = H is the photographic alti-
location of a point and the inclination angle tude; aO = r is the distance on an aerial
of the photograph, this displacement can be photograph from a point a to the main point
directed towards the main point or away of a photograph 0; and aao = L\r is the
from it. The maximum displacement of a displacement of a point on a photograph due
point in planimetric photographs under the -q-Qo Q
effect of the inclination angle can be deter-
mined by the approximate formula (see Fig.
10.21):
8" = (r2/fc) (a/p) (10.18) ~s

where r is the distance from the given point

to the main point of a photograph; a is the
inclination angle of a photograph; and
p = 57.3!1.
For instance, the maximum displacement
of a point on a photograph withfc = 200 mm,
r = 50 mm, and a = 2 will be:
8" = (502/200) (2/57.3) = 0.4 mm
~
It then follows that the displacements of
points on aerial photographs under the effect "
of the inclination angle are mostly insignifi-
cant and in some cases can be neglected. AO N
,
Since the points of the physical surface of the Fig. 10.24?Determining displacements of points
Earth are located at different heights relative on aerial photographs owing to the effect of land
to a level surface, this oauses their different relief
 10.2. Reference and
MO
Fig. 10.25 Longitudinal parallax and its relation
to distance from point on land to photographic
base
to the terrain relief, it may be written that:
Ar = rh/H (10.19)
Experience shows that the distortions in
aerial photographs increase with increasing
distance of points from the main point of a
photograph. Thus, in operation with aerial
photographs, it is advisable to utilize only the
central portion of photographs, which is
called the useful (working) area, rather than
the entire area. Practically, the useful area of
a photograph is limited by the lines drawn in
the mid of the longitudinal and lateral lap.
Photographs obtained by aerial stereopho-
togrammetry have a longitudinal lap more
than 50%. Thus, each portion of a terrain is
depicted on two photographs. Let the point
M I of the terrain (Fig. 10.25) be represented
by a point mI on the left-hand photograph
and by a point m~ on the right-hand photo-
graph. The distances from the photographic
centres to these points are mI OI = xi on the
left-hand photograph and m~O2 = -x.. on
the right-hand on~)The difference xI -x.. =
= PI is called the lon-gitudinal parallax. Con-
sidering similar triangles m~m~S2 and
17.
Survey Nets and Surveying Work 259
S1S2Ml' we have:
H1 = Bphfc/P1 (10.20)
This expression can also be written for any
other point on the terrain, say, M 2:
H2 = Bp/c/P2 (10.21)
Since the elevation difference of two points
can be regarded as the difference of their
distances, then:
h=H2-H1
Noting expressions (10.20) and (10.21), we
obtain:
h= ~ -~ = Bp/c(P1 -P2)
P2 P1 PtP2
Denoting (Pi -Pi+ J by Lip. we can finally
write:
h=~
(10.22)
Pi+ ~p
On aerial photographs with an inclination
angle or non-horizontal base, Pi and ~P turn
out to be distorted. For that reason, before
calculating the elevation differences, the valu-
es of Pi and ~P are corrected for the effect of
the inclination angle and inclined base line.
This problem can be solved analytically or
with the use of photogrammetric devices.
The observations and measurements on
aerial photographs are made by a stereosco-
pic method. The simplest stereoscopic device
is a stereoscope in which a left-hand photo-
graph is mounted at the left and viewed by
the left eye and the right-hand one is moun-
ted at the right and viewed by the right eye.
In this method, a direct stereoscopic effect is
produced, i. e. points which are closer to an
observer in nature will be seen closer in a
stereomodel.
Before the aerial surveys of a quarry, it is
required to carry out field preparations. In
particular, each stereoscopic pair should be
provided with four points of planimetric and
260 Ch. 10. Surveying
elevation control (control points, or beacons),
which are usually arranged in places where
they can be preserved for a long time and
used in subsequent aerial surveys. The plani-
metric coordinates of the control points
should be determined with an accuracy speci-
fied for the coordinates of survey net points.
The elevation marks of control points are
determined with the accuracy of technical
levelling.
Aerial photographs are processed for the
purpose of compilation and complementa-
tion of mining work plans. This is done in
all-purpose stereophotogrammetric devices.
Irrespective of the type of device, processing
includes the preparatory work, mutual orien-
tation of aerial photographs in the device,
and geodetic orientation.
The preparatory work includes the prepa-
ration of plates (application of kilometre
network and control points), manufacture of
transparencies, preparation of aerial photo-
graphs, checking of the device, calculation of
model scale, focal lengths of cameras, etc.
The mutual orientation of aerial photo-
graphs is essentially the determination of the
position of one photograph in a stereo pair
relative to the other. This procedure can be
performed by various motions depending on
the design of a particular device. For instan-
ce, one of the cameras may be considered to
be fixed and forms a stationary basis relative
to which the position of the other camera is
measured.
The mutual orientation in a stereophoto-
grammetric device is carried out by observing
successively a number of points on photo-
graphs and eliminating their lateral parallax.
Though the problem is solved by the method
of successive approximations, the resulting
solution is quite accurate (to the accuracy
offered by the apparatus for the elimination
of lateral parallax).
The geodetic orientation of a geometrical
model includes its scaling and horizontali-
zation. The scaling consists in determining
in Quarries
the ratio of like line sections s and S taken
respectively on the restored and photo-
graphed surfaces, i. e. l/m = s/S.
In order to determine the scale of a model,
at least two control points should be avail-
able. The horizontalization of the model
reduces to determining the angles of turn of
the model on the corresponding axes x and y
of the geodetic system of coordinates.
Thus, for solving the problem of geodetic
orientation of the model, it is required to
have at least three control points, all the
coordinates being known for two of them and
the elevation mark, for the third point. In
geodetic orientation, the plate is also orien-
ted. For this purpose, the measuring mark of
the device is matched with one of reference
points, and the centre of a focussing micro-
scope is set up above the corresponding point
on the plate. The microscope is then sighted
onto another reference point, and the plate is
turned until the centre of the microscope will
be on the line connecting these points.
10.3. Mine-Surveying Coverage
of Drilling
and Blasting Work
Mine-surveying servicing (coverage) of
drilling and blasting work consists in the
following:
(a) preparation of the initial materials for
making a plan of blasting operations;
(b) transfer of the blasting plan into
nature;
(c) determination of the actual positions of
blasting holes after drilling; and
(d) determination of the volume of blasted
rock and the location of worked-out area
after rock excavation.
A plan of blasting operations is compiled
on a scale of 1/1000 or 1/500. Surveys are
carried out for the purpose, which have to
determine the following characteristics: the
position of the upper bench crest; boundaries
of the slope fully cleared up by excavation;
 10.3. Mine-Surveying Coverage of Work 261

boundaries of the muck pile left after earlier

blasting work; elevations of the characteristic (a\
points of the upper and lower berms of a
bench (in intervals not more than 20 m);
positions of contact-line supports and rail-
way tracks (in quarries with railway trans- / II
/ "
port); boundaries of rocks in the massif with "
different characteristics of drillability and "
/
explosibility; positions of tectonic disturb- QJ

ances and characteristics of cleavage cracks; ~ / ..,i~, "

0.

~I
boundaries of a dangerous zone as deter-
I
/ , ~
4 /
mined by the rules of blasting work and
positions of buildings and structures near
that zone.
According to the plan of blasting opera- ~
tions, the design positions of the mouths of
blasting holes are transferred into nature and (b)
fixed by pegs with marks indicating the
number of a hole, the number of a drilling rig,
't-:
the design depth of a hole, and the soil
resistance. In laying out the hole mouths, the
mine surveyor, as a rule, transfers instrumen-
tally into nature only the boundaries of the
block to be blasted and marks them on the
upper crest of a bench. The mouths of
blasting holes in a block are marked by a
blaster foreman.
The instrumental layout of the mouths of
blasting holes is carried out only in cases
when the portions to be blasted are located at
the design boundary of a quarry and per"
manent access roads are being built. The Fig. 10.26 Surveying of bench profile: (a) by
main methods for transferring blasting holes means of inclinometer; (b) by means of telescopic
into nature are the polar method and method rod
of perpendiculars with the use of points of a
surveying net. Angles are laid off with an instruments which can determine the posi-
accuracy not worse than 5'. Distances up to tions of staff points without the presence of
50 m can be measured by means of range men on them, for instance, tacheometers,
finders. In the method of perpendiculars, inclinometers (or theodolites) with an at-
measured distances are rounded off to a tachment for measuring inclined distances, a
decimetre. telescopic rod with a tape, etc.
If a quarry has high benches of an irregular For making a profile survey by an inclino-
shape, these should be surveyed properly. meter (Fig. lO.26a), the instrument is set up
Since, according to safety regulations, staff- on the upper crest of a bench to measure the
men are prohibited to stand on the slopes of inclination angle onto a characteristic point,
benches, such slopes should be surveyed by after which the distance to the sighting point
262 Ch. 10. Surveying
is measured by a special tape. In order to
measure a length, a cord with a weight is tied
to the end of the tape and is let to slide along
the slope of the bench. One of the workers
stands on the upper crest and lowers the tape
end with the weight, whereas another worker,
standing on the bench foot in a safe place,
stretches the cord and the tape so that the
tape beginning is matched with the point to
be measured.
Measurements with a telescopic rod are
made in the following manner (Fig. 10.26b).
The telescopic rod with a roller at its end is
applied horizontally to the crest and a mea-
suring tape with a weight is passed over the
roller to the point of interest on the slope.
Two coordinates are measured: the horizon-
tal distance from the upper crest to the rod
end and (on the tape), the vertical distance
from the rod end to the surface of the slope.
After drilling the blasting holes, the block
to be blasted should be surveyed. The posi-
tions of the holes at the flanks of the block
are fixed from the points of a surveying. The
positions of intermediate holes are deter-
mined by measuring the distances between
the holes. Besides, it is required to measure
the distances from the holes to the upper
crest and the soil resistance. If the excavator
work or clear-up work is carried out on the
bench after compiling the plan of blasting
operations, an additional survey of the bench
should be carried out. The height marks of
the mouths of blasting holes are determined
by geometrical levelling.
Having surveyed a prepared blasting
block, the mine survey6r compiles cross sec-
tions through blasting holes on a scale of
1/500, 1/1000 or 1/2000, which are needed for
making a corrected plan of blasting work.
These sections should show the profile of the
bench slope, blasting holes, the design and
actual level of the bench foot, contacts of
various rocks and mineral, and drillability
and explosibility characteristics of the rocks.
It is also required to draw a plan of the
in Quarries
blasting block which should give the block
boundaries, blasting holes, the positions of
the upper and lower bench crests, rock con-
tacts, and the situation on the bench berms.
Mter blasting, the blasted rock is surveyed
in order to determine the boundaries of the
muck pile, the break line, and several charac-
teristic points along the profile lines on the
surface of the muck pile.
10.4. Survey Work for Transport
Servicing
This work, which occupies an essential
place in the daily activity of mine surveyors
in quarries with railway transport, includes
the laying out of routes of face railway tracks,
periodic profiling of tracks, etc.
In order to obtain initial data for laying
out railway tracks, a levelling survey of the
bench surface is done after the removal of the
first strip of the rock from the muck pile. This
survey determines the recessed places which
should be filled with soil and the protruding
ones which should be cut off for evening the
berm. After that, the railway track axis is
transferred onto the working berm of the
bench. Two circumstances should be consi-
dered in this case: the axis should be laid out
so that two bands of an excavator cut can be
charged into cars without relaying the rail-
way track, and the tracks should not occupy
the zone of the muck pile of a next blast.
As the design axis of the railway track is
transferred into nature, picket points are
established along it, and geometric or trigo-
nometric levelling is carried out. By the
results of levelling, it is decided to correct the
track profile in accordance with the permis-
sible ruling gradient.
The surveys of permanent railway tracks in
a quarry and beyond its boundaries are made
by the method of perpendiculars or polar
method from the sides of a theodolite tra-
verse run along the track axis. These surveys
have to determine: the axis of a track; centres
 10.5. Survey Work in Trenching 263

of switches; the top gauge width; the width of

filling and grooves at the top and bottom;
places for kilometre poles; etc. Track curves 30 -3~=--3'{,1-
are surveyed by the method of perpendi-
!':-
culars: chords are drawn between the ends of
a curve and distances to the axis of the curve 4'
O 40 64
are measured along perpendiculars to these O

chords.
The layout work for the construction of
automobile roads is carried out by mine
cT 1-
~~ .
surveyors according to the design materials
~o 93 ~/'lc
which give the gradients, curvature radii,
width of roadbed, etc. At the end of road
construction, instrumental survey should be
carried out in order to check that the actual
1?0 ~2
characteristics of the road correspond
properly to the design values. ~ J~ I, ~2 ..A
.-A

10.5. Survey Work in Trenching

This work is carried out on the basis of
design materials which should include: the
plan of a trench with the coordinates of
junction points, direction angles of junctions,
angles of turn, distances between the vertexes
of turning angles and radii of connecting
curves; longitudinal and transverse sections
of a trench which should show the profiles of
the Earth's surface and the design profile of
the trench bottom, the sequence, cross sec-
tions and axes of cuts, and railway and drain-
age ditches; the plan of blasting holes with
the coordinates of their mouths, direction
angles of hole axes, and hole cross sections.
For laying out a trench on the ground, a
theodolite traverse is run. The positions of
upper crests (for trenches to be cut in loose
rocks) or the positions of blasting holes (for
those to be made in hard rocks) are transfer-
red into nature from the sides of that tra-
verse.
In making trenches by power shovels with-
out blasting work, the following cases of
mine-surveying servicing are possible:
1. A trench is dug in a slope and the
extracted rock is dumped downhill
~
" ~
"
"
8
8
Fig. 10.27 Trench digging in slope
(Fig. 10.27). The main task of the mine sur-
veyor in this caseis to observe that the trench
axis has a specified gradient.
Initially, the junction point 1 of the trench
axis is transferred onto the ground according
to the design coordinates. A theodolite tra-
verse is then run according to the preliminary
direction of the trench axis. This direction is
fixed by temporary picket points in intervals
of 50-100 m. With the known points of the
trench bottom, points 10' 20, 30, 40 are
determined in nature; these points form the
line along which the plane of the trench
bottom intersects the slope. After that, the
corrected trench axis is laid out (points 1, 2, 3,
4) by using the intersection line and the
design width of the trench. Finally, the lines
of the upper crest (points 1", 2",3", 4") and of
the lower crest (points 2' and 3') are marked
264 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries

c-c
1
i 0 0 0 1 00'0 072

'/\I'fi~~r#
1000 0001 \ I III I/
C
-.1-0 I' -0-0- ~-0-o-0-'--
I c
\JrLI-~1

I... ...1

1...t..~1
1...t...1
B : ... ! ...I IB
-+ ~.~-81-
A-A

>---r
y
~
A iJ7

Fig. 10.29 Trenching by excavating explosions

Fig. 10.28 Trench cutting with continuous face

and rock loading into railway cars
on the ground by measuring from the trench
axls.
2. A trench is cut in a continuous face and
the extracted rock is loaded into transport
vehicles on the trench flank (Fig. 10.28)or the
rock is extracted by drag line and discharged
onto the trench sides.
A theodolite traverse is run as described in
the previous example. The trench axis AB is
transferred and fixed in straight portions at
distances up to 50 m and in curved portions
at intervals up to 10 m. At the same time, the
axis of the railway track is laid out on the
trench flank (or the axis of the waste rock
dump if the trench is dug by a drag line).
During the cutting of the trench, bench
marks are established in intervals of 20-30 m
(R1,R2, R3, etc.) which give the elevations of
the trench foot. The bench marks should be
displaced from the trench axis so as to be on
the line of one of excavator tracks.
3. A trench is made by excavating explo-
sions (Fig. 10.29). In this case, the design
positions 2 of the blasting holes are transfer-
red into nature by means of theodolite tra-
verses or geodetic intersections. After drilling
'the blasting holes 1, they are surveyed for the
correction of the plan of explosions.
Mter blasting, another survey is done to
determine the volume of blasted rock: then
the axis and side crests of the trench are
transferred into nature, and bench marks are
established to control the trench foot
gradient.
10.6. Survey Work
in Open-Cast Mining
with Conveyer Bridges
The specifics of survey work in this case
are associated with the fact that conveyer
bridges have a rather intricate design and a
very larg~ mass (sometimes more than 7000 t)
(Fig. 10.30), that is why high dynamic loads
that may cause overstressing the bridge el-
 10.6. Survey Work
Fig. 10.30 Conveyer bridge: I-facing console
support; 5- dumping console truss
ements are inadmissible. This necessitates
additional survey observations on the trusses
and other e,lements of conveyer bridges in
order to preserve their strength. The mine-
survey servicing of conveyer bridges consists
in checking the plan position and gradients of
the railway tracks of bridges and controlling
the horizontal, vertical and angular mobility
of a bridge.
The plan position of tracks is controlled by
theodolite surveying with measuring the spa-
cings between the rail lines by a steel tape; the
track gradient is controlled by geometric
levelling.
The control of horizontal mobility is carried
out in view of the fact that the distance
between the facing and dumping supports of
a conveyer bridge can be increased or decrea-
sed depending on the varying geometry of
faces.An increase or decrease of this spacing
beyond the specified limits is however inad-
missible. The mine surveyor has to control
periodically the spacings between the axes of
the facing and dumping supports. For this
purpose, theodolite traverses are run along or
near the track axes on the working berms of
benches on which the bridge supports are
moving. The theodolite traverses should al-
ways be connected to the points of a re-
ference net. A series of profile lines roughly
perpendicular to the mining front are also laid
out in a quarry. In each profile, the distances
from the sides of the theodolite traverse to
in Open-Cast Mining 265
truss; 2-facing support; 3-middle truss; 4-dumping
the nearest rail are measured by the method
of perpendiculars and recalculated into the
distances to the support axes. By the results
of field measurements, the positions of sup-
port axes are marked on the mine-surveying
plan which serves as the basis for correcting
the positions of tracks and supports of a
conveyer bridge.
The control of vertical mobility of conveyer
bridges is done to check that the height
difference between the supports of a bridge
does not exceed the specified safety licnit.
The detailed surveys of coQveyer bridges
are carried out for determining their de-
formations in order to prevent the appear-
ance of dangerous deformation. This work
requires the stoppage of a bridge for a long
time.
In these surveys, points are marked at the
intersections of beam axes in each unit of the
metal structure of a bridge. The axial line bb'
(Fig. 10.31) is fixed at the upper and lower
horizontal belts of the bridge. A theodolite is
then set up at the edge of the upper belt
above a point 19-b', and the directions onto a
point lI-b (longitudinal axis of the belt) and
points 19-a' and 19-c' are determined. In
order to determine the lateral deformations
of the bridge truss, the ordinates from the
axial lines to the centres of units of metal
structures are measured by a millimetre-
graduated rule or ordinatometer arranged
perpendicular to the collimation axis of the
266 Ch. 10. Surveying in Ouarries

Top cho

~
a' ***~~1918171615141312 A 1110 9 876 54 3210111a

Axis
b' --c
-b

c'

Bottom chord

a,19181716151413 12All 10 9876543210111111

.
~. ~ ~~~=a
---b
.c
c

Fig. 10.31 Fixation of axial lines of conveyer bridge for detailed surveys

theodolite. The distances between the points ed-out area has a more or less regular shape,
along the collimation axis of the theodolite and the required accuracy in calculations of
are measured by a controlled-tension steel the volumes of excavator cuts can be ensured
tape. Similarly, the distances in cross sections by any method of surveying, including
to the extreme points of the belt are de- tacheometry.
termined. The results thus obtained are used 2. On some kinds of loose deposits, the
for plotting the actual state of the bridge on worked-out area has an irregular shape, so
the design plan and listing the deformations that tacheometry cannot ensure the specified
of all units of the upper belt of the main truss. accuracy. In such casesit is recommended to
The horizontal surveying of the lower belt employ the ground stereophotogrammetric
of the main truss is carried out by the method surveymg.
of ordinates from the sides of a theodolite 3. In the extraction of igneous and hard
traverse run on side ladders along the truss. ro9ks with preliminary loosening to the
Measurements are made by controlled-ten- width of one excavator cut, the calculations
sion steel tapes with an accuracy to a milli- of volumes should be carried out by the
metre. A plan of the lower belt is plotted by results of ground stereophotogrammetric sur-
the results of a survey, and the actual posi- veys or by weighing the mined rock and
tions of structures are marked on it. considering its density.
4. If rocks are loosened by multirow blas-
10.7. Calculations of Volumes ting and the loosened rock is later loaded by
of Extracted Overburden several excavators, the calculations of vol-
Rock and Mineral umes can only be done by the results of
in Quarries weighing of the mined rock (of the known
density), since other methods are insuffi-
In mine surveying, the volumes of extrac- ciently accurate.
ted mineral and overburden rock are calcu- The determination of volumes by the re-
lated by the main plans of mining work sults of weighing of the mined rock (operative
levels. The choice of the best calculation accounting) has a number of essential ad-
method depends on the mining technology vantages:
and the surveying method employed. (a) the method offers the highest accuracy
I. In open-cast mining of loose rocks by and can be used with all technological
conveyer bridges, excavators, etc. the work- schemes of mining;
 10.7.
(b) it provides timely information on the
volumes of mining and stripping work even
for individual mining teams and for any time
interval; and
(c) it is possible to control efficiently how
fully the transport vehicles are loaded.
The volumes of extracted and blasted over-
burden rock and mineral can be calculated
by the method of arithmetic mean, horizontal
and vertical sections, volumetric measuring
grid, etc., provided that the 'errors in their
determination do not exceed the following
permissible values.
1. If the volume of the extracted over-
burden (mineral) is found directly by sur-
veying of benches, the permissible error cry,
%, can be calculated by the formula:
cry = 1500/JV
p at the upper and lower bench crests, m2, and
where V is the volume of the extracted rock
(recalculated to the undisturbed rock), m3.
Formula (10.23) is applicable for volumes
from 20000 m3 to 2000000 m3. For larger
volumes, it may be taken that cry = 1%; for
smaller volumes, the method of surveying
and calculatiO;n of volumes is established by
an instruction so that the error cry is not
p points on these crests.
greater than 10%.
2. If the volumes of the extracted (blasted)
overburden rock and mineral are determined
in the loosened state and recalculated to the
volume of the undisturbed rock (using the
loosening factor), the permissible error cry,
%, can be found by the formula:
cry = 2200/JV
p
where V is the volume of the extracted
(blasted) rock recalculated to that of the
undisturbed rock, m3.
Formula (10.24) is applicable for volumes
ranging from 45000 m3 to 2200000 m3. For
greater volumes, it is taken that cry = 1.5%
p not exceed 3% for areas up to 15 cm2 or 2%
and for volumes smaller than 45000 m3, the
method of surveying and volume calculation
and the determination of the loosening factor
Calculations of Volumes of Rock and Mineral 267
are established by an instruction so that the
error ay is not greater than IO%.
The ~thod of arithmetic mean is recom-
mended for cases when the mining technol-
ogy permits the determination of the volumes
of the mined rock (recalculated to the
undisturbed rock) directly by the results of
bench surveying. The volume of a block is
calculated in that case by the formula:
v= Shm
where S is the area of the base of a figure or
section, m2, and hm is the mean depth of a
cut, m, or by the formula:
V=~S!h2 m
p
(10.23)
where Su and SI are the cross-sectional areas
hm is the mean depth of a cut, m.
The mean depth of a cut can be found by
the formula:
hm= 1: 2u/nu-1: 2l/nl
where 1: 2uand 1: 21are the sums of elevations
respectively at the upper and lower bench
crests and nu and nl are the numbers of staff
The method of horizontal sections is ad-
visable in cases when bench crests and in-
termediate sections are indicated on the plan
of mining workings. This is usually done by
stereophotogrammetric surveying. In this
p method, the total volume is calculated as the
sum of volumes of individual horizontal
(10.24) layers.
The areas of horizontal sections are mea-
sured by a planimeter or measuring grid or
determined analytically. Planimetry is carried
out twice, following the contours of sections
clockwise and counterclockwise. The discre-
pancy between the two measurements should
for larger ones. The final result is taken as the
arithmetic mean of the two measurements.
Large areas and sections of a regular shape
268
2 volumes of blasted rock if this is shown on a
~:
s .
-/\\\1:,\
Fig. 10.32 Determining mineral reserves by
vertical sections
can be divided into simple geometrical figures
whose elements are measured by a rnilli-
metre-graduated rule. Analytical determina-
tion of areas is also possible.
The method of vertical sections (Fig. 10.32)
is usually employed for calculating the vol-
umes of blasted rock surveyed by tacheo-
metric methods. The following formulae are
used in calculations:
(I) in cases when spacings between the
section planes are different:
SI + S2l S2 + S3
v- -2 I + 2 l2
S.-1 -..on
+Sn.
+ ~ln-l
where s 1 and S. are the cross-sectional areas
at the boundaries of an extracted cut (block),
m2; S2' S3' ..., S.-1 are the areas of inter-
mediate sections, m2; and 11,12, 13' ...,1.-1
are the spacings between the sections, m;
(2) "in case of equal spacings between the
) analytical or graphoanalytical methods.
\ .I. 2 byIna the surveys of mined
where I is the spacing between the sections,
m; S are the areas of intermediate sections,
m2; and n is the number of sections.
The spacings between the sections should
be not greater than the distances between the
staff points.
The method of volumetric measuring grid is
recommended for the calculations of the
Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries
..!:.Q.
plan in projections with numerical marks or
in cases when a cut has intricate contours
and surface.
~\
The volume of the rock in this method is
n
found by the formula:
'\. \ n
v sLh,
1
where S is the area of the grid base, m 2; n is
the number of baseswithin the boundaries of
the contour being measured; and h is the
thickness of the layer of extracted (blasted)
rock in the centre of each grid base.
The choice of a method for volume cal-
culation depends on the shape of the work-
ed-out area and muck pile, as well as on the
method of surveying.
In surveying of undisturbed rock, various
methods can be used for the calculations of
volumes. With a tacheometric survey which
determines the positions of bench crests, the
method of horizontal sections is preferable.
With tacheometric surveys carried out once a
month, area measurements should be done
plans plotted on a scale not smaller than
tlU.L: .1/1000. If calculations are done once a quar-
ter of a year, plans on a scale 1/2000 can be
used.
If surveying is done by ground stereopho-
togrammetry, rock volumes can be calculated
by the method of horizontal or that of
vertical sections. In the former case, areas are
measured by a planimeter. In the method of
vertical sections, areas can be determined by
tacheometric method, rock
theinvolumes
a muck pile
can
be calculated by the method of vertical
sections; if the muck pile is surveyed by
stereophotogrammetry, the method of verti-
cal and that of horizontal sections are ap-
plicable. Recalculation from the volume of
loosened rock to that of undisturbed rock is
done by dividing the measured volume by a
loosening factor.
 10.8. Reclamation
The calculations of the volume of a muck
pile produced by multirow blasting can in-
volve certain difficulties, since the loosening
factor of rock may vary within rather wide
limits (its average variation may attain 8% or
even more). In such cases,the calculations of
blasted rock and the determination of a
loosening factor should be carried out se-
parately for each block before and after
blasting.
for blocks exploded onto a cleared-up
slope, the mean loosening factor can be found
by the formula:
k, = ~/V.n
where ~ is the volume of a block in the
loosened state and ~n is the volume of
undisturbed rock in a block.
If blasting is done onto an uncleared slope,
the volume of undisturbed rock in the blasted
block should be summed with the volume of
the blasted rock left on the slope from the
previous blasting; the loosening factor of this
rock is taken such as adopted for the cal-
culations of the volumes of the last extracted
cuts.
Thus, the mean loosening factor is cal-
culated by the formula:
k. = ~/V'
where J-;is the volume of the loosened rock;
V~. = v.. + V~, (here v.. is the volume of the
undisturbed rock in the block and V~l is the
volume of the blasted rock remained from the
previous blasting, recalculated to the volume
of the undisturbed rock).
By the resl,llts of surveying before and after
the extraction of the first excavator cut, it is
possible to calculate the volume of that cut
and the mass of rock in it and in the
remaining portion of the blasted rock.
The volume of the undisturbed rock in the
first cut can be found by the formula:
V~. = V;/k;
where V; is the volume of rock of the first cut
in the loosened state and k; is the mean
of Land
269
loosening factor for the first cut, which
should be determined experimentally.
In the calculation of the volume of the first
cut of a block, a correction (with a plus sign)
for the generalization of the slope shape is
introduced:
AV= (O.O3h3+ O.7h)L
where h is the mean height of a slope and L is
the length of a block.
The volumes of subsequent cuts are cal-
culated without this correction. The loosen-
ing factors for the subsequent cuts are
determined by considering the factor for the
first cut, the mean loosening factor of the
block, and the areas of corresponding vertical
sections of the first cut and the remaining
portion of the block:
V" = V"
un ,
/ k"
1
k'1 -kl (P' + pI') + k;P'
, -11
p
where k7 is the loosening factor of the second
and subsequent cuts in a block; k, is the mean
loosening factor of the rock; k; is the loos-
ening factor of the rock in the fJ.fstcut, and p'
and p" are the weights of the loosening
factors, which are taken equal numerically to
the mean areas of vertical sections in the first
and subsequent cuts.
10.8. Reclamation of Land
The problem of the restoration of land
areas spoiled by opell-cast mining of mineral
deposits is of crucial importance.
A complex of measures aimed at the resto-
ration of land on the territories abandoned
on opell-cast mining is called land reclama-
lion.
Land reclamation can be carried out by
engineering, biological and construction tech-
mques.
A mining enterprise should carry ellgin"
eering reclamation which consists in the
preparation of land territories. freed after
270 Ch. 10. Surveying in Quarries

open-castmining, for biological or construction The design position of workings on the

cultivation. Engineering reclamation includes terrain is usually determined by the polar
the following operations: preservation of the method from control points or by tape meas-
upper (vegetable) soil layer, levelling of urements from the nearest exploring wor-
dumps, construction of drainage networks, kings whose mouths are shown on the plans
chemical melioration of the soil composition, of mining workings. The elements of layout
for instance, chalking of acid soils (when work are determined graphically on plans
required), and covering the levelled surface plotted on a scale 1/1000 or 1/2000.
with a layer of fertile soil. The mine- The positions of workings relative to the
surveying service of a mining enterprise par- surveying net points should be determined on
ticipates in the engineering reclamation of the plan with an accuracy not worse than
land. Mine surveyors have to observe that 1.6 m. Elevation marks should be determined
the upper soil layer is removed properly from with an accuracy to 0.3 m in valleys with a
the territory of future quarries and dumps, to weakly expressed thalweg (valley floor) or to
control the levelling of worked-out areas and 0.5 of the vertical contour interval in those
dumps and the covering of prepared areas with a pronounced thalweg.
with fertile soil. The main objects of mine-survey servicing
in open-cast mining of placer deposits are as
follows: the determination of the volumes of
10.9. Survey Work in Open-Cast
the mining work performed, control of the
Mining of Placer Deposits
mining work and of the completeness of sand
Placer deposits with the bedding depth up extraction. For these purposes, mine survey-
to 15 m are worked out, as a rule, by ors fix on the ground the design contours of
open-cast mining. Open-cast workings for- polygons, hydraulic sections, waste dumps,
med by mechanization means (bulldozer- berms, access roads, and working platforms
scraper complexes or excavators) are called for excavating machines; make the surveys of
polygons if their depth is substantially smaller pqlygons or pits and determine the volumes
than the width; deep and narrow workings of stripped turfs and washed sands and mined
are called pits. Valley placers are often mined rock; control the thickness of stripped and
by dredges. undisturbed turfs and the depth of mining;
In open-cast mining of placer deposits, complement mine-surveying plans and sec-
reference nets are usually developed at the tions; determine the reserves,losses and dilu-
period of detailed prospecting so as to pro- tion of sands; and compile the documents on
vide basis for surveys on a scale 1/2000. In the volumes of stripped and transferred sands
regions not covered by a national reference and of mined and washed sands.
net, individual reference nets can be estab- The following methods of surveying are
lished by triangulation or trigonometry. Sur- mainly employed in open-cast mining of
veying nets are developed according to the placer deposits: surface levelling by a rectan-
requirements for land surveys. The points of gular network, ground stereophotogramme-
a surveying net should be established beyond try, tacheometry, and surveys by profile lines.
the contours of a placer deposit. At least Surface levelling by a rectangular network
three or four permanent points should be is used for surveying of polygons on per-
provided per kilometre of the length of a mafrost placers which are worked out layer-
deposit, and these points should lie at distan:- wise with an average thickness of layers 0.5-
ces not more than 150-200 m from exploring 1.5 m. The surface of polygons is levelled
and mining workings. before the beginning of the mining work and
 10.9. Survey Work in Open-Cast Mining of Placer Deposits 271

at the end of each planned period. The by the points of the upper unflooded crests of
contours of polygons and sections at the slopes in a polygon with a smooth surface
upper and lower crest are usually surveyed by relief where there is the required number of
the polar method from the points of survey surveying net points and control points. The
control. distances between the surveyed points and
Ground stereophotogrammetry is employ- pickets or control points are measured by
ed for surveying of large polygons when an tapes.
area of at least 25 000 m2 can be photo- Tacheometric surveying has found appli-
graphed from a single photographic base. cation in all main regions of dredging work.
Tacheometry and method of profile lines In this method, the line of a lower crest is
have found use for surveying of pits and also fixed upon determining the combination of
of polygons which are deepened by more points of the largest depths at the foot of a
than 1.5 m monthly, i. e. when a placer de- facing slope. With depths more than 2 m, the
posit is being mined by excavators or hyd- positions of the crests of the facing slope is, as
raulic machines actually to the entire depth a rule, determined by the position of the
of bedding of loose deposits. The techniques centre of the lower bucket drum as it moves
of tacheometric surveying on placer deposits over the facing platform.
are the same as elsewhere. Range lines which On some placer deposits, tacheometric
are parallel to one another are laid out across surveying is used only for determining the
the strike of a pit. position of the upper crest of a facing slope.
In the method of profile lines, the upper The position of the lower crest is drawn on
and lower crests of the side slopes of a pit are the plans of the mining work relative to that
first surveyed and plotted on the plan of the of the upper crest considering the specified
mining work, after which transverse vertical slope angle, which is determined experimen-
sections are marked with intervals of tally for different depths and lithologic cha-
20-25 m, the depths in the equidistant points racteristics of loose placer deposits. This
of each section are measured, and a sketch of method is applicable only in rare caseswhen
measurements .is drawn. the flanks of a dredge pit are composed of
The survey work in dredging consists es- rocks quite resistant to caving, so that the
sentially in surveying of dredge faces and pits, face retains its initial configuration during the
determination of the volume of mined rock entire period between measurements.
and losses, and the dilution of the mineral. The mean depth of a dredge face is found
The periodicity of face surveying is determi- by averaging the measured face depths (depth
ned by the accuracy of measurement of the of digging plus the height of freeboard) or by
geometric parameters of dredge pits (poly- averaging the differences of elevation marks
gons). For instance, for dredges of moderate of the polygon surface in the upper crest
capacity, each third or fifth face should be contour and the bottom of the dredge pit.
surveyed, i. e. roughly after every 10 m of The depth of digging can be measured by a
dredge advancement. lead-and-line, mechanical depth gauge, echo
Surveying of dredge pits can be performed sounder or asdic (sonar). The error in depth
by one of the following methods. measurements should not exceed 0.1 m.
With the linear method, surveying is done
 Chapter Eleven

Rock Disturbance and Protection

of Surface Structures

force T is counterbalanced by the reaction of

11.1. Introductory Notes the rock under the worked-out space, the
Underground voids and cavities left on motion of the same portion (layer) C 1 above
mineral extraction can impair the stability of the worked-out space (i. e. displacement of
enclosing rock and result in the disturbance the roof) will take place only under the effect
(displacements) of the rock massif and the of the normal component. The same rea-
subsidence of the Earth's surface. Examples soning is true of the overlying layers C2' C3'
of destruction of underground and surface etc. It then follows that the fracture of the
structures under the effect of rock distur- roof rock layers above the worked-out space
bance are quite numerous. should occur at the upper and lower boun-
Rock displacements attracted miners' at- dary of the stoping working and propagate
tention from the earliest times. In Liege along the normals to the bedding plane.
(Belgium), already in the lSth century, col- Thus, the displacement angles in this case are
liery owners were obliged by the local law to 13= 90 -a and y = 90 + a, where a is the
mine coal at depths not less than 100 m in angle of dip of a seam.
order to minimize the harmful effect of rock In 1867, J. von Sparre developed further
disturbance on municipal buildings. The the hypothesis of normals, but he supposed
scientific studies of the process of rock dis- that displacement took place due to the
turbance under the effect of underground fracture in dangerous sections where the
workings were started in the first half of the
19th century when hypotheses were proposed
to explain the laws of rock displacement. In
1838, Toilliez expressed an idea that rock
layers above a stopiIig space destroyed along
the planes perpendicular to the bedding
plane. This idea was utilized by Gonot of
Belgium for explaining the destruction of
buildings in Liege. Later, these ideas were
generalized into a hypothesis which was
called the 'rule of normals' and reduced to the
following.
The mass of a portion C 1 of the roof above
the worked-out space (Fig. 11.1), denoted by
Q, has two pressure components: N which is
normal to the bedding plane and T which is
Fig. 11.1 Scheme explaining the 'rule nonnal
directed along that plane. Assuming that the
 11.1. Introductory
bending moment was at the maximum. Con-
sidering rock layers as beams built in into the
rock massif at both ends, Sparre derived the
formula for the length of a span along which
the displacement (fracture) of a rock layer
should occur:
1= J2kd/D cos a
where 1 is the length of a span; k is the
bending strength of rock; d is the thickness of
the rock layer; D is the mass of the rock layer;
and a is the angle of dip of a seam. Sparre
supposed also that rock displacement should
occur not along the normals to a seam, but
along the lines somewhere between the nor-
mals and verticals. Thus, the dangerous sec-
tion in the lower portion of the roof should
protrude, as it were, from the rock and that in
the upper section should pass through the
roof rock (Fig. 11.2).
In 1882, F. Rziha suggested the hypothesis
of rock displacement according to which the
caving surface of a roof could be likened to a
paraboloid (Fig. 11.3). As caving proceeds,
the volume of the rock involved into displa-
cement increases. Caving (displacement)
comes to an end when the angle a of the lines
18-1270
Notes 273
confining the subsidence zone relative to the
horizontal becomes equal to the angle of
repose of 1he rock.
In 1885, H. Fayol published a work which
confirmed Rziha's hypothesis. According to
Fayol, rock displacement occurs by the cav-
ing mode and involves a zone having the
shape of a cupola (dome). By Fayol's assump-
tion, the dome retains its stability even when
its end supports have collapsed; this is due to
filling of the dome space by caved-in rock. By
Fayol's reckoning, the loosening factor of the
caved-in rock is equal to 1/200. Thus, with
the depth of the mining work equal to 200 m
(where m is the thickness of a seam) the
extraction of a seam should have no effect on
the surface.
In 1864, J. Goodwin, a British scientist,
carried out instrumental observations of SUf-
face subsidence on coal fields and determined
the displacement angles ~ depending on the
angle of dip a:
Angle of dip
a, 0 10 15 20 24 27 31 40
Displacement
angle13, ..73 71 70.5 70 68 67 64
In his experiments, the displacement angle
'Y was always equal to 83-85.
In 1895-97, R. Hausse proposed another
hypothesis of rock displacement according to
which the mechanical properties of rocks and
their alternation played an essential part in
the process. He also emphasized the effect of
Fig. 11.3 Scheme to Rziha's hypothesis
274 Ch Rock Disturbance
a b
Fig. 11.4 Scheme depicting Hausse's hypothesis
working systems on the pattern of rock
displacement.
According to Hausse, the process of rock
displacement can be represented as follows
(Fig. 11.4). A zone abdc forms immediately
above the worked-out space,in which rock is
displaced by caving and bending. Above that
zone, there is another zone, dcef, where only
the bending of rock layers is observed. The
thickness of the cave-in zone was found to be
equal to (30-60) m, where m is the thickness of
the mined seam.
A large contribution to the advancement of
the theory of rock displacement was made by
A. Goldreich in 1913 when he published a
monograph based on his instrumental ob-
servations of rock subsidence. He came to a
conclusion that the fault fissures in rocks of
the coal age should have directions governed
by the bisector rule (Fig. 11.5), i. e. the
displacement boundary is a line coincident
with the bisector of an angle between the
normal to a seam and the vertical. For
tertiary rocks, it was proposed to determine
the angles of displacement by considering the
angle of repose
e = 45 + p/2
where p is the angle of repose. Further,
Goldreich was one of the first to refer to the
horizontal displacements of rocks.
In recent time, the studies of rock sub-
and Protection of Structures
Fig. 11.5 Scheme of bisector rule
sidence have been carried out extensively and
on a wider scope and have included the
problems of the pressure of rocks and filling
materials, specific effects of rock pressure in
mines with powered supports, laws of rock
pressure in ore deposits. Recent investiga-
tions of the mechanism of such dangerous
effects as rock, coal and gas bursts carried
out in a number of countries have provided
the basis for developing effective measures to
prevent the dynamic effects of rock pressure.
11.2. General Data
on Rock Disturbance
The stressed state that appears after the
formation of a cavity in the rock massif (say,
upon driving a working) is determined by
initial stress fields. The magnitude and distri-
bution of stressesdepend substantially on the
shape of workings.
At the initial period when a stope working
still has not been advanced far from the rock
massif, the roof of a deposit is in a relatively
stable state, and its bending is insignificant.
As however the worked-out space is widened,
the amount and rate of roof bending increase,
the continuity of rock layers is disturbed,
they are stratified, fissures form in the rock,
and finally, roof layers cave in into the
worked-out space.
With an increase of the dimensions of the
 11.3. Rock Displacement Parameters 275

(a) According to natural observations, the

thickness of the cave-in zone along the nor-
mal to a seam in most coal basins does not
exceed three- or four-fold thickness of the
seam.
The bend zone II which can be observed
both in the overlying roof and underlying
bedrock. Rock deformations in this zone
occur by the separation of the bent layer into
strata, though the bonds between the in-
dividual blocks remain undisturbed. Two
portions are distinguished in the bend zone: a
fissured portion just above the zone of com-
plete caving and the portion above it where
(b) Fall.through bending takes place without fissuring of the
rock.
The zone of bearing pressure III which can
--~~-~1-~=~7 ,
,
.,
,
\ form in the rock massif near the boundaries
, of a stope working. Bearing pressure appears
~(',
in places near a driven working where the
overlying rock massif becomes unsupported,
hangs up, and its weight is redistributed onto
Fig. 11.6 Pattern of rock displacement around the enclosing rock of the working. The size
stope working: (a) with gently dipping bedding; and pattern of the bearing pressure zone in
(b) with steep dipping of seam the overburden rock depend on the extent of
rock hanging at the boundaries of workings,
the depth of the mining work, and rock
worked-out space, the zone of rock defor- properties.
mations, or displacement zone, becomes lar- The zone of total displacementIV which can
ger. At a certain ratio of the dimensions of form both at the surface and in the rock
the worked-out space and the depth of the mass. It is assumed conventionally that the
mining work, the displacement zone reaches stressed state in this zone is close to the
the Earth's surface. gravitational state.
In the general case, the following zones of In working of thick steeply dipping coal
rock deformation around a stope working seams, the rock at the )ying wall often slides
can be distinguished (Fig. 11.6): down and forms fall-throughs on the surface
The cave-in zone I which is formed im- above seam outcrops.
mediately at the worked-out space. Here,
rock layers separate from the massif, disin-
11.3. Rock Displacement
tegrate into blocks, and fall into the worked-
Parameters
out space. The thickness of the cave-in zone
depends mainly on the ratio of thicknesses of An area of the ground surface affected by
rock layers in the roof and seam of extracted the displacement from the mining work is
mineral, the strength of the roof rock, the called a displacement trough, or basin. It
working system employed, and the angle of usually appears as a plate- or trough-like
dip of the seam. (seldom cup-shaped) depression of the
IS.
 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance
Earth's surface. Of particular interest are the
vertical sections through a displacement
trough in which the trough ends are at the
farthest distance from the boundaries of a
working. These sections usually pass through
the centre of a trough on and across the
strike and are called the main sections of a
displacement trough.
The displacements and deformations of the
Earth's surface within a trough are distri-
buted non-uniformly. A portion of the displa;,
cement trough where the deformations of the
ground are such that can cause damage to
surface structures is called the hazardous
displacement zone. Hazardous displacement
zones are defined on the Earth's surface by
using displacement angles which are meant as
the exterior angles relative to the worked-out
space,formed in the main vertical sections of
the displacement trough on and across the
strike by horizontal lines and by lines con-
necting the boundaries of the worked-out
space with the boundaries of critical surface
deformations.
Displacement angles are determined from
the conditions of complete underworking. This
is understood as the state of the trough
bottom in which further expansion of the
area being worked out does not increase the
displacement in this portion of the trough.
Not all deformations appearing on surface
subsidence are dangerous for the objects
being underworked. The highest deforma-
tions of the Earth's surface which still cause
no damage to surface structures are called the
critical, or ultimate safe, deformations of sur-
face. Though the critical deformations for
various structures are different, experience
shows however that for the majority of
structures the following levels of critical de-
formations can be taken: 4 x 10-3 for incli-
nation, 0.2 x 10-3 for curvature, and
2 x 10-3 for expansion. It is distinguished
between the displacement angles in bedrocks
and sedimentary rocks. For bedrocks, in
sections across the strike, the displacement
and Protection of Structures
(a)
Fig. 11.7 Displacement angles in section across
strike: (a) with gently dipping bedding; (b) with
steeply dipping seam
angles in the hanging wall at the lower
boundary of the worked-out space are de-
noted by ~ and at the upper boundary, by y
(Fig. 11.7a).For steeply dipping bedding, the
dangerous zone is determined from the lower
boundary of the worked-out space by the
displacement angle ~ in the hanging wall and
by the angle ~1 in the lying wall (Fig. 11.7b).
In sections on the strike, the displacement
angles are taken to be the same at both sides
of the worked-out space and denoted by O
(Fig. 11.8).For sedimentary rocks, the displa-
cement angles are the same in all three
~irections and denoted by <p.
Displacement angles depend on the struc-
ture of deposits and the physico-mechanical
properties of rocks and are different for
various deposits. Their values for coal basins
and principal ore deposits are determined by
instrumental observations.
Boundary angles (~O' Yo' 00, and ~01) are
the angles which are exterior with respect to
the worked-out space and formed on com-
plete underworking in the main vertical
sections of a displacement trough by a
horizontal line and by lines connecting the
boundaries of the worked-out space with the
Fig. 11.8 Displacement angles in section on
strike
 11.3. Rock Displacement
(a)
Fig. 11.9 Boundary angles for seams: (a) gently dipping ((J-angle of maximum subsidence); (b) steep
boundary points, i. e. the points on the
Earth's surface in which subsidence does not
exceedthe mean error of levelling. In practice,
the boundaries of a displacement trough are
defined by points with a subsidence of 15 mm
or relative horizontal tensile deformations
0.5 x 10-3.
It is distinguished between the boundary
angles in sections across the strike ([30' [301'
and y in Fig. 11.9) and those in sections on
the strike (00).
Boundary angles depend substantially on
the depth of the mining work, dipping angle
of seams, and, rock density.
Boundary angles are used in preliminary
calculations of displacements and deform-
ations of the Earth's surface.
With the horizontal bedding of a seam, the
centre of a displacement trough lies above the
middle of the worked-out space. With dip-
ping seams,it is shifted from the middle by an
angle e (Fig. 11.9a) which is called the angle
of maximum subsidence. This angle is mea-
sured at the dipping end of a seam in the
vertical main section of the displacement
trough across the strike and is formed by a
horizontal line and the line connecting the
middle of the working with the point on the
surface having the maximum subsidence or
with the middle of a plate-shaped displace-
ment trough.
If the dimensions of the worked-out space
are large relative to the bedding depth, the
Parameters 277
ibt
Earth's surface may subside to the same
depth (maximum for the given conditions)
over a large area. Further expansion of the
working will not increase the subsidence area,
and the latter is then considered to be under
the conditions of complete underworking.
Otherwise, underworking is incomplete.
The area of complete underworking is
determined by means of angles of total displa-
cement, i. e. the interior angles relative to the
worked-out space, which are formed in the
vertical main sections of a displacement
trough by the seam lines and the lines
connecting the boundaries of the worked-out
space with the boundaries of the flat bottom
of the trough.
It is distinguished between the angles of
complete underworking in sections across the
strike: "' 1 at the dipping end and", 2 at the
rising end of the worked-out space
(Fig. 11.10) and those in sections on the
strike; "' 3 at both sides of the worked-out
space.
.1. 0/1 \1
~I ~I
Fig. 11.10 Complete underworking angles
278 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures

The process of rock displacement is often (a)

characterized by the coefficient of underwor-
king which is understood as the ratio of the
length of a stope working to the minimal
length required for complete underworking
of the Earth's surface in the given direction.
The coefficients of underworking can be
1
determined along the dipping line and on the
strike of a seam.
Denoting, respectively, the actual dimen-
sions of a working on the dip and on the
strike by Dl and D2 and the minimal di-
mensions for complete underworking by DOl

\=::7
Ib)
and Do2, the coefficient of underworking on A 8
the dip will be nl = Dl/Dol and that on the
82 ' \ \
strike, n2 = D2/Do2.
An important characteristic of underwor-
king is the ratio of the length of a longwall D AI ~ --~C
to the depth of a mine H at which complete
jc)
underworking occurs. It is taken that com- A 81 8
plete underworking takes place at nl :;:?;1 and
n2:;:?;I.
In many cases, rock displacement causes "\\ c \ ~~ "
fissures in the trough. The portion of the
displacement trough in which fissures are A

observed is delineated by rupture angles (cav- 81

ing angles), i. e. the exterior angles relative to
the worked-out space, that are formed in the
vertical main sections of the displacement
trough by a horizontal line and the lines
connecting the boundaries of the worked-out
space with the nearest surface fissures at the
trough edges (Fig.ll.ll). It is distinguished
between the rupture angles in sections across
Fig. 11.11 Rupture angles
Fig. 11.12 Deformations: (a) vertical; (b) and
(c) r~spectively compressive and tensile horizontal
deformations
the strike (13"and y") and those in sections on
the strike (0").
Surface subsidence (11), i. e. the vertical
component of the displacement vector, has
been studied much more thoroughly than
other parameters. It is distinguished between
the maximum subsidence in complete under-
working, 110' and that in incomplete under-
working, 11m.
Vertical deformations may arise due to
non-uniform subsidence and are characteriz-
ed by inclination, curvature, and radius of
curvature.
Referring to Fig. 11.12a, points I, 2, 3 are
bench marks on the surface before under-
 11.3. Rock Displacement
working and J', 2', 3' are the same points
after underworking; 111'112'113are the sub-
sidencesof respective bench marks; 11-2' 12-3
are the distances between the points before
underworking; and ~1' ~2' ~3 are the ho-
rizontal displacements of respective bench
marks.
The inclination of an interval on the sur-
face is determined relative to the initial
position of that interval. For instance, the
inclination of a section 2-3 after underwor-
king is expressed by an angle i2-3. In prac-
tice, inclination is measured as the difference
of subsidences of extreme points of a section
related to the initial length of the section:
'2-3 = 113-112
4-3
The inclinations of adjacent sections in a
displacement trough are in most cases dif-
ferent. This non-uniform subsidence gives rise
to another kind of vertical deformation, cur-
vature. Non-uniform subsidence of the sur-
face can be characterized by the difference of
inclination angles of two adjacent sections:
k2 = i2-3 -il-2
11-2/2 + 12-3/2
i. e. curvature is the ratio of the difference of
inclinations of two adjacent sections to the
half-sum of the lengths of these sections.
The radius of curvature is the inverse of
curvature:
R = l/k
Horizontal deformation is one of the most
important characteristics of surface subsid-
ence. Let us analyse the combined motion of
two surface points, A and B (Fig. ll.12b). As
a result of displacement, the point A will be
shifted to A1 and the point B, to B1. In the
case of the compression of a section AB,
vectors AA 1 and BB 1 will be directed as in
Fig. 11.12b and in the case of tension, as in
Fig. 11.12c.
Let a line parallel and equal to the vector
Parameters 279
AA 1 be drawn through the point B. It is also
clear that AlBl is the length of the section
AB after surface deformation. The relative
horizontal deformation will be:
AB- AlBl CB2
E ---
AB-AB -AB
Thus, horizontal deformation (tensile or
compressive) is the elongation or contraction
of the initial length of a section related to this
length.
The duration of the displacement process
may be of interest mainly when deciding on
the possibilities of the construction of buil-
dings on an underworked area. It is agreed to
distinguish three stages of surface subsidence:
the initial, active, and attenuating. The initial
stage, i. e. that during which deformation
initiates, usually continues to the moment
when a mine is advanced under a particular
observation point and can be characterized
by the subsidence rate from tenths of a
millimetre to 1-1.5 mm per day. The active
stage is the period in which the rate of
subsidence exceeds 50 mm/month on gently
dipping seams or 30 mm/month on steep
ones. The displacement process is considered
to be finished at that day of observations
after which the total subsidence during six
months does not exceed 30 mm.
The duration of the subsidence process
mainly depends on the depth of the mining
work, thickness of seams, and the physico-
mechanical properties of rocks.
The path of the motion of surface points
and the distribution of displacements and
deformations within a displacement trough
obey definite regularities. As a mine face
approaches, the paths of points deviate from
the vertical towards the face. After the face
has passed beneath the points, their paths
deviate towards the advancing face. Finally,
as the face has been moved sufficiently far,
the paths of points become perfectly vertical.
When solving problems associatedwith the
protection of surface structures, it is essential
280 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance
~ points and trough boundary.
Fig. 11.13 Distribution of surface displacements
and deformations: 1-vertical displacements; 2-
horizontal displacements; 3- horizontal deforma-
tions
to know the distribution of displacements
and deformations within a displacement
trough. It is usually sufficient to analyse the
distribution of the following elements in a
trough: the maximum values of the hori-
zontal and vertical components of motion;
maximum deformations in the main sections
of the trough on and across the strike;
maximum inclination; maximum curvature;
and maxifuum elongation and contraction.
The curves of the distribution of surface
deformations on a gently dipping seam in a
section across the strike are illustrated in
Fig. 11.13a.
With horizontal and gently dipping seams,
the curves of inclinations usually follow the
pattern of the curves of horizontal displa-
cements. The curves of curvature are similar
to the curves of horizontal deformations.
With horizontal (flat) seams, the points of
essential importance, in addition to boundary
points A and B, are also points E, 1, and 0.
and Protection of Structures
The last point is the point of the maximum
subsidence, minimum horizontal displace-
ment, and maximum contraction. The points
E and El are the inflection points of a
subsidence curve. They are the points to
which the maximum inclination, maximum
displacement, and zero horizontal deforma-
tion are confined. The maximum tension is
observed roughly amid between the inflection
With an inclined bedding of seams
(Fig. ll.13b), the patterns of these curves are
different. With an increase in the angle of dip
of seams,a curve 1 becomes more asymmetri-
cal on the rise: the point of zero horizontal
displacement does not coincide with the
maximum subsidence point, whereas the
points E and El become asymmetrical rela-
tive to O and O 1. The asymmetry of curves
increases further with an increasing angle of
dip of seams.
11.4. Factors Responsible
for Rock Displacement
Physico-mechanical properties of rocks and
bedding conditions. The state of rocks is
largely responsible for the pattern of displa-
cement. For instance, with loose-grained
rocks having a low cohesion, subsidence
proceeds rapidly, appears sharply on the
surface, and often leads to the formation of
ledge-shaped fissures. A typical example is
the Moscow district coal basin where, with
the mining work carried out at a depth of
40-50 m, the roof subsidence becomes no-
ticeable on the surface already in 2 or 3
hours. Plastic rocks, such as clay shales,
promote plastic deformations, so that rock
displacement occurs uniformly and smoothly
following the advancement of a mine face; the
surface subsides slowly and does not cause
large damage to surface structures.
The structure of a deposit can influence
substantially the pattern of displacement.
With alternating hard and soft rock strata in
 11.4. Factors Responsible
a bed, secondary subsidence can appear in
the mine roof, especially when quickly caving
soft rocks lie immediately on the roof,
whereas the layers (bands) of hard rock are
overlying and hang up periodically over a
large area. Poorly predictable cavings of
these bands can develop an elevated rock
pressure in stope workings and adjacent
preparatory workings and sometimes are the
cause of emergencies and rock bursts in
mmes.
Quicksands can complicate substantially
the process of rock displacement. Cases have
been recorded when quicksands occurring in
the rock massif being underworked caused
sharp flattening of displacement angles. Un-
derworking of quicksands can involve large
water losses, which can result in surface
subsidence far ahead of the working face.
The angle of dip of a deposit is among the
critical factors governing the rock displa-
cement process qualitatively and quantita-
tively. The pattern of displacement of the
overlying rock is closely associated with the
angle of dip. With steep angles of dip, sub-
stantial shear deformations in displaced rock
are quite typical. With horizontal or gently
dipping seams, the main kind of deformation
is bending of rock strata. With steep bedding,
the horizontal component of a displacement
vector is predominant, whereas the vertical
component prevails in the rock displacement
on flat seams. It is found by observations
that, under similar conditions, structures
above workings in seams with steeper angles
of dip suffer from greater deformations. For
instance, in the Donetsk coal basin, mining in
gently dipping seams at a depth of 200-250 m
causes no fissuring on the surface, whereas
the mining work in steep seams, even at a
depth of 600 m, can lead to the appearance of
large rupture cracks on the surface.
An increase in the angle of dip of a deposit
involves a change in the position of a displa-
cement trough relative to the worked-out
space, i. e. the trough is shifted towards the
for Rock Displacement 281
strike. The distribution of hazardous zones in
a trough is also associated with the angle of
dip.
A steeply dipping structure of a deposit,
sharp changes in the angle of dip, folded
bedding, and the presence of moderate and
large tectonic disturbances can lead to the
appearance of concentrated deformations, fis-
sures and ledges in the surface. Depending on
the thickness of seams and bedding depth,
these deformations may vary from a few
millimetres to tens of centimetres and are
quite dangerous for surface structures, since
structures located on ledges then suffer from
substantial deformations or even break down
if these deformations exceed 20-30 cm.
The sites for the construction of new
objects should, as a rule, be located on
non-underworked territories or on those with
favourable geological conditions. If a need
arises to erect new objects in underworked
zones which can cause the appearance of
large deformations and ledges, protective
measures should be taken to increase the
strength and spatial rigidity of buildings and
structures (reinforced-concrete, belts in the
underground portions of buildings, cast-in-
situ concrete foundations, reinforced joints,
continuous horizontal reinforced-concrete
belts at the level of floor ceilings and parti-
tions, division of buildings into sections,
provision of horizontal sliding joints, etc.).
The construction of new objects on areas
above old stope workings at depths of
20-80 m can only be started after preliminary
geological examination to reveal empty ca-
vities in the worked-out space. The construc-
tion of residential buildings above the zones
of preparatory mining workings at depths
less than 10 m (where m is the height of a
working) is possible only after geological
examination for determining the non-caved
portions of workings (voids). In all cases,
detected voids should be filled in.
The depth of the mining work can influence
substantially the magnitude of rock displa-
282 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures

cement and the time and rate of its ma- cohesion), which in turn leads to a loss of
nifestation. With an increase in the mining stability of slopes and landslide phenomena.
depth, the amount of displacement decreases The disturbance of the rock massif by old
and the process becomes smoother and less stope workings. Numerous field observations
dangerous for surface structures, though this have demonstrated that the mining work in a
is true only to a certain depth. An increase in disturbed rock massif can activate rock dis-
the depth of the mining work always in- placement by increasing deformations, rates,
creases the time of the displacement process. and non-uniformity of surface subsidence.
The thickness of an extracted seam. Com- The activization of rock displacement may be
pared with the depth of the mining work, the due to the following factors:
thickness of a seam has an inverse effect on (I) voids formed due to hanging up of
the rock displacement: with a larger thick- overlying rock layers during primary un-
ness, the process of displacement is more derworking. Repeated underworking can lar-
pronounced and involves higher horizontal gely eliminate hang-ups and produce better
and vertical deformations. With an appre- compaction of the disturbed rock massif;
ciable thickness of a seam, the zone of (2) primary underworking decreases the
smooth sagging can disappear fully, and the strength of a rock massif by opening old and
rock then subsides by caving and with the forming new fissures. For that reason, rock
formation of terraces. displacement on repeated underworking pro-
On seams of a small thickness, the rock ceedsat a high rate, since it takes place in the
displacement occurs mostly by bending of rock massif with impaired strength proper-
strata. The cave-in zone develops only weak- ties.
ly and only in the direct vicinity of the Working systems.The principal parameters
worked-out space. of working systems which can influence rock
The presence and thickness of sedimentary displacement are the height of levels, length
rocks and the surface relief In bed rocks, the of a mining field, method of roof control, rate
.rock displacement occurs so that points , of face advance, and the completeness of
move almost along the normals to the bedding mineral extraction.
plane. In sedimentary rocks of an appreciable The height of a mining level and the length
capacity, the rock displacement occurs in of a mining field are equally important, since
directions from the edges to the centre of a they determine the shape of a displacement
displacement trough. In the contacts on the trough. With small dimensions of the work-
rise of a seam, sedimentary rocks and bed ed-out space, a cup-shaped trough usually
rocKs are displaced in opposite directions, forms. With an increase in the space di.
which often causes the separation of sedi- mensions, a cup-shaped trough changes to a
mentary layers from the bed rock and the plate-like form.
destruction of underground objects. The best method of roof control to prevent
The effect of the surface relief on rock the surface subsidence is backfilling of the
displacement is appreciable only in moun- worked-out space. The filling decreases the
tainous regions where underworking of steep size of voids, supports the overlying rock, and
slopes often triggers landslides. Rock stability decelerates and decreasesto a certain extent
depends substantially on the angle of internal the process of rock displacement.
friction and the cohesion at slip planes. The The effect of filling depends on the filling
rock displacement then results in loosening of material used. Continuous dry filling decreas-
the rock massif and associated reduction of es the volume of voids only insufficiently
the strength properties of rock (mainly of (sometimes only by 40 per cent). Hydraulic
 11.5. Monitoring Rock Displacement. Observation Stations
filling and hardening filling produce the most
favourable effect on surface subsidence. With
carefully packed hardening filling, the surface
subsidence may be as low as only 3 per cent
of the seam thickness. In this case, surface
displacements are uniform and smooth, so
that even large structures settle down slowly
and without large damage.
With continuous working systems, espe-
cially with a large-Iength longwall and com-
plete roof caving, surface displacement occurs
smoothly and uniformly. With pillar and
room-pillar working systems having roof
caving where safety pillars are left at short
intervals in the worked-out space,the overlying
rock massif may be broken by the pillars into
individual blocks, with fissures propagating
up to the surface and causing largely uneven
subsidence.
11.5. Monitoring
Rock Displacement.
Observation Stations
An observation station on the surface is a
system of fixed points (bench marks) placed
in the ground or surface structures
(Fig. 11.14). Bench marks are usually set up
along the profile lines on and across the
strike of a deposit. In mountainous, wooded
and densely built-up areas, broken profile
lines are permissible.
When examining the underworking condi-
tions for railroads, pipelines and other
stretched objects, the profile lines may be
arranged diagonally to the strike. In some
cases, say, for monitoring underground gas
pipelines, stations may be established as a
network.
An observation station is set up according
to the design plan which includes an ex-
planatory note and graphical appendices.
The graphical material of the design plan
should contain: (a) a joint plan of the land
surface and underground workings with pro-
file lines of an observation station (on a scale
283
1/500, 1/1000 or 1/2000); it should give the
boundaries of the mining field, the current
state of the mining work and its further
development, the supposed position of the
displacement zone, tectonic disturbances, and
the scheme of junction of control points; (b)
geological cross sections along the profile
lines with indication of the workings; and (c)
the designs of control and working bench
marks.
The place for establishing the observation
station is chosen by considering the positions
of mining workings and according to the
particular object of observations. An area on
a flat country with few structures and away
from haulage tracks and roads is a conve-
nient place for an observation station. Usu-
ally, two profile lines across the strike and
one on the strike are laid out. When working
deposits with varying geological and mining
conditions, the profile lines are laid out
separately on the sections which differ from
one another in the bedding elements, thick-
ness of a seam, working system, etc.
The profile line across the strike which is
the closest to undisturbed (intact) rock is
located at a distance not less than 0.85 Hm
from a breakthrough or the point where the
face is stopped (Hm is the mean depth of a
working). If the longwall face has already
moved from the breakthrough, the distance
from the latter to the profile line is found by
the formula:
d = Hm cotalloo :;::?;
0.85Hm
The next profile line is laid out at a
distance of 50 m from the previous one.
The length of profile lines drawn across the
strike (Fig. ll.l5a) is determined on vertical
sections by the boundary displacement
angles. Two control bench marks are es-
tablished on the continuations of the profile
lines beyond the expected displacement zone.
The distance from the first control bench
mark to the end of the working portion of the
profile line should be not less than 50 m, and
 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance
the spacing between the control bench marks,
50-100 m depending on local conditions.
The profile line on the strike passes
through the point of the maximum sub-
sidence of a displacement trough. To find this
point on the vertical section across the strike,
a line is drawn at an angle 9 from the middle
of the worked-out space up to its intersection
with the surface.
The length of the profile line on the strike
is found in the following way (Fig. ll.15b).
The point where the face will be supposedly
stopped is projected onto the surface (point
k). A distance B = Hmcotan 00 is the~ laid off
and Protection of Structures
towards the undisturbed rock massif, and a
distance 1.75Hm, towards the worked-out
space.
Control bench marks are established by
the same rules as for the profile lines across
the strike.
Working bench marks are set up along the
profile lines at intervals decided by the depth
of the mining work.
Bench marks should be designed so as to
ensure their stability and preservation for a
long period; in addition, they should be
inexpensive and convenient for establishing
and observations. Bench marks for long-term
 11.5. Monitoring Rock
(b)
Fig. 11.15 Determination of length of profile
strike
and ordinary stations are made from metal
tube sections, studs or rail pieces which are
set up below the freezing line and concreted.
For temporary stations, they can be made
from wooden stakes or pegs driven into the
soil. For better preservation, bench marks are
often buried in the ground to a depth of
30-40 cm.
Observations. Observations at stations on
the surface include tying (connecting) control
bench marks to an existing reference net,
primary observations on the bench marks in
horizontal and vertical planes, and secondary
observations. The horizontal connection of
control bench marks is carried out by trian-
gulation or by closed theodolite traverses. It
is permissible to run a hanging theodolite
traverse, provided that the angles and sides
are measured in the forward and back direc-
tion. The permissible relative discrepancy of a
theodolite traverse should not exceed 1/2000.
The vertical connection of control bench
marks is done from the points and bench
marks of a levelling net by means of geomet-
ric levelling with a discrepancy not more than
Displacement. Observation Stations 285
lines: (a) in section across the strike; (b) in section on the
15 JL, mm (where L is the length of a level
line, m).
Upon connecting a station, it is possible to
start primary and secondary observations. A
complete set of instrumental observations
contains: the levelling of all bench marks; the
measurements of bench spacings along pro-
file lines; determination of the deviations of
working bench marks from a profile line;
surveys of surface fissures with records of the
time of their appearance; and the measure-
ments of the deformations of structures.
The first observation at a station is recom-
mended to be carried out in 7-10 days after
setting up of bench marks (if these have been
concreted) or in 2-3 days for bench marks
driven into the ground. Primary observations
are carried out twice, and the final result is
obtained as the arithmetic mean of the two
observations.
The time intervals between the observa-
tions depend on their task. If it is essential to
obtain detailed information on rock displa-
cement, at least four intermediate observa-
tions between the initial and final observa-
286 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures

tion should be made, in time intervals deter-

mined by the formula:
t = H/6c
where H is the depth of the mining work at
the lower boundary of a working and c is the
rate of the face advance, m/day.
During the initial and active stage of rock
displacement, observations are carried out at
least three times a month and during the
attenuation stage, at least once a month.
After checking field measurements, the dis-
placements and deformations are calculated,
and curves are plotted. Calculations are
made by the formulae:
subsidence:
11= Hn -Hn-l (11.1)
inclination:
i = (11n-11n- J/I (11.2)
curvature:
k = (in -in- J/lm (11.3)
horizontal displacement:
~ = D2 -Dl (11.4)
and horizontal deformation:
E=(ln-In-J/I (11.5)
where 11is the subsidence of a bench mark;
Hn- 1 is the absolute elevation of the bench
mark in the previous observation; Hn is the
absolute elevation of the bench mark in the
current"observation; i is the inclination of a
subsidence curve; k is the curvature of that
curve; in and in -1 are the inclinations of the
current and previous interval; ~ is the hori-
zontal displacement; Dl, D2 are the distances
from a control bench mark to the given
bench mark in the previous and current
observation; E is the horizontal deformation;
In' In- 1 are the length of intervals in the
current and previous observation; and Im is
the half-sum of the lengths of intervals in the
previous and current observation. ...
The calculated deformations and displace- ..
:E
.~
 11.6. Calculations
ments of the Earth's surface are tabulated as
given in Tables 11.1 and 11.2.
11.6. Calculations
of Rock Displacement
An increase in the depth of the mining
work leads to an increase of the zones of
harmful effects on the surface, and therefore,
more objects on the surface will be subjected
to these effects and require protection. On the
other hand, with an increase in the mining
depth, surface deformations decrease,so that
it becomes possible to underwork even criti-
cal structures which could not be underwor-
ked when mining was done at higher mining
levels. In densely inhabited areas with multi-
storey residential and public buildings and
extended networks of gas and water supply
and seweragesystems,underworking requires
complicated engineering calculations for de-
termining the expected deformations and
degree of damage to structures. It is also
needed to carry out observations on the
surface subsidence and the state of structures
and control the protective measures and the
repairs of damilged buildings.
The existing methods of calculation of rock
subsidence can be divided into the following
groups: (a) empirical methods; (b) methods
based on distribution function; and (c) meth-
ods based on theoretical models. Empirical
methods are the most preferable since they
use the results of direct observations on
subsidence.
Among the empirical methods, the method
developed in this country is quite accurate. It
is used in cases when the roof control is
effectedby complete caving of the back-filling
of the worked-out space and is applicable
when the underworking ratio is Him > 20 for
the angles of dip between 0 and 55 or
Him > 15 for the angles larger than 55.
The underworking ratio is here the ratio of
the mean mining depth H to the extracted or
effective thickness of a seam, m.
of Rock Displacement 287
Depending on the completeness of initial
data, it is possible to detennine the expected
or probable displacements and defonnations
of the Earth's surface. The expected displa-
cements and defonnations can be calculated
when the calendar plans of the mining work
development are available and the probable
ones, when there are no such plans. In the
calculations of the expected displacements
and defonnations of the Earth's surface, the
following characteristics are detennined: sub-
sidence 11,horizontal displacements ~, incli-
nations i, curvature k and curvature radius R,
horizontal defonnations E, and displacements
and defonnations caused by rock motion
along the bedding.
If the angle of dip a is smaller than the
limiting value a" the expected displacements
and defonnations are detennined by the
calculation method for the conditions when
there is no rock motion at the lying wall. If
the angle of dip is equal to or greater than the
limiting value, the calculation method consi-
ders rock motion at the lying wall. The
limiting angle of dip of a seam, a" is the angle
at
thewhich
lying dangerous displacements
wall can appear. , of rock at
The calculation of displacements and de-
fonnations is started from constructing the
geological sections on and across the strike,
in which sedimentary and bed rocks should
be indicated. These sections should also show
the driven and projected workings (with the
dates of driving), the depth of the mining
work, and the dimensions of workings and
pillars. The extracted thickness m of a seam is
detennined as the total sum of the thicknes-
ses of layers of coal and enclosing rock
extracted from the stope workings. With
back-filling of the worked-out space, the
calculation of displacements and defonna-
tions is carried out by considering the effec-
tive thickness of the seam:
mer=(hc+hin)(I-BJ+Blm (11.6)
where hc is the convergence of the roof and
288 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures

Table 11.2

Bench mark Interval length, m

No.
Subsidence Inclination Inclination Curvature Radius of Subsidence Inclination
difference of i difference k, l/m curvature difference of i
interval ends, R. m interval ends,
mm mm

156.262 0 O 0
9.893 + 0.1 +0.1 0.03 +33.3

2 10.031 +1 + 0.1 -0.1 -0.01 -100 +3 + 0.3

3 10.002 O +0.1 +0.01 +100 +4 + 0.4
4 10.134 +1 + 0.1 0.0 0.00 +8 + 0.8
5 10.062 +1 + 0.1 +0.1 +0.01 +100 +8 + 0.8
6 9.951 +2 + 0.2 0.0 0.00 +4 + 0.4
7 9.943 +2 + 0.2 0.0 0.00 +23 + 2.3
8 9.972 +2 + 0.2 +0.3 +0.03 +33.3 +45 + 4.5
9 10.051 +5 + 0.5 -0.4 -0.04 -25.0 +73 + 0.73
10 +1 + 0.1 +136 +1 3.5

floor before back-filling (if there are no where qo is the relative maximum subsidence;
observation data and the face is advanced by m is the extracted thickness of a seam; a is the
8-20 m ahead of the filling, hc is taken equal angle of dip of a seam; and N 1 and N 2 are the
to 0.15 m); hin is the incompleteness of filling factors depending on the ratio of the design
(mean distance from the top of a filling massif length of a longwall Dd to the mean mining
to the roof of a seam), which is determined depth H,
experimentally; m is the extracted thickness of T he subsidenceof the Earth's surface in the
a seam; and B 1 is the shrinkage factor of pdints of the main sections of a displacement
filling whose values are given below: trough is determined by the formula:
Tl(x,y) = TlmS(z) (11,8)
Hydraulic filling: B1
sand. 0.05-0.15
crushed rock. .0.15-0.30 where S(Z)is the function of a typical subsi-
Pneumaticfilling 0.25-0.40 dence curve, which depends on coefficient N 1
Gravity-f1owfil-
and N 2'
ling: The inclinations in the main sections of a
crushed rock. .0.25-0.45
ordinary rock. .0.35-0.50 displacement trough are determined by the
following formulae:
In the calculations of displacements and for a half-trough on the strike:
deformations, it is essential to consider the
influence of all projected stope workings and ~ F( 1
of those driven earlier, which can activate the zx,
L3
displacement process in the given section. for a half-trough on the dip:
The maximum subsidence of the Earth's
surface is found by the formula:
llm = qomcosaNllN2 (11.7)
 11.6. Calculations of Rock Displacement 289

lst-4th observations

Inclination Curvature k. Radius of cur- Subsidence Inclination i Inclination Curvature k, Radius of

difference I/m vature R. difference of difference I/m curvature R,
m interval ends, m
mm

0 0
+0.3 +0.01 + 100.0 +0.6 +0.02 50.0
+0.1 +0.01 + 100.0 +6 +0.6 +0.3 +0.03 33.3
+0.4 +0.04 +25.0 +9 +0.9 +0.1 +0.01 +I 00.0
0.0 0.0 +10 +1.0 -0.1 -0.01 -I 00.0
-0.4 -0.04 -25.0 +9 +0.9 +0.4 +0.04 + 25.0
+1.9 +0.19 +52.5 +13 +1.3 +1.5 +0.15 + 67.5
+2.1 +0.21 +47.5 +27 +2.8 +2.6 +0.28 + 38.5
+2.8 +0.28 +35.7 +57 +5.4 +2.5 +9.25 + 40.0
+5.2 +0.52 +19.2 +79 +7.9 +3.5 +0.85 + 11.8
+163 +16.4

T he horizontal displacements of the points

in the main sections of a displacement trough
are found as follows:
for a half-trough on the strike:
fox = O.5ao1lmF'(zx) (11.15)

for a half-trough on the dip:

f,yl = O.5aoTlmF'(zyJ (11.16)

and for a half-trough on the rise:

~y2 = O.5aoTlmF'(Zy2) (11.17)

where the factor ao is the relative maximum

horizontal displacement and functions F'(zx),
F'(zyJ, and F'(zyJ are the same as in formu-
lae (11.12)-(11.14).
The horizontal deformations (tensile and
compressive) in the main sections of a displa-
cement trough are determined by the for-
mulae:
for a half-trough on the strike:

"x = O.5ao
-L1lmF'(zx)
3 (11.18)

19-1270
290 Ch.1 Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures

for a half-trough on the dip: of surface structures will be discussed below.

I. Mining measures may consist in (a) the
Eyl = O.5ao ~ F'(zyJ (11.19) protection of structures by back-filling of the
Ll worked-out space and (b) the application of
and for a half-trough on the rise special methods of mineral extraction, which
ensure proper safety of surface structures.
E = 0.5a ~ F'(z ) (11.20) Among these methods, it is worth to mention
y2 O L2 y2 the following: (a) extraction sections are plan-
ned so that the surface structures turn out to
where functions F'(zx), F'(Zyl)' and F'(Zy2) are be on the portions of a displacement trough
the same as in formulae (11.12)-(11.17). where earth subsidence is the most uniform;
(b) a stope face is advanced continuously and
11.7. sMe;sure;t for tProtectIng .quickly ce of theso as toworking
stope minimizeonthe time structures;
surface of influen-
ur ace ruc ures and (c) mineral is extracted at both sides of a
The problems of the protection of buil- breakthrough which is located under the
dings and structures against harmful effects centre of a surface structure, etc.
of underground mining have become crucial One of the most efficient methods of
in recent time, especially in large coal fields structure protection is the provision of strip
where underworking of buildings leads either pillars having a large strength margin and
to a substantial increase of the cost of mining spaced at intervals which ensure proper sta-
(owing to expensive additional measures for bility of the roof. The essenceof the method
the protection of buildings) or to large losses consists in the following: ~s the intermediate
of coal in safety pillars. chamber pillars, which are left between the
The conditions of safe mining are determi- barrier pillars, are destroyed, the caving pro-
ned by using the concepts of permissible cessis localized in the space confined between
deformations and ultimate deformations. the. barrier pillars. In that case, the overlying
Permissible deformations are taken as the rock will cave in only within the equilibrium
deformations of the Earth's surface which dome, whereas the rock massif above it
cause only repairable damage to surface remains undisturbed.
structure. Ultimate deformations of the Earth's 2. Construction measuresdecreasethe stres-
surface are understood as the ultimate limit ses and deformations in structures and buil-
for deformations; any deformations above dings and increase the load-carrying capacity,
this limit"Will be dangerous for the stability of but do not exclude the appearance of fine
buildings and structures and the life of people. fissures in walls, foundations, and floors. The
For determining the conditions of safe principal construction measures for minimi-
underworking of objects above a single seam zing the deformations of structure are as
or the first seam of a suite, it has been follows:
proposed to use the concept of safe mining (a) settlement joints by which long buil-
depth which is understood as the depth dings are divided into sections of a suitable
below which mining operations cannot cause size and closed contour. Settlement joints are
in structures the deformations exceeding the arranged near internal partition walls. Their
permissible ones. At mining levels below the thickness should be such that the building
safe depth, the mining work can be carried sections can settle down independently under
out without taking protective measures. the effect of underworking. It is recommen-
The principal measures for the protection ded to divide a building by settlement joints
 11.8. Construction
to its entire height (except for the founda-
tion);
(b) yieldable foundations which absorb the
horizontal stressesin buildings. This is achie-
ved by providing a horizontal joint to sepa-
rate the underground portion of a building
from the foundation; the joint is filled with a
material having a low coefficient of friction;
(c) foundation plates. The idea consists in
that a reinforced-concrete plate is laid onto
the levelled and compacted soil surface. The
plate is cut through by diagonal joints filled
with an elastic material. A layer of wet sand
up to 5 cm thick is laid on the plate and
above it another plate (without joints) is
placed on which the building will be erected.
Effective protection of buildings against
the effect of underworking is provided by
compensating ditches dug in the ground
along a building; they diminish horizontal
deformations by 33-50 per cent. The bottom
of a ditch is made somewhat lower (around
50 cm) than the foundation foot. Compensa-
tion ditches are filled with corrugated steel,
fine coke or a mixture of soil and sawdust.
3. Safety (protective) pillars are left in the
worked-out area of mines. This method is
resorted to when other protective measures
are inefficient or too expensive.
11 .8. Construction
of Safety Pillars
Safety pillars can be constructed by the
method of vertical sections or method of
perpendiculars.
11.8.1. Method of Vertical Sections
Let us consider two examples of the appli-
cation of this method: construction of safety
pillars for a building and for an extended
object.
Example 1. It is required to construct a
safety pillar for a four-storey brickwork
19.
of Safety Pillars 291
building of a rectangular form 28 x 45 m in
plan (Fig. 11.16) and arranged diagonally (at
45) to the strike of a seam. Another seam, 11,
of a thickness m = 0.9 m and an angle of dip
a = 30, lies under the seam mentioned. The
thickness of sedimentary rock is 25 m. The
displacement angles are: <p in sedimentary
rock and 13,y, and Oin bed rock. The width of
a safety berm, which depends on the type of
building to be protected, is taken equal to
15 m in the case considered.
The construction of the pillar is started by
drawing lines parallel and perpendicular to
the seam strike through the corner points 1,
2, 3, 4 of the building. A berm 15 m wide is
plotted around the rectangle thus obtained.
This gives another rectangle, ABCD. A verti-
cal section across the strike is plotted, and
the corner points of the building and berm
are projected onto it. Lines are drawn through
points A (B) and D (C) in the sedimentary
rock at the displacement angle <pup to the
contact with the bed rock. Lines are drawn
in the bed rock through points K 1 and K 2
thus obtained, at the angle yon the dip and
the angle 13,on the rise.
The boundaries of the pillar on the dip side
are points a and b which are the points of the
intersection of the seam with the line drawn
at the angle y; on the rise side, the boundary
points are c and d obtained by the intersec-
tion of the "line drawn at the angle 13to the
seam line.
A vertical section on the strike is then
constructed, and the corner points of the
berm, B (C) and A (D) are projected onto it.
Lines are drawn in the sedimentary rock
through these points at the angle <pup to the
intersection with the bed rock, which gives
points K3 and K4, after which lines at the
inclination angle O are drawn through these
points. The intersections of these lines with
the lines of the upper and lower boundary of
the pillar determine the pillar dimensions in
the section on the strike.
Upon the construction of the vertical sec-
292 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures

2004080m
I I I I I I I

a
Fig. 11.16 Construction of safety pillar for building by method of vertical sections

tions of the pillar, the plan contours of the the bed rock on the dip. The two latter angles
pillar are determined (abcd). can be found from the formulae:
The reserve of coal in the pillar is calcula- cotanf3' = Jcotan2f3 cos2e + cotan2o sin2e
ted by multiplying the seam thickness by the
total area of the pillar. cotany' = Jcotan2y cos2e + cotan2o sin2e
Example 2. It is required to construct a
safety pillar for a railway bed in a brown coal where 13,y, and O are the displacement angles
field (Fig. 11.17).The railway bed is arranged in the main sections of a displacement trough
diagonally to the seam strike. The seam for the given seam and e is the acute angle
thickness is 1.3 m and the angle of dip, 25. between the strike line of the seam and the
The overlying bed rock is represented by clay contour of the object to be protected.
shales, argillites, and aleurolites. The thick- The boundaries of the safety pillar are
ness of sediments is 20 m. The displacement determined by plotting a number of vertical
angles are: ~ = 47, y = 65, O = 65, and sections perpendicular to the railway line in
<p= 45. the characteristic points of the protected area
For objects extended diagonally to the (1-2, 3-4,5-6, 7-8, and 9-10). In these sections,
strike, safety pillars are constructed by the the traces of protected planes are drawn from
displacement angles: <p in the sedimentary the berms in the sedimentary rock at the
rock, ~' in the bed rock on the rise, and y' in displacement angle <p and then in the bed
 11.8. Construction of Safety Pillars 293

9-10 7-8
10 ~o 9 ~

/ 47~ ~5
/ 5-6 3-4
--8 ? -- ~o--
~ 45O 4 5 4 45 -45 3

-I 0 50 ~6O -,-I 65-

400 -- , I I I
---
I I, I
375 -~ --~~~.6 I
350 --
1-2
325 - 2 45 -45"
.r-
300 I
W /

- ~~
225
!1 SectionNo.1 6113'11'1
1-2 '~1561651
3-4

Fig. 11.17 Construction of safety pillar for extended object by method of vertical sections

rock at displacement angles J3iand yi. The The angle of dip of the seam ,in the section
bedding deptb of the seam under the railway plane is determined graphically. The points
bed is determined as the difference of eleva- obtained by the intersection of seam traces
tions between the Earth's surface and the with protection planes are transferred onto
seam foot. This depth is laid off in the the plan where straight lines or smooth
sections, and the line of the seam is drawn at curves are drawn to determine the contours
an angle ai through the points thus obtained. of the pillar.
Seam
outcropto overburden
<)6
1~ " .',
250~ /
,---
"

2
278~
200 -
"~--~-
'2'
280~
150- --
""
100

Fig. 11.18 Construction of safety pillar by method of perpendiculars

~
 Ch. 11. Rock Disturbance and Protection of Structures

11.8.2. Method of Perpendiculars the seam foot; a is the angle of dip "of the
seam; M is the thickness of the sedimentary
In this method, the boundaries of a pillar
rock; and 13' and y' are the displacement
are obtained directly on a plan, i. e. without
plotting vertical sections. The lengths of angles.
Consider, as an example, the construction
perpendiculars are determined by the for-
of a safety pillar for a railway bed passing
mulae:
diagonally to the strike (Fig. 11.18). Points
(H -M) cotan [3' are chosen in the characteristic places of the
q=
1 + cotan [3' tan 11cos e protected area and perpendiculars are drawn
(H -M) cotan y' in these points to the contour of a safety
I= berm. The corresponding lengths q and 1 are
1 -cotan y' tan 11cos e laid off along the perpendiculars. Points 1, 2,
where q is the length of perpendiculars to the 3, J', 2', and 3' are connected by lines which
rise; I is the length of perpendiculars to the define the boundaries of the safety pillar. The
dip; H is the depth from the Earth's surface to coal reserve in the pillar is then calculated.
 Chapter Twelve

Stability of Quarry Flanks

12.1 Principal Causes and Kinds in quarry flanks can be divided into five
of Rock Deformation principal kinds: taluses, downfalls, landslides,
subsidences, and mud-streams {mud-flows).
Rock displacements in open-cast mining of A talus takes place when small volumes of
minerals determine to a large extent the loose rock roll gradually from the top of a
mining economics and labour safety. slope to its bottom. This can occur when the
The loss of stability (displacement) of angle of a slope is steeper than the angle of
flanks and benches in quarries is mainly internal friction of loose rock, and the latter
associated with changes in the stressed state has practically no internal cohesion.
of the undisturbed rock massif, which can be A downfall is essentially quick movement
caused by open-cast mining. of rock masses along slip surfaces, such as
In this process, the destruction of rock surfaces weakened by geological disturbances
mainly occurs under the action of tangential or fissures. These surfaces may be plane or
stresses which under particular conditions curved, in the latter case, mostly circular-cy-
can induce irreversible shear deformations in lindrical.
the rock massif along the surfaces called slip In order to prevent downfalls, .quarry
planes. flanks and benches are designed by conside-
The studies of the patterns of stressed state ring the specific characteristics of the rock
in quarry flanks demonstrate that in the massif or by providing artificial measures for
general case the distribution of shear stresses increasing the rock stability.
in a rock massif weakened by a side cut (such Landslides are characterized by that the
as a flank) may be represented by stress motion of rocks occurs slowly, the process
diagrams like those shown in Fig. 12.1 (lines may continue for a long time and entrains
1-1, 11-11, and 111-111).The points of the large massesof rock. The moving rock massif
maximum shear stresses,which are located at in a landslide is subjected to plastic deforma-
different heights of the flank, form the direc- tions. Both bed rocks and rocks of waste
tion of the weakest plane abcde.In the case of dumps may be involved into the process.
ultimate stresses, this plane becomes a slip A subsidenceis essentially a vertical sinking
plane. A slip plane of this kind mainly of loose rock masses at the edges of flanks,
corresponds to a homogeneous (isotropic) which occurs without forming a continuous
rock massif. If the massif has anisotropic slip surface. Landslides can occur on compac-
planes (bedding planes, jointing systems, tion of loose rocks in waste dumps, which are
tectonic disturbances, etc.), the position of a strengthened on wetting; on saturation of
slip plane changes and in some casesmay be high-porous sediments with water; or in cases
coincident with the planes of anisotropy. when there are soft plastic layers in the base
The whole diversity of rock deformations of waste dumps.
296 Ch. 12. Stability
Mud-streams (mud-flows) can occur in
some rocks whose state changes from solid to
fluid on water saturation. Mud-streams are
observed most often upon saturation of loose
and high-porous sedimentary rocks (loesses,
loess-like loams, etc.) or when sands are
carried off from sediments by filtering water
flows. Mud-streams can be prevented by
drainage.
12.2. Factors Affecting
Flank Stability
The stability of quarry flanks depends on
the correlation between the forces that tend
to retain a slope and those which displace it.
These forGes can be influenced by many
factors.
The determination of the stable angles of
inclination of quarry flanks (slopes) is essen-
tially a problem of the theory of ultimate
equilibrium according to which the strength
of a rock can be characterized by a certain
curve plotted in coordinates t, O"n(shear and
normal stress),see Fig. l2.2a. A curve ARC in
the figure determines the ultimate state of the
rock in a specimen. A section OB' cut off by
the curve on the t axis determines the
cohesion. The angle of inclination of a
of Ouarry Flanks
straight section mn to the an axis is called the
angle of internal friction and the tangent of
that angle is the coefficient of internal friction.
A section OA describes the ultimate tensile
strength of the rock, at' and a section OD is
numerically equal to the ultimate compres-
sive strength ac.
In the general form the equation of the
curve of ultimate equilibrium is 't = f(an) and
can be described by a parabola, cycloid or a
straight line depending on the kind of rock. A
linear equation of equilibrium (Fig. 12.2b)has
the form:
't = an tanp + k (12.1)
where 't is the tangential stress in a shear
plane, MPa; an is the normal stress in that
plane, MPa; p is the angle of internal friction
of the rock, degrees;and k is the coefficient of
cohesion of the rock, MPa. The curves of
ultimate equilibrium are plotted by the re-
sults of shear tests of rock specimens.
A real rock is essentially a complex me-
dium possessing a certain non-uniformity
(anisotropy) of properties. The main factor
responsible for anisotropy is the structure of
a rock massif, in particular, various planes of
weakness (bedding and stratification planes,
fissures, etc.). Because of anisotropy, the laws
 12.2. Factors Affecting
Fig. 12.2 Strength certificate: (a) with curvilinear envelope of Mohr's circles; (b) with straight envelope
of geometrical similarity which are true for
isotropic solids (metals, plastics, etc.) are
inapplicable to rock massifs. For that reason,
the mechanical properties of a rock massif
may differ from those obtained by testing
rock specimens.
The properties of rocks in a massif are
determined by special tests of rock prisms
delineated in their natural bedding and orien-
ted in a definite way relative to the planes of
anisotropy. Forces p applied to a prism are
developed by ,powerful jacks (Fig. 12.3).
A prism usually breaks along a certain
surface ab. The knowledge of the position of
this plane makes it possible to determine the
strength characteristics of a rock massif.
Experiments have shown that among the two
parameters characterizing the shear strength
(cohesion and angle of internal friction), co-
hesion is subject to larger variations. There-
fore, taking a particular value of friction by
the results of laboratory tests of rock speci-
mens, it is possible to determine the cohesion
in the rock massif by considering that the
resultant force of external pressure p can be
resolved into a normal component N and a
tangential component 1:
If slip surfaces do not coincide with the
planes of contact between rock layers in a
massif, the angle of internal friction can be
taken equal to the angle determined in shear
Flank Stability 297
tests of rock specimens. The angles of inter-
nal friction for selected rocks are given in
Table 12.1.
The angles of internal friction at contacts
of layers are taken equal to the angle of
friction obtained by the results of laboratory
tests for friction on these surfaces.The angles
of friction obtained in tests at contacts of
layers and fissures are given in Table 12.2.
The mechanical properties of rocks in a
massif (especially cohesion) not only differ
from those in specimens,but are variable and
depend substantially on the size ratio of the
object being deformed, dimensions of struc-
tural blocks, and the strength of rock in
specImens.
During their formation and especially after
the formation, rock massifs were subjected to
T
Fig. 12.3 Diagram of natural shear tests of priSJ
298 Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks

Table 12.1 proceed from considering individual struc-

tural blocks.
Rock Angle of inter- Angle of re- Plastic deformations of rocks are charac-
nal friction in pose, degrees
lumps, degrees terized by the appearance of two conjugate
systems of fissures which, in the case of an
Sandstones 36 34-36 isotropic medium, make an angle <p= 45 -
Aleurolites 33 34-36 -p/2 to the main active force. In the case of
Argillites 27-30 34-36 fissured rocks, however, slip surfaces can
Limestones 34 33-35 partially propagate along the existing planes
Metamorphic schists 29 33-35 of weakness,i. e. the massif breaks through at
Quartz-porphyries and
the existing surfaces. In deformations invol-
granodiorite porphy- 36 33-35
ries ving large massesof rock (such as landslides)
Syenites and porphy- 35 35 a slip zone is formed, rather than a slip
ries surface, and involves a number of structural
blocks. The displacements of these blocks in
the zone can occur both by slip and by
various changes and transformations rotation.
which were associated with the appearance of In the destruction of a rock massif, its
rupture cracks, cleavages, stratification pla- structural blocks are also destroyed to some
nes, etc. These surfaces divide rock massifs or other extent depending on the size of
into individual polyhedrons or structural blocks (smaller blocks are less subject to
blocks which are essentially the elementary destruction) and their strength (weaker
structural particles from which a rock massif blocks are more probable to be destroyed).
is composed. In deformations of large rock Various coefficients of structural weakening
massifs, structural blocks can be likened to have been proposed to account for the effect
mineral grains in small specimens subjected of structural blocks on the strength proper-
to deformations. ties of rock massifs. The cohesion of a rock
Thus, for the estimation of the strength massif in a direction not coincident with the
properties of rock massifs, it is essential to planes of weakness can be determined by the

Table 12.2

Porphyries, hornfelses, jaspilites, strong sand- 28-31 24-28 22-27 20-26

stones
Secondary quartzites, granodiorites, quartz-por- 25-28 20-23 17-20
phyries, granodiorite porphyries, skarnated rocks,
syenites, diorites, aleurolites
Limestones, metamorphic schists, magnetites 24-27 23-25 20-22 16-19

Clay shales, argillites 23-26 21-23 18-20 15-18

Phyllites, talcochlorite and sericitic schists 23-25 20-22 13-15 9-12

 12.2. Factors Affecting Flank Stability 299

Table 12.3 (after G. Fisenko)

Rock group Rocks and type of jointing Cohesion in lumps, Coefficient

MPa a

III Weakly compacted and weakly fissured sand-clay sediments; 0.4-0.9 0.5
strongly weathered, fully kaolinized igneous rocks; compacted
sand-clay sediments with normal jointing
Strongly kaolinized igneous sand-clay rocks; compacted sand- 3.0-8.0 3
clay rocks with developed diagonal jointing; moderate- 10,0-15.0 3
strength laminated rocks mostly with normal 15.0-17.0 4
jointing 17.0-20.0 5
Hard rocks mostly with normal jointing 20.0-30.0 6
30.0 7
Hard igneous rocks with developed diagonal jointing 20.0 10

following fornlula suggested by G. Fisenko: entire complex of rocks and all structural
ksp elements of a deposit is involved into exami-
k =
m 1 + a In(H//) (12.2) nation. In rock massifs divided into blocks by
geological disturbances, each block
should have one or two measuring sections.
where km and ksp are the coefficients of With a simple structure of a deposit or
cohesion of the rock in a massif and a quarry field, measuring sections can be spa-
specimen, MPa; a is coefficient which can be ced at distances of 150-200 m from one
found in Table 12.3; and H/l is the ratio of another. In each measuring section, there are
the flank height to the mean size of structural determined the bedding elements of all join-
blocks delinea~ed by fissures. ting systems, elements of stratification and
Thus, for estimating the mechanical pro- foliation, linear dimensions of individual fis-
perties of rocks in massifs, it is essential to sures, distances between the fissures in each
know the specific features of their jointing, in jointing system, pattern of fissure surface, and
particular, the primary and secondary system the shape and size of structural blocks.
of joints Uoint sets), contribution of each The bedding elements of fissures are mea-
system to the total quantity of fissures, sured by an inclinatorium. The total number
spatial angles between the systems of joints, of measurements of bedding elements on an
intensity of jointing, patterns of distribution area depends on the number of jointing
of fissures in the quarry field, and the signifi- systems and the pattern of surface of fissures.
cance of each jointing system in the structure As a general rule, 15-20 measurements of
of a deposit and the stability of slopes. bedding elements should be made for each
The field observations of jointing are car- jointing system. With a large discrepancy
ried out on natural and artificial rock out- between the measured results, the number of
crops and in exploring and drainage wor- measurements should be increased up to 30.
kings. The density of sections for the meas- Office work consists in determining the
urements of jointing and their mutual ar- typical orientations of fissures and the inten-
rangement are deternlined by the geological sity {density) of jointing. The elements of
structure of a deposit or quarry field. Mea- fissure orientation in space can be measured
suring sections should be located so that the most conveniently by means of stereographic
300 Ch. 12. Stability
grids. Statistical processing of stereographic
grids makes it possible to divide the entire
totality of fissures in the rock massif into
particular systems.
The number of fissures, i. e. the density of
jointing, can be determined by two methods:
I. ~sually. i .e. by recording all detected
fissures in each system; the results are then
corrected by the data of statistical processing
of a small number of selective measurements
in systems.
2. By statistical processing of a fairly large
number of measurements of bedding el-
ements of fissures.
The density of jointing can be character-
ized by several coefficients:
(I) a linear coefficient which gives the ratio
of a unit length to the mean spacing between
the fissures. In some cases, the unit length
may be taken as the length of the object being
studied, for instance, the height of a quarry
flank, etc.;
(2) an area coefficient. or the ratio of a unit
area to the area confined between two pairs
of fissures forming a structural block; and
(3) a volume coefficient, i. e. the ratio of a
unit volume to the volume of an averaged
block.
An important factor affecting rock stability
is weathering, i. e. degradation of rocks on the
Earth's surface caused by natural agents
(temperature, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
living organisms, etc.). Weathering effect is
especially noticeable in the flanks of old
quarries.
Rock stability can be influenced substan-
tially by hydrogeological factors: inflow of
ground waters, hydrostatic and hydrody-
namic pressure, suffosion, leaching, sudden
water outbursts, and mud-flows. Acting sep-
arately or in combination, these factors can
decrease substantially the strength charac-
teristics of rock, in particular the shear
strength.
When estimating the stability of quarry
flanks, it is also essential to take into consider-
of Quarry Flanks
ation the climatic factors: atmospheric preci-
pitation, local temperature conditions, micro-
relief, and wind velocity. Without proper
drainage, atmospheric precipitation can
cause the inundation of sand-clay rocks to a
state when capillary water changes to gravi-
tational water, thus reducing sharply the
shear strength, and therefore, the stability of
slopes. Temperature changes and winds of-
ten accelerate weathering and thus diminish
rock stability. Some kinds of microrelief can
be the cause of swamping.
Rock stability can depend substantially on
engineering factors, especially on the method
of blasting work. After blasting, the strength
of rock in some portions of the massif can
drop to 20-25 per cent of the initial (natural)
strength. In order to prevent landslides and
downfalls, it is then required to change
properly the elements of working systems
(width of berms and platforms, heights and
angles of slopes and benches, etc.), though
sometimes at the expense of the mining
productivity.
It is also essential to consider other engi-
neering factors which can influence the stability
of, flanks, such as the width of stoping and
transport berms, profile of working, plat-
forms, underworking of flanks, etc.
12.3. Mine-Surveying
Observations on Rock
Mining Deformations
in Open-Cast Mining
Observations on rock disturbance in
open-cast mining and processing of the re-
sults of observations are an important object
of mine-surveying service in quarries. Obser-
vations on landslides include two stages: (a)
exploration and detection of seats of land-
slides and (b) observations on landslide seats
and development of particular measures to
prevent landslide phenomena.
In view of the continuous technological
mobility of slopes in quarries, the organi-
 12.3. Mine-Surveying
zation of observations has certain specific
features. Observation points established in
slopes cannot be preserved for a long time
(especially those on the benches of working
flanks). In that connection, it is essential to
organize observations so as to complete them
in relatively short terms. There are two
principal kinds of observations: (1) obser-
vations on visible deformations of flanks and
benches in order to predict the shape of a
landslide and the pattern of its development
in space and time and (2) observations on
sections where deformations are invisible but
can appear and cause serious damage to the
mining plant.
The results of observations should estab-
lish the displacements of particular points of
a rock massif in space and time; dimensions
of a sliding massif, slip surfaces, stages of the
displacement process (initial, active, and at-
tenuating), and the degree of hazard of rock
displacements for mining operations and for
surface structures.
For observations on rock displacements,
observation stations are established on the
flank of a quarry, and instrumental obser-
vations are made at them in specified time
intervals. An observation station is essentially
a system of bench marks set up along the
lines perpendicular to the length of a quarry
flank. In order to take into consideration the
effects of various factors on flank stability,
the profile lines of an observation station are
usually located in sections of rocks having
different geological conditions.
The length of profile lines should be such
that one or both ends of the line is beyond
the zone of expected displacements. In quar-
ries of a small depth, profile lines can be
drawn through the entire quarry. Spacings
between the bench marks of a profile line
depend on the quarry depth and dimensions
of benches.At least two bench marks should
be established on each bench: one near the
bench crest and the other at the foot of the
overlying bench. Bench marks should be
Observations 301
located on benches so as to ensure safety for
an observer. Control bench marks are provi-
ded at the ends of profile lines. During the
construction of an observation station, at
least three initial bench marks are established
so as to guarantee their preservation. Control
bench marks of all lines are connected to the
initial bench marks.
Mine-surveying observations at stations
include the following procedures: levelling of
all bench marks, including control bench
marks; measurements of spacings between
the bench marks by controlled tension steel
tapes (with recording the temperature during
measurements); instrumental surveying of
particular benches, muck piles, bedding el-
ements, jointing, existing displacements, etc.
All measurements should be made with
checking. The accuracy of measurements
should satisfy the following conditions:
(I) in geometric levelling, the difference of
two measured elevations should be not more
than 3 mm;
(2) in measuring the spacings between the
bench marks, the discrepancy of two mea-
surements should be not more t:han 2 mm;
(3) in trigonometric levelling, the difference
between two measurements of the same el-
evation should be not more than 5 mm for
lengths up to 10 m or 8 mm for lengths above
10 m.
The results of measurements are presented
in the following graphical documents: the
plan of an observation station (Fig. 12.4)on a
scale 1/500, 1/1000 or 1/2000 which should
show profile lines, mining workings, the situ-
ation and relief of the land surface; vertical
sections for each profile with the positions of
a flank at the moment of laying out a profile
line and during a given series of observations;
vector diagrams of bench mark displace-
ments in the vertical plane on a scale 1/1,
1/5, I/lO or 1/20; and the diagrams of the
rates of bench mark movement in the direc-
tions of these vectors.
In observations on landslides, it is also
302 Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks

required to determine the position of a slip

surface in the body of a slope and establish
the cause of its appearance. When the results
of observations are analysed on profile lines,
it is assumed that all displacement vectors of
individual points on the slip surface coincide
with the movements of the points of the slope
surface which are located on normals to the
slip surface. Then, having determined the
displacement vectors from the results of
mine-surveying observations, it is possible to
determine the position of a slip line. The
position of a slip surface is found in the
following manner (Fig. 12.5):
(I) the profile of a slope is constructed by
the results of observations on the movement
of a landslide, and all bench marks and
fissures that appeared during the landslide
are marked on it; fissures in the top portion
and at the foot of the slope should be
documented especially carefully;
(2) the displacement vectors of bench
marks are plotted on a profile, and a perpen-
dicular from the mid of each vector is drawn
towards the rock massif;
(3) line sections parallel to the displace-
ment vectors of bench marks are laid off on
Fig. 12.4 Plan of observation station
corresponding perpendiculars from the upper

Fig. 12.5 Determining position of slip line by results of observations on displacements of bench marks
 12.4. Stability of Benches and Flanks of Quarries

12.4. Stability of Working

1TT1n- Benches and Flanks of
I
-J.-J.-+-+--~~ I I I... t...'
Quarries
I , I"
, In the design, construction and operation
,
,l".,j"I of quarries, it is essential to choose a suitable
)
,'.
/ \ method for calculating the inclination angles
\ II'
of quarry flanks so as to ensure proper
~ stability of flanks and benches, provide place
/i v
for berms and roads, and achieve a high
, economic efficiency of mining.
There are a number of methods for calcu-
Fig. 12.6 Determinationof angleof internal fric- lating the flank stability which is estimated in
tion and cohesion by results of surveying of terms qf a stability coefficient. This is under-
landslide stood as the ratio of the sum of all retaining
forces to the sum of thrust forces acting on a
and lower boundary of a landslide (from the landslide wedge:
break fissure at the top and from the support n = ~F fr + ~F c + A (12.4)
line at the bottom). The broken line thus
constructed is essentially the slip line of the ~Fthr + B
landslide. where ~F fr = j"i:.N i is the sum of friction
The results of observations on landslides forces; ~F c = kL is the sum of cohesion
can be used for determining the angle of forces; ~F thr = ~ ~ is the sum of thrust forces;
internal friction p and the coefficient of f is the coefficient of internal friction of the
cohesion k of the rock by the method of rock; k is the coefficient of cohesion deter-
inverse calculation. mined by the force acting on a unit surface
A rock massif at the moment when it loses area; and A and B are some additional
balance is assumed to be under the action of retaining and thrust forces.
the system of thrust forces ~ and retaining Tensile forces acting in the top portion of a
forces: the force of friction tan p1;Ni and the slope produce vertical rupture cracks, be-
force of cohesion kL (Fig. 12.6): cause of which the length of the slip surface
1;~ = tan p1;Ni + kL (12.3) decreases.The length of such a crack is found
by the formula:
where L is the length of the landslide surface
2k cotan (45 -p/2)
in the section considered. If-= I"'C\
~1~.JJ
After a certain displacement, the moving y

mass of rock stops in a new state of equili- where k is the coefficient of cohesion; p is the
brium in which the thrust forces are counter- angle of internal friction; and y is the mean
balanced by the forces of friction. density of the rock.
Solving the above equation for this state of In the calculations of the stable position of
equilibrium under the action of friction for- d quarry flank on a circular-cylindrical slip
ces, we find the angle of internal fric~ion of surface, it is rather difficult to find the centre
the rock massif. Substituting the value of p of the most dangerous arc of slip. The
into Eq. (12.3),it is then possible to determine analysis of equilibrium of a landslide wedge
the coefficient of cohesion k of rock in the gives us only one equation, so that the
massif. problem cannot be solved uniquely. Because

~
 Ch. 12. Stability
of this, the centre of this arc is found by the
trial-and-error method which involves la-
borious calculations.
It is however possible to use a method
which immediately determines the position of
the slip surface when the landslide wedge has
the least reserve of stability. The method is
essentially as follows (Fig. 12.7):
(I) a horizontal line BD at a distance H9o
from the slope surface and a vertical line AB
are drawn on the vertical section of a slope;
(2) an arbitrary point D is taken on a line
BD and a line at an angle 45 + p/2 to the
line BD is drawn from that point (a line DC);
a line BC is drawn from a point B at the same
angle;
(3) a line M K is constructed from the
lowermost point of a slope (a point M) at an
angle 45~ -p/2;
(4) equal sections MP, PP', and P'P" are
laid off on the line MK from the point M and
equal sections CC', C'C", and C"Co, on a
line DC from a point C;
(5) lines parallel to the slope line MA are
drawn from points P, P', and P" and lines
parallel to BC, from points C', C", and Co;
the intersections of these lines are points E ,
E l' E 2' and E 3; a straight line EO is drawn
through these points up to the intersection
with the line MK;
(6) a straight line parallel to DC is drawn
of Quarry Flanks
from a point a up to the intersection with the
line ED (a point E);
(7) two perpendiculars are raised to the
lines aE and MK respectively in points N
and M (Rl and R2 in Fig. 12.7); the inter-
section of these perpendiculars determines
the centre of the circle passing through the
points M and E.
After these geometrical constructions, a
check of the slope stability is made. For this
purpose, the landslide wedge is plotted on a
larger scale and divided by vertical lines into
a number of prisms (Fig. 12.8). The area of
each block Si is measured, and the mass of the
rock in each prism per metre of the quarry
front is calculated by the formula Qi = sir.
The vertical lines, which are the boundaries
of prisms, are continued downwards to a
distance corresponding to the mass of a
prism on the given scale. Perpendiculars are
raised from the points of the intersection of
these lines with the slip surface. After that, N i
and 1; are found by the formulae: N i = Qi
cos 9; and 1; = Qi sin 9; (values of N i and 1;
are given in Table 12.4), and the angle 9;
between Qi and N i is measured.
Fig. 12.8 Scheme of landslide wedge for calculat
ing slope stability
 12.5. Measures for Controlling Landslides 305

Table 12.4 popular: flattening out the inclination angles

of benches and flanks; leaving safety pillars of
Block No. Qi.MN e" deg. N;.MN 1;, MN overburden rock or mineral it.l zones where
landslide centres are probable to appear;
I 2.33 45 1.65 1.65 decreasing the load on a slope in order to
II 2.91 39 2.26 1.83
III
diminish the forces developed by the active
2.72 27 2.43 1.24
IV 1.97 20 1.85 0.67 pressure prism; removing the rock from pro-
V 0.75 7 0.74 0.09 bable centres of landslides; and strengthening
8.93 5.48 artificially the rocks in the massif.
In undertaking measures for the preven-
tion of landslides, it should be distinguished
The length L of the slip surface is then
between the cases when the slip surface is
found, after which the stability coefficient is
distinctly pronounced in nature (along clea-
calculated by the formula:
vage planes, layer contacts, etc.) and when it
tan pI:N i + kL (12.6) is a merely imaginary line. In the former case,
n= the slip surface can be represented by weak
1:1;;
contacts in a rock bed dipping towards a
where p is the angle of internal friction, working. Slip surfaces can also pass along the
degrees;k is the coefficient of cohesion of the interlayers of clays and loams in a homoge-
rock; and L is the length of the slip surface. neous bed of rock in a slope or along the
The forces A and B (see Eq. 12.4) are not contacts of inundated rocks.
considered here. In the latter case, the position of the slip
If the calculated stability coefficient is surface cannot be detected visually and is
greater than or equal to the specified value, determined only by survey observations on
the flank is considered to be stable, if other- slope deformations or analytically. Such a
wise, it is unstable, and it is then required to surface cannot be determined precisely, but
flatten out the slope or employ artificial even an approximate determination of its
measures for increasing the rock stability. position makes it possible to predict the kind
of expected landslide and take suitable pro-
12.5. Measures for Controlling tective measures. With a known position of
Landslides the slip surface, landslides can be prevented
by one of the methods described below.
Landslides in quarries cause enormous Flattening out the slope angle. This method
damage to mining plants, disturb the normal consists essentially in diminishing the angle
course of mining operations, often lead to of inclination of a slope or bench to a certain
large losses of stripped and prepared reserves safe value at which the landslide is impos-
of minerals, and necessitate multiple transfer sible. The calculation is carried out succes-
or even haulage of sliding rock masses. sively for a number of different values of an
If the working flanks and benches of a inclination angle (Fig. 12.9). The results of
quarry are designed correctly, their total stability calculations for these angles are
stability will be guaranteed. It is not exclu- represented graphically as a curve 11= .f(a) on
ded, however, that local landslide centres will which the angle a corresponding to the
appear in certain sections. It is economically specified stability coefficient is found. In the
efficient to prevent these local events by example shown in Fig. 12.9,with 11= 1.5, the
taking appropriate anti-landslide measures inclination angle of the flank should be 41.
among which the following ones are more Mter that, the mine surveyor calculates the
20-1270
306 Ch. 12. Stability of Quarry Flanks

less than 18-20. Underworking of the strata

inevitably leads to rock sliding along bedding
planes. To preclude a landslide, it is good
plan to remove part of the rock mass in
advance and thus to increase stability.
I
1/

'ix /
y
12.6. Artificial Strengthening
~~\~'.4
of Rock Massif
\:\~k,..
,,~~ ' Q. Artificial strengthening of slopes in quar-
> ries is principally effective in cases when the
T2 specified inclination angle
a = arctan AI:h.' (12.7)
I:a., + I:h.cotano.
, I
turns out to be flatter than the angle found
from the conditions of slope stability. (In the
formula above: hi is the height of a bench; ai
35 40 45 a. degrees is the. width of a berm; and Oi is the incli-
nation angle of a bench slope).
Fig. 12.9 Flattening out of slope angle The existing methods of slope strengthen-
ing can be divided into the following groups:
position of the point corresponding to 11= (1) those based on mechanical principles;
= 410 on the top platform of the flank. This (2) those which increase the mechanical
point is marked on the ground by a peg and characteristics of rock by the injection of
determines the line to which the slope must stren,gthening materials; and (3) those em-
be flattened. ploying durable coatings of slope sections
Unloading the active pressure prism. When (mainly for rocks liable to quick degrada-
the mining work is being carried out in zones tion).
where deep landslides occur or are probable The first group includes methods in which
to occur, the stability of slopes can be slopes are strengthened by bolting, cables,
controlled efficiently by unloading the active retaining walls, etc.
pressure prism or, on the contrary, by increa- In the second group, the most popular
sing the mass of the support prism at the foot method is the injection of cement slurry.
of the waste dump. The efficiency of this The injections of liquid polymer resins are
method can be explained by the circumstance efficient in some cases.
that landslides on flank slopes with low In the third group, gunned-concrete, bi-
inclination angles develop only slowly, so tumen and epoxy-resin coatings are used
that there is enough time to transfer a large more often. An artificial coating is often
mass of rock from the active prism into the applied onto a metal net or bolting.
zone of a passive prism (support prism). Each of these methods may be preferable
Removing the centre (locus) of a landslide. over others under particular conditions. For
This method gives good results in caseswhen instance, slopes with distinct cleavage planes:
the bed strata are dipping towards the wor- tectonic fissures, laminations, disturbance
ked-out space and the inclination angle is not zones, etc. can be strengthened reliably by
 12.6. Artificial Strengthening of Rock Massif 307

as a variety of bolting. Casesare known when

flexible cables were arranged in boreholes up
to 30 m long. Flexible cables are especially
efficient under the conditions when streng-
thening elements are subjected to bending as
well as to tensile stresses.
For slopes composed of sand and
sand-clay rocks, strengthening methods ba-
sed on the use of direct-current electric fields
are promising. As a d. c. electric field is
applied to a rock massif, it causes certain
phenomena of electric transfer (movement of
electrically charged particles between the field
poles). The associated electrokinetic and elec-
trochernical processesgive rise to coagulation
and crystallization phenomena which decrease
the moisture content of the rock and increase
its density, and therefore, strength.
It is advantageous to form electric fields in
which the lines of force are thickened towards
the cathode. This is achieved by arranging
the anodes around the cathode. In that case,
the strengthened zone in a rock massif ac-
quires the shape of a cylinder with the radius
equal to the distance between the unlike
poles.
In practice, the method of rock strengthen-
ing by d. c. electric field is realized as follows.
The clusters of holes are drilled in the slope
to be strengthened, with the anode holes
being arranged around a single cathode hole.
The depth of holes should be 10-15 per cent

(b)

k,V,&/~/~//i

y ii,/
J.(
j --"
( ,
,

"

Fig. l2.11 Slope strengthening: (a) by bolting;

(b) by flexible cables

~
308 Ch. 12. Stability
Fig. 12.12 Slope strengthening in quarry flank by do c. electric field
greater than the thickness of the zone of
unstable rock. Spacings between the hole
clusters are chosen so as to ensure the
stability of the entire slope. The scheme of
slope strengthening by this method is il-
lustrated in Fig. 12.12.
In clays with disturbed or undisturbed
structure and a high concentration of fine-
dispersed particles and rather low coefficient
of filtration, strengthening rock piles can
be formed efficiently by using composition
binders. A hole is drilled in the rock
massif and filled with a composition binder
consisting of cement, quicklime, and clay (for
of Quarry Flanks
instance, 40 per cent of Portland cement
grade 300 or 350, 10 per cerit of quicklime
with an activity 85-92 per cent, and 50-55 per
cent of Neogene clay).
The composition binder interacts with the
rock, so that clays in a certain volume
around the hole are dried due to the hydra-
tion of the binder, and the associated chemi-
tal and adsorption processes lead to the
formation of water-resistant and strong cal-
cium hydrosilicates which bind disperse clay
particles. With the hole diameter 23 cm, the
stre~gthened zone has a diameter up
to 50 cm.
 Chapter Thirteen

Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety

ent seams, and (3) foffi1ation of unprotected

13.1. Role of Mine-Surveying
zones and zones of elevated rock pressure in
Service in Mining Safety
seams liable to outbursts.
Modem mining can be characterized by Hazardous zones associated with flooded
ever increasing depths of mines and accor- workings can in turn be divided into the
dingly, more complicated geological and hyd- following types: (a) zones near flooded or
rogeological conditions. With an increase in gassy workings in a single seam; (b) those
the mining depth, rock pressure increases near flooded or gassy workings in adjacent
intensively. Moreover, the cases of sudden seams;(c) zones near flooded workings driven
rock, coal, gas and water outbursts, self-igni- in the overburden; (d) those near unplugged
tion of coal, etc. are more probable to occur or poorly plugged boreholes; and (e) zones
in deeply bedded seams. Under such con- near tectonic disturbances (dislocations).
ditions, special methods and means are requi- In mine-surveying practice, dangerous con-
red for carrying out the stoping and prepara- ditions are encountered most often in wor-
tory mining operations, which should be kings approaching flooded or gassy old wor-
strictly observed and controlled properly to kings. Methods for the construction of safe
ensure the safety and efficiency of mining. boundaries and special safety measures of the
Under the conditions of elevated hazard of mining work have been developed for each
mining, mine-surveying service plays an espe- type of hazardous zone.
cially important part and has certain speci-
tics. In many aspects of mining safety, mine-
surveying service takes the prime role and is 13.2. Control of Mining Work
responsible for making decisions which are near Old Workings
obligatory for all other mining specialists and
workers. To effect safety control, mine sur- When the mining work is carried out near
veyors determine the boundaries of hazard- flooded or gassy abandoned old workings,
ous zones and represent them on the plans of special engineering measures should be taken
the mining work; inform mine managers and to prevent sudden outbursts of water or gas
foremen beforehand when mining workings into the existing workings. In that case,
are approaching hazardous zones, participate mine-surveying service has to determine how
in the development of safety measures, and reliable are the contours of old workings on
observe that these measures are fulfilled survey plans, to calculate the width of barrier
properly. pillars (boundaries of safe mining), and plot
There are three principal groups of hazard- the pillars on a survey plan.
ous zones which may be associated with (I) The contour of an old working is con-
flooded mining workings; (2) formation of sidered reliable if there are the results of mine
zones of elevated rock pressure between adjac- surveying obtained upon complete stopping
310 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying
of mining in the working. As a rule, a contour
is considered reliable if the old plan of the
mining work and field books with the coor-
dinates of theodolite surveys and measure-
ments of workings carried out after the
working has been abandoned are on hand. In
caseswhen the contour of an old working is
not confirmed by mine-surveying documents,
it is regardcd as unreliable.
Mine-sur\cying service is responsible for
the reliability of the contours of flooded
workings. With a reliable contour, the boun-
dary of a barrier pillar is established. If the
contour is unreliable, the mine surveyor de-
termines the boundary of safe mining work.
In coal fields; the width of a barrier pillar, d
for seams up to 3.5 m thick and angles of dip
up to 30 can be found by the formula:
d = 5 m + 0.05 H + 0.002 L (13.1)
where m is the extracted thickness of a seam,
m; H is the mining depth, m; and L is the
length of underground theodolite traverses
run from the initial survey points to the
contour of flooded workings and the boun-
dary of a barrier pillar, m. The width of a
barrier pillar should however be not less than
20 m. In seams more than 3.5 m thick and
with angles of dip more than 30, barrier
pillars are not usually left. Instead, as a
working approaches an old working, water
from the latter is pumped off in due time.
For flooded workings driven in the over-
burden rok, the width of a barrier pillar is
determined by the formula:
d = 0.05 H + 0.002 L+ Lln (13.2)
where H and L are as in formula (13.1); Lln is
equal to zero for barrier pillars extended on
the strike with the angles of dip of the rock
between 0 and 30; with the angles of dip
between 45 and 90, Lln = 10 m; and with
the angles of dip between 30 and 45, Lln is
found by interpolation. For barrier pillars
extended to the dip, Lln = 0.
The width of barrier pillars near flooded
Control of Mining Safety
vertical shafts, pits, and large-diameter bore-
holes is taken not less than 20 m in all
directions and can be determined by the
formula:
d = 0.05 H + 0.002 L+ 5 (13.3)
where H is the depth of a shaft to the mining
level on which the barrier pillar will be left,
m; and Lis the same as in formula (13.1).
The boundaries of safe mining work
should be determined by considering the
materials of the geological structure of the
flooded portion of a mine field, stored in the
mine-surveying department of a mining
plant, geological parties, archives, etc., the
calculations and graphical documentation
of the period when the working was in
operation, and other information. Depending
on the available materials, it is possible
to determine approximately the error of
the contours of flooded workings and to
establish the boundary of the zone safemining
work. As a rule, the dimensions of that zone
may vary from the width of two barrier pillars
up to 200 m or sometimes 300 m.
Measures for ensuring safe mining work in
hazardous zones should solve the principal
problems of organization and give engi-
neering solutions and terms for effecting of
these measures and their control. A typical
example of such measures is an optimal
scheme of the arrangement of unwatering
and advancing boreholes. The number,
length and direction of advancing boreholes
should be such as to preclude the break-
through of a new working into an old one.
The calculation of the expected water inflow
for an unwatering borehole can be done by
the formula:
(13.4)
where Q is the expected water inflow to the
hole, m3/h; b is the hole diameter, m; His the
height of a water column above the hole
 13.3. Calculation and Construction of Dangerous Zones 311

mouth, m; 9 = 9.8 m/s2 is the acceleration contour of flooded workings is 1800 ill on the
due to gravity; and 1is the length of a hole, m. airway level 350 ill and 3200 ill on the
The mouths of unwatering and advancing haulage level 450 ill.
boreholes should be packed hermetically. By In accordance with formula (13.1), the
the most popular method of packing, a guide width of a barrier pillar on the airway level is:
tube is inserted into a hole drilled to a depth dl = 5 x 1.5 + 0.05 x 350 + 0.002
of 10-15 m and fixed in place by a cement x 1800 = 28.6 ill
slurry. A gate valve is mounted on the tube,
and the whole system is tested for strength and that on the haulage level is:
and tightness by pumping in water into the dl = 5 x 1.5 + 0.05 x 450 + 0.002
hole at a pressure exce~ding 1.5 times that in x 3200 = 36.4 ill
flooded workings.
On the horizontal projection (Fig. 13.1),
13.3. Examples of Calculation the sections of length dl = 28.6 ill are laid off
and Construction from points 1 and 2; the points l' and 2' thus
of Dangerous Zones obtained define the boundaries of a barrier
pillar on the strike on the airway level. At the
Calculation and construction of a barrier level 450 ill, the sections of length dl =
pillar in a seam with flooded workings. Sup- = 36.4 ill are laid off from points 3 and 4; the
pose that a worked-out field in a seam 16 resulting points 3' and 4' give the boundary
1.5 m thick and an angle of dip of 20 is of a barrier pillar on the strike on the haulage
flooded at a depth of 350-450 m from the level.
Earth's surface (Fig. 13.1).The contour of the To find the pillar boundaries on the dip of
mining work (1-2-3-4) is reliable. The length a seam, the horizontal projection of dl, i. e. dl
of mine survey lines for determining the cos v = 36.4 cos 20 = 34.2 ill is laid off from
the points 3 and 4. The resulting points 311
Vertical section across the strike and 4" determine the boundaiy of a barrier
pillar on the dip. The contour of the barrier
Level 350 m
pillar at flooded workings in the inclined
I. tI\.,\.~11'
,e"311' 6 seam field 16passes through points 1'-2'-5-6.
\v=20' It is depicted on the plan of the mining work.
Level 450 m Calculation and construction of a safety
Plan
pillar under flooded workings. Let a seam 14
6 2 ill thick be bedded along a normal at a
~dl=2B.6 m distance of 25 ill under a seam 16(Fig. 13.2).
4li~ E- Id2=36.4m
The seam 14is expected to be worked out in
~
"'1"
"'
one or two years. Since it is bedded along the
" normal under the seam 16 in which the
workings are flooded, in order to prevent
l
3. 'to
i,,- 3"
=28.6m
water inrush from the seam 16into 14,a safety
pillar is constructed at a distance not less
I Jd2=36.4m than 40 times the seam thickness. The pro-
5 2 tected area is represented by a contour 1'-2'-
3'
5-6 which confines the flooded workings of
Fig. 13.1 Graphical construction of barrier pillar the inclined field together with a barrier
at flooded workings pillar. The construction of the safety pillar is
312 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying
carried out by using rupture angles. For the
conditions considered, the rupture angles are:
~' = 64, y' = 70, and 0' = 70.
The points I' (2') and 5 (6) are projected
from the plan onto the vertical section across
the strike, which gives points 11 (21) and 51
(6J and onto that on the strike, which gives
points 1',2.: on the level 350 ill and points 51,
61 on the level 450 ill.
In the section across the strike, lines are
drawn from the points 11 (21) and 51 (6J at
angles ~' = 64 and y' = 70 respectively up
to the intersection with the seam 14.Points 71
(8J and 91 (IOJ found in this way determine
the boundaries 9f a safety pillar on the rise
and on the dip. Mter that angles 0' = 70 are
laid off from the points 1',2', 61, and 51 on
the levels 350 ill and 450 ill on the vertical
section on the strike. The resulting points 11,
81,91, and 101 in the seam 14define the pillar
Control of Mining Safety
Fig. 13.2 Graphical construction of safety pillar
under flooded workings of overlying seam
boundary in that section. The points 71, 81,
91 and 101 are projected from the sections
across and on the strike onto the plan. This
gives the general contour of the safety pillar
(hazardous zone) in the seam 14' which is
confined in the plan by the contour with
corner points 7-8-9-10.
Calculation and construction of a barrier
pillar near an unplugged prospecting borehole.
A prospecting borehole is drilled through a
seam [6 at a depth of 320 m and stopped in
7 m after passing out from the seam (Fig.
13.3). The position of the borehole in the
seam [6 is determined by the measurements of
the hole curvature. A seam [4 is bedded at
40 mbelow the normal, The seam thickness
is: [6 = 1 m and [4 = 0.9 m. The total exten-
sion of mine-surveying theodolite traverses is
4 km in the seam [6 and 5.5 km in the
seam 14.
 13.3. Calculation and Construction of Dangerous Zones 313

Vertical section across the strike deteffilines in plan the contour of the barrier
Hole No.100 pillar in the seam 16.
//$/ ~/""')Y /~/AW/~ / ~ /~
Since the borehole has been stopped in the
underlying rock at a depth of 7 m below the
seam foot, the actual distance from the seam
d16=29m ~ 14 is 33 m. Since, however, the safe distance
7m
'1'*'--- between the seamsis 40 times the thickness of
:..:
the seam 14, i. e. 40 x 0.9 = 36 m, and the
6
sea((\\&
B .. II actual distance between the borehole bottom
~ arrlerplar d h 1 . II ...
5 ~ in seamJ6 an t e seam 4 lS sma er, it lS reqwre d to

w
seali\14 I dt4=31.5m leave a barrier pillar in the seam 14. For
I I Barrierpillar constructing this pillar, a noffilal is drawn
, I I Inseam
[4 ...
'
iI-J -from the hole bottom to the mtersectlon with
I 1 -the seam, which gives a point O2. The
~' "5' O , '1B' ~ sections of a length dl /2 = 15.75 m are then
+ ~ laid off from that point on the rise and on the
I dip, which gives points 5 and 6. Similarly, the
~ points 5 and 6 are projected onto the plan to
4 B obtain points 5' and 6'. Mter that, the sec-
Fig. 13.3 Construction of barrier pillar near tions of length dl/2 = 15.75 m are laid off
unpluggedcurved borehole from the point o24in the direction perpendi-
cular to a line 5'-6', which gives points 7 and
By fofl1lula (13.1), the width of a barfler 8. Finally, the points 5', 7, 6', and 8 are
pillar will be: connected by a smooth curve which defines
for the seam 16: the contour of the barrier pillar in the
dl = 5 x 1.0 + 0.05 x 320 + 0.002 seam 14.
6 Arrangement of advancing boreholes when
x 4000 = 29 ill
approaching flooded old workings. When a
and for the seam 14: working is approaching flooded old wor-
dl = 5 x 0.9 + 0.05 x 360 + 0.002 kings, the mine surveyor develops the scheme
4 of the arrangement of advancing (unwatering)
x 5500 = 31.5 ill
boreholes and determines the number of
In the vertical section across the strike, llne holes from the following considerations: the
sections equal to half the pillar width, i. e probability of the breakthrough of a new
14.5 ill are laid off from a point 01 in the working into the old working should be
seam 16 on the rise and on the dip. The completely precluded; the distance from ad-
resulting points 1 and 2 fix the barrier pillar vancing boreholes to the flooded old working
boundary. These points are then projected in the section considered should not exceed
onto the plan (points I' and 2'). The sections the width of the crushed edge zone of a
of the half-width of a barrier pillar are again barrier pillar in stope workings, i. e. 5 m; the
laid off from the point 01 along the strike line pitch of the advancement of the working
passing through the intersection of a bore- should be chosen so as to ensure a constant
hole with the seam 16,which gives points 3 (not reducing) advance of the prospected
and 4. These points define the pillar boun- portion of the boundary of safe mining work,
dary on the strike. After that, points I', 3, 2', but not less than the width of the barrier
and 4 are connected by a smooth curve which pillar.
314

F:==:=-
Reserve

entry
ventilating

in seam m4
Ch. 13.

=3
B

"
rI...

~1
.,{'

I'
Mine-Surveying

d= 20m

iui! ~
Control

11=2m
~rr'-

87.1
~T
"~j',-
of Mining

2=5m
-~ij~~~r~~~d

1"'"-
--Hole
--
,..

~!
1=50m
d= 20 m
Safety

~O\e

--
\",.0--
le ~0.'3
-;d"ge

- I

o
E
"'
II
...
u
2
.,

Seam m4

i- d=20~
m=l.omTIO
L ~
-.,--- Jl -1~
4
Fig. 13.4 Arrangement of advancing boreholes across barrier pillar

When driving a single working in the hole is directed along ;1 tangent to this arc.
hazardous zone in a seam with flooded Considering the distance between the bot-
workings, a fan of diverging advancing bore- toms of boreholes No.1 and No.2, the
holes is drilled. number of additional advancing holes is
Consider a case of the arrangement of determined, noting that a distance of 5 m at
advancing boreholes when driving a single both sides is controlled by each borehole and
working in the hazardous zone with the that the entire zone controlled by a borehole
width d of a barrier pillar 20 ill (Fig. 13.4). should be not wider than 12 m. In the
The planned ventilation adit in a seam m4' example considered, it is required to drill an
boundary of the hazardous zone (I-II), and additional borehole (No.3). In a similar way,
the boundary of a pillar (1-2-3-4), where the directions and number of boreholes for
water inrush is probable and which should be controlling the hazardous zone on the dip are
proved by advancing holes, are plotted on determined. Thus, five holes are drilled from
the plan of the mining work. Lines 1-2 and the point of the first setting of a drilling rig (a
3-4 are drawn at a distance d = 20 ill frOm point Bl).
the axis 9f the projected working. The first The place for drilling another group of
borehole (No. 1) is directed along the axis of boreholes is determined from the condition
the projected working (ventilation adit in a that the working face should be stopped in a
seam m4)' and its optimal length is 50 ill. The point B2 which is spaced from the point Bl at
second borehole (No.2) is directed into a a distance d = 20 m. The number of advan-
point which ensures the control of a band of cing boreholes in the second and subsequent
width 12= 5 ill. For this, the shortest possible groups diminishes by one both on the rise
distance to the flooded working (11= 2 ill) is and on the dip of a seam.
laid ofTfrom a point 1, which gives a point A. Arrangement of advancing boreholes at
The zone of the crushed edge portion of a distortions intersecting flooded workings.
barrier pillar 5 ill wide is constructed from When mining workings are approaching the
the point A. An arc of radius 5 ill is drawn by distortions which intersect flooded old
compasses from the point A, and the bore- workings, exploratory drilling should be
 1 3.4. Construction of Zones
made. This is done for determining the degree
of inundation of a dislodger zone and for
preventing the probable water inrush, since
the disturbed rocks in the distortion zone are
considered to be flooded and, when establish-
ing the boundaries of a hazardous zone, are
equated to flooded old workings. The width
of the hazardous zone at a discontinuous
geological disturbance (distortion) is deter-
mined in each particular case depending on
the accuracy with which the disturbance is
represented on the plans of rocks, gypso-
metric plans, and geological sections. In all
cases,however, the boundary of the hazard-
ous zone should be at a distance not less
than 30 m along a normal to a dislodger. If
the dislodger of a discontinuous geological
disturbance has been opened and intersected
by preparatory workings and it has been
established that the inundation of the rock in
the disturbed zone is insignificant, the width
of the hazardous zone can b~ calculated by
formula (13.1), but it should be not less than
20 m. If the intersection of distortion and
flooded workings gets into the zone of rock
displacement by the future stope working, the
width of the hazardous zone is increased so
that the distance along a normal from the
seam to the dislodger is not less than 40 m,
where m is the seam thickness. The width of
the hazardous zone in this case can be
determined by the formula:
40 m cos v (cotan v cotan O + cos ro) sin A
d=
cotan v cos (I) -cotan O
where d is the distance in a plan along
a normal from the line of the intersection of
a seam and dislodger to the boundary of
a hazardous zone; v is the angle of dip of
a seam; O is the angle of dip of a dislodger; (I)
is the plan angle between the lines of dip of a
dislodger and seam; and A is the plan angle
between the line of dip of a seam and the
intersection line. With a working approach-
ing a discontinuous distortion which inter-
sects a flooded working 1 (Fig. 13.5), two
of Elevated Rock Pressure 315
Fig. 13.5 Arrangement of advancing boreholes
for a working approaching geological distortion
advancing boreholes 2 are usually drilled.
One of them is arranged normally to the
plane of a dislodger and the other is drilled
horizontally along the axis of a working.
Places for the arrangement of advancing
boreholes are determined by the boundary of
a hazardous zone.
Barrier pillars in mines in an upper seam
being worked or in underlying seams located
at a distance along a normal not less than
40 m from overlying seams (where m is the
extracted thickness of an underlying seam)
can be calculated by formula (13.1). In such
cases, L is found by considering the total
extension of theodolite traverses from the
adjacent shafts to the barrier pillar. If the
distance along a normal between the adjacent
working seams is less than 40 m, the barrier
pillar in the underlying seam is constructed
as a safety pillar under flooded workings. The
protected area is taken as the boundary of
the barrier pillar in the overlying seam.
13.4. Construction of Zones
of Elevated Rock Pressure
Operations in stope workings can cause
the deformations and displacements of rocks.
The displacement process can influence the
state of the rock massif and coal seams.The
seam being extracted is bedded in a suite in
which one or more seams have already been
worked out earlier and coal pillars have been
 316 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety

la)
left, so that the projections of these pillars get
into the displacement zone on the seam being
worked out. This gives rise to an additional
effect which is called the bearing pressure and
forms a zone of elevated rock pressure. 3 -4
It is distinguished between three types of '1 I

zones of dangerous effect of pillars and edge ~ .. ~ 1..fJ

portions of adjacent seams. 1 'I~... ~

The zone of elevated hazard is characterized ~I

by a sharp loss of stability of rocks in the (b) O
0.4 08 1.2 1,6 all
roof, in the first place, immediately above a NILr

working. Dynamic effects of rock pressure 5

can be observed, such as instantaneous

destruction of the rock massif around a
stoping face. These effects can raise catastro-
phically the load on the supports and often
lead to rock bursts in stoping faces. Strong
swelling of ground and squeezing of coal can
often occur in the zones of elevated hazard.
The dangerouszone can be characterized by
a reduced stability of the lower layers of a
roof in the worked-out seam owing to
increased fissuring and stratification. This
usually leads to roof rock inrush and some-
times to rock bursts in stoping faces.
The prediction zone has no noticeabe effect
on the lining of stoping faces, but the local
changes of the stability of the lower roof layer
and phenomena of secondary subsidence of
the main roof are possible.
The dimensions of influence zones under
various conditions of seam underworking (or
overworking) are determined by the distance
of influen~ of pillars and edge portions and
by the influence angles. The boundaries of
zones of elevated rock pressure are con-
structed graphically on vertical geological
sections perpendicular to the boundaries of
pillars or edge portions of a seam. Pillars and
edge portions of seams may be in a different
position relative to the line of a stoping face.
In this case, pillars are understood as
non-extracted portions in adjacent coal
seams,which have a width up to 2 1,whereas
the portions of a width more than 2 1 are
regarded as the edge portions of a seam (here
3
0 04 08 12 t6 all
Fig. 13.6 Nomograms to determine distance of
influence of zones of elevated rock pressure in
faces: (a) under pillars or edge portions; (b) above
pillars or edge portions; 1 -zone of elevated
hazard; 2- dangerous zone; 3- prediction zone
(solid lines for perpendicular pillars and dotted
lines for parallel ones)
I is the width of the zone of bearing pressure).
For the pillars of a width less than 2 I. the
boundaries of dangerous zones are not
constructed. The dimensions of zones of
elevated rock pressure in stoping faces driven
under pillars (edge portions) can be deter-
mined in the nomogram 2 in Fig. l3.6a and
of those driven above pillars, in the nomo-
gram 3 (Fig. l3.6b).
For constructing the boundaries of the
zone of elevated rock pressure, the following
characteristics should be known: the bedding
depth H of the seam in which a pil)ar or edge
portion is left; the extracted thickness m of
that seam; the thickness h of the interlayer
between the worked-out seam and the seam
in which a pillar or edge portion is left; the
width a of a pillar; the width I of the zone of
bearing pressure in the seam with the left

~
 13.4. Construction of Zones of Elevated Rock Pressure 317

N Ii is found in the nomogram (here N is the

distance of influence, m). In the nomograms
of Fig. 13.6, curves 1 correspond to the
boundary of influence of zones of elevated
hazard, curves 2 to the distance of influence
of dangerous zones, and curves 3 to pre-
diction zones. To change from the dimen-
sionless ratio N Ii to dimensional N, this
ratio should be multiplied by I, the width of
the bearing pressure zone. Mter that, a
vertical section through the given pillar is
plotted (Fig. 13.8) on which the seam of
influence and the worked-out seam, the pillar
(or the edge portion of a seam), and the
position or a stoping face in the worked-out
seam are shown. The calculated distances of
influence of the zones of elevated hazard,
dangerous zones and prediction zones are
50 laid off in the roof and foot of the seam of the
40 pillar perpendicular to the bedding plane.
30 Then, lines parallel to the influence seam are
20 drawn through the points obtained (3-4, 5-6,
10 7-8, 3'-4', 5'-6', and 7'-8').

40 80 120 160 200 240 Hm 7 8

Fig. 13.7 Norn.ograms to determine width 1 of

bearing pressure zone: (a) for depths 200-1200 m;
(b) for depths 20-280 m DZ

~ " E HZ !I
pillar or edge portion. The last characteristic
Seam '8 \ ,1 ~
can be found in the nomograms of Fig. 13.7.
The zones of elevated rock pressure are A \ p oll I
B
Seam I I ar 10 !
constructed in the following way. For the
known mining depth H and seam thickness 10'1
'-
m, the width I of the zone of bearing pressure Seam I ~

is found in the nomogram of Fig. 13.7. For

instance, with H = 750 m and m = 2 m, the
width of the bearing pressure zone is
I = 65 m. On the nomogram of Fig. 13.6, the
distance of influence of the zones of elevated
rock pressure is then determined. For this
purpose, the width of a pillar, a, is divided by
the width of the bearing pressure zone, I,
which gives the dimensionless ratio all Fig. 13.8 Construction of zones of elevated rock
according to which the dimensionless ratio pressure from pillar

~
318 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying
As an example, let us determine the zones
of influence of elevated rock pressure in the
roof and foot if the width of the zone of
bearing pressure is 1 = 65 m and the width of
the pillar is a = 50 m. The ratio of the pillar
width to the width of the bearing pressure
zone is a/[= 0.77. Using this ratio, we find
N /I for faces passipg under pillars (N 1// = 2,
N fl = 3.4, and N 3/[ = 5) and for those
passing above pillars (N'1/1= 3.5, N~/l = 4.9
and N~/l = 5.9). The distance of influence of a
pillar for underlying faces will be as follows:
for the zone of elevated hazard: N =
1
= 65 x 2 = 130 m; for the dangerous zone:
N 2 = 65 x 3.4 = 221 m, and for the predic-
tion zone: N 3 = 65 x 5 = 325 m. For over-
lying faces we have: for the zone of elevated
hazard: N'l = 65 x 3.5 = 227.5 m, for the
dangerous zone: N~ = 65 x 4.9 = 318.5 m,
and for the prediction zone: N~ =
= 65 x 5.9 = 383.5 m.
For the construction of zones of elevated
rock pressure from a pillar (see Fig. 13.8),
lines are drawn from points 1 and 2 at an
angle of 60 o to the bedding plane up to the
intersection with the line of distance of
influence of elevated hazard zone in points 3
and 4 (3' and 4'). Perpendiculars to the
bedding plane are then drawn from these
points up to the intersection with the lines of
distance of influence of dangerous zone and
prediction zone in points 5 and 6 (5' and 6')
and 7 and 8 (7' and 8'). To determine the side
boundaries of the elevated hazard zone, sec-
tions 1-9 (1'-9') and 2-10 (2'-10'), each 20 m
long, are laid off in the bedding plane from
points 1 and 2 (I' and 2'). Points 9 (9') and 10
(10') are connected with points 3 and 4 (3'
and 4') by lines which define the side bounda-
ries of the elevated hazard zone. For a seam
[8' the width of the elevated hazard zone is
equal to (AB) and for a seam [4' to (CD). The
construction of the boundaries of the zones of
elevated rock pressure from the edge portions
at the side of the worked-out space is done in
the same way as for the pillar, but at the side
Control of Mining Safety
of the rock massif. The boundary of the zone
of elevated rock pressure is a straight line
drawn perpendicular to the bedding plane at
a distance corresponding to the width of the
zone of bearing pressure.
If a number of coal seams are being mined
under (above) pillars, the boundaries of the
zones of elevated rock pressure are construc-
ted for each seam. If pillars have been left in a
number of seams under (above) the seam,
being mined, the boundaries of the zones of
elevated rock pressure are constructed for
each pillar. If the zones of elevated rock
pressure from a number of adjacent seams
overlap on the seam being mined, they are
considered in the first place by the degree of
hazard.
13.5. Construction of Dangerous
Zones for Mining Work
in Seams Liable to Coal,
Gas and Rock Bursts
The mining work in deeply bedded coal
seams increases the risk of harmful and
dangerous effects of rock and gas pressure
which, may be associated with dynamic
phenomena: sudden bursts of coal, gas and
rock. Soviet scientists have studied the nature
of the principal engineering and geological
factors causing gas-dynamic phenomena and
rock bursts, established the relationships
between the effects of gas and rock pressure,
determined the parameters for the construc-
tion of dangerous zones, and developed the
measures for preventing outbursts. One of
the main methods for preventing sudden
outbursts is working out of protective seams.
A protective seam is a seam (or interlayer,
or rock layer) which, when being worked out,
ensures complete safety from outbursts in
another seam of a suite that is to be protec-
ted, or relieves partially the rock pressure.
In mining of a suite of seams which are
dangerous in outbursts, a non-dangerous
protective seam is extracted in the first place.
 13.5. Dangerous Zones in Seams Liable to Bursts 319

Upon the extraction of this seam, the rock

pressure in the massif decreases due to the
displacement of underworked rock volumes.
Protective seams should be worked out with-
out leaving coal pillars.
The duty of mine-surveying service in this
case is to construct the protected zones and
zones of elevated rock pressure, depict them
on the plans of the mining work, and inform
miners and foremen when workings ap-
proach to dangerous zones by 20 m.
For seams liable to coal and gas outbursts,
the protected zones and zones of elevated
rock pressure are constructed on the basis of
the following initial data: mining depth H in
the protective seam; extracted thickness m of
the protected seam; angle of dip v of the
Ream; concentration 11, per cent, of sand

(cl

I'
I

[i
Fig. 13.9 Construction of protected zone in
working of protective seam on dip: (a) section on
r 'Q1 strike with b < 2~; (b) section on strike with
2
b > 2~; (c) section across strike; l-protective
seam;2 and 3- seams to be protected; 4- protected
I~
~ zone; 5- zone of dangerous loads
 320 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety

Table 13.1

Depth of work H, Values of S:' m Values of S~, m

m

Smallest dimension, a or b, of working in plan, Smallest dimension, a or b, of working in plan,

m (refer to Figs. 13.9 and 13.10) m (refer to Figs. 13.9 and 13.10)

50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 50 75 100 125 150 200 250

300 70 100 125 148 172 190 205 220 56 67 76 83 87 90 92

400 58 85 112 134 170 155 182 194 40 50 58 66 71 74 76
500 50 75 100 120 154 142 164 174 29 39 49 56 62 66 68
600 45 67 90 109 138 126 146 155 24 34 43 50 55 59 61
800 33 54 80 90 117 103 127 135 21 29 36 41 45 49 50
1000 27 41 57 71 100 88 114 122 18 25 32 36 41 44 45
1200 24 37 50 63 92 80 104 113 16 23 30 32 37 40 41

on the strike. It is required to take into
consideration only pillars whose dimensions
exceed the following values: 4 m for the seam
thickness up to 1 m; 3 m for the seam
thickness from 1 m to 2.7 m, and 8 m for the
seam thickness above 2.7 m.
The dimensions of the protected zone in
the roof, SI' and in the foot, S2 (Fig. 13.9)can
be determined by the formulae:
SI = ~1~2S'1and S2 = ~1~2S~ (13.6)
where ~I is a coefficient depending on the
method of roof control:
this is done by using protection angles O and
pressure angles <p (Figs 13.9 and 13.10). The
values of these angles are given in Table 13.2.
In cases when h ~ 25 m, v ~ 30, m ~ 1.3 m,
and the roof control is effected by com-
plete caving, the angles O are taken equal to
90. The zone of the restoration of dangerous
loads can only form when a ~ ~ + ~ and
b ~ 24 simultaneously.
The values of ~. ~, and 4 can be
calculated by the formula:
Li = [31L;
(13.7)

mef where L; is to be found on a nomogram

~1 =

ma
(Fig. 13.11b).
The permissible maximum and minimum
but should not be less than unity; mo is the values of advancement of the stoping face in
critical thickness of a protective seam which the protective seam relative to the mining
can be found in the nomogram of work in the seam being protected (Figs 13.9
Fig. 13.11a; ~2 is a coefficient considering the and 13.10) are given in Table 13.3.
concentration 11, per cent, of sandstones in Construction of protected zone. The protec-
the interlayer: tive seam is worked out at a depth of 1000 m,
the extracted thickness is m = 0.7 m, and the
~2 = 1 -0.4(11/100) angle of dip v = 50. The inclined height of a
and S'I and S~ are taken from Table 13.1. level is 150 m and the size of the worked-out
If hI < SI in underworking or h2 < S2 in space on the strike is 650 m. A pillar 15 m
overworking, it is required to separate sec- wide is left on the airway level. The roof is
tions where dangerous loads can appear again; controlled by complete pneumatic back-fil-

~
 13.5. Dangerous Zones in Seams Liable to Bursts 321

(a)

b,
(b) "'" .,
L3 .1 4
?
--if
H
, 1 /i ;.:,

"{45~: ~\
"' 2 t

~ b2~!~
Fig. 13.10 Construction of protected zone in working of protective seam on strike: (a) section across
strike with a < 4 + ~; (b) section across strike with a >4 + ~; (c) section on strike; I-protective seam;
2 and 3- seams to be protected; 4- protected zone; 5- zone of restoration of dangerous loads

ling. A seam dangerous in rock bursts is According to the nomogram (Fig. 13.11a),
bedded in the ground at a distance h2 = with a = 150 m and H = 1000 m, the critical
= 10 m. The interlayer contains 50 per cent thickness is mo = 0.68 m. For the roof control
of sandstones. by pneumatic back-filling, k = 0.3, and
Since the size of the pillar between the therefore:
levels is greater than 4 m, then a is taken as me! = km = 0.3 x 0.7 = 0.21 m
the inclined height of a level, i. e. a = 150 m.
~1 = me!lmo = 0.21/0.62 = 0.31
The size of the protected zone towards the
foot of a protective seam is: ~2 = 1 -0.4(11/lOO) = 1 -0.4(50/lOO) = 0.80
S2 = f31f32S~ From Table 13.1, we find: S~ = 45 m,
21-1270
322 Ch. 13. Mine-Surveying Control of Mining Safety

Table 13.2 whence the size of the protected zone along a

normal to the bedding plane is:
Angle of Protection angles 0, deg Pressure angles <p, S 2 = 0.31 x 0.80 x 45 = 11 m
dip v, deg deg
From the nomogram of Fig. 13.11b, we
B, 03 04 <PI !P2 <1>3
01 find ~ and 1; for jhe inclination angle
v = 50; they are equal respectively to 180 m
0 80 80 75 75 64 64 64
63 63 and 230 m. Thus, we have:
10 77 83 75 75 62
20 73 87 75 75 60 60 61 Ll = L'l13l = 180 x 0.31 = 56 m
30 69 90 77 70 59 59 59
40 65 90 80 70 58 56 57 2 = ~J32= 230 x 0.8 = 184 m
50 74 90 80 70 56 54 55
60 72 90 80 70 54 52 53 Since a < 4 + ~, the zone of the restora-
70 74 90 80 72 54 48 52 tion of dangerous loads cannot form and,
80 70 90 78 75 54 46 50 according to Table 13.3, the permissible
90 75 80 75 80 54 43 48 advancement b2 is not limited, and the mini-
mal advancement b~ can be taken equal to
20 m. We find from Table 13.2 that 01 = 70
N ole: If the direction of stoping work coincides with
neither the line of strike nor the line of dip, angle v is taken and 03 = 80. The construction of zones of
as the angle of inclination of the seam in a section elevated rock pressure is illustrated in
perpendicular to the face direction. Fig. 13.12. For the zone of elevated rock

Table 13.3

Mining conditions Pernlissible advancement to Permissible advancement

prevent rock bursts, m prevent outbursts, m

Minimal advancement:
b; in underworking khl h1, but not less than 20 m*
b; in oveI;;Working h2 h2, but not less than 20 m
Maximal advancement**
b1 in underworking Not limited Not limited
b2 in overworking:
if a < Ll + L2 b1 < L3 + h1 cotan ~3 Not limited
if a > Ll + L2 b2 < L3 -0.3 h2

* Coefficient k depends on the rate of advance of a stoping face in the protected seam:
v, m/day up to 2 2 to 5 over 5
k I 1.2 1.4
** Permissible advancements are given for the stoping work on the strike. If the stoping work is carried out on the
dip, LJ and <PJare replaced by L, and <PI;if on the rise, they are replaced by 4 and <P2.Permissible advancement is
determined on the departure of a stoping face from breakthrough by a distance more than 2LJ (or LJ + L2 if the stoping
work is carried out on the dip or on the rise).
 13.5. Dangerous Zones in Seams Liable to Bursts 323

(a)

ron

200 /.I\
0.8
1150 III

IIII
100 \ \
0.4

=50m
\
0 400 800
(b)
H,m

\ I~~

t(J&,
300
,
II
250
La
L~ ~
200
\- .,,\
0 30 60 IXo
y
y

Fig. 13.12 Zones of influence , of seam edge

portion: I -protected zone; 11- unprotected zone;
111- zone of elevated rock pressure

21.
 Chapter Fourteen

M ine-Surveying Control
of Geological Exploration

the geological structure of the region in view

14.1. Brief Data on Geological
of the collected geophysical and geochemical
Exploration data and (2) to use the established regularities
Geological exploration is essentially a of mineral location in order to find out the
cycle of investigations which are carried out most perspective geological structures, evalu-
in a definite sequence and can be character- ate their prognostic resources, and determine
ized by the following stages: further directions of geophysical and geo-
1. The stage of regional geological recon- logical survey and search.
naissance which is aimed at determining the 2. The stage of geological survey and gen-
principal bedding characteristics of various eral search is the main stage when large-scale
minerals in a particular region so as to make investigations of geological structures are
prognostic valuations of the perspectives of carried out in order to distinguish local areas
their extraction and outline areas for more and structures which are promising for the
detailed geological prospecting. This stage detection of mineral deposits. Geological sur-
can be divided into two substages: (a) re- veys at this stage should be made primarily
gional geological and geophysical reconnais- within the limits of mining areas. The results
sance and (b) regional geophysical and geo- of surveys and prospecting at this stage are
logical surveys and hydrogeological and represented in the form of geological maps,
engineering-geological work. register maps of minerals, and prognostic
Geological and geophysical reconnaissance maps of mineral location.
(the Ist substage) is effected for the formation 3. The stage of geological search is carried
of a new or renovation of the existing geo- out in order to detect mineral deposits within
logical and geophysical basis which is needed the limits of known and potential ore fields
for establishing the principal characteristics and basins of sedimentary minerals where the
of the geological structure of large regions previous exploration work has revealed the
and the regularities of the location of probability of the detection of deposits. The
minerals within their boundaries. search work at this. stage takes place in
The results of geological and geophysical boreholes and pits with the use of geo-
reconnaissance are used for plotting geo- physical and geochemical methods, rock
logical, prognostic and other general and sampling, panning, etc.
sheet maps, geological and geophysical key Investigated areas are represented on geo-
sections, and schemesof the geological struc- logical maps which show the regularities of
ture of deep levels. the localization of mineral bodies.
The main purpose of prospecting opera- 4. The search-valuation stage is an inter-
tions at the second substage is (I) to analyse mediate stage between the reconnaissance
 14.2. Mine-Surveying
and the exploration of mineral deposits. The
main object of this stage is to evaluate the
commercial significance of detected deposits,
reject. those which are of no interest for the
mining industry, and select objects for pre-
liminary prospecting. The results of the
search-valuation work are represented in the
form of preliminary geological maps and
geological sections of a detected deposit.
5. The stage of preliminary prospecting is
done in order to obtain trustworthy informa-
tion for reliable geological, technological and
economic evaluation of commercial signifi-
cance of deposits. Most deposits are explored
by prospecting boreholes.
The results of preliminary prospecting are
represented in the form of approved tempo-
rary specifications and technico-economical
report on the expediency of the detailed
exploration of a deposit.
6. The stage of detailed prospecting (explo-
ration) is carried out only for deposits which
are evaluated positively by preliminary pros-
pecting and recommended for commercial
exploitation.
7. The stage of complementary prospec-
ting can be fulfilled both on explored deposits
which are not still mined commercially and
on those which are being mined.
8. The stage of exploitation prospecting is
continued during the whole period of mining
of a deposit and is carried out for collecting
systematic reliable information required for
current (annual) and operative (quarterly,
monthly, and daily) planning of mineral
extraction and the control of the comp-
leteness and quality of extraction.
The main objects of exploitation prospec-
ting consist in determining more accurately
the contours of mineral bodies and their
internal structure and bedding conditions,
quantity and quality of mineral resources,
geometrization of technological types and
grades of a mineral, etc.
All stages of geological reconnaissance and
prospecting are associated with geodetic, to-
Control of Geological Work 325
pographic and mine-surveying operations
which are done to attain the following
objectives:
I. The formation of the geodetic basis for
the layout, connection and geological survey
work required for geological prospecting;
provision of a control network for topo-
graphic surveys when these are needed; and
the solution of various engineering problems
when driving mining and exploring workings
or making the geophysical and drilling
work.
2. The formation of the topographic basis
for geological prospecting; this is meant as a
topographic plan or map with the points of
field observations, which is plotted in a
simpler form, i. e. without showing some
elements of the topographic situation and
relief that are inessential for the construction
of geological boundaries.
The topographic and geodetic materials
collected at the stage of geological prospec-
ting are latt;r used in the design and exploita-
tion of mining plants.
14.2. Mine-Surveying Control
of Geological Work
The mine-surveying control of geological
work includes the following procedures: the
transfer of the design positions of objects of
geological observation (boreholes, mining
workings, etc.) into nature; determination of
the planimetric and height coordinates of
these objects; and the formation of the
topographic basis for geological and other
special maps.
The geodetic control for the mine-sur-
veying work can be provided by:
(a) geodetic nets;
(b) elements of survey control, such as
planimetric, elevation and combined plani-
metric-elevation surveying nets and indivi-
dual points, and geodetic reference nets;
(c) distinct contour points of deposits
whose coordinates can be found on topo-
326 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration

Table 14.1

Stages of geological prospecting Root-mean square errors of positions of geological obser-

vation objects relative to initial points, m

in plan in elevation

I. Regional geological investigations, geological sur-

vey work, and geperal search with compilation of
maps on a scale:
1/100000 and smaller 90(100) 10(20)
1/50000 40(50) 5 (10)
1/25000 20 (25) 2(3)
2. Search work, search-valuation work and prelimi-
nary prospecting with compilation of maps on a (2)
scale 1/10000
3. Search-valuation work, preliminary and detailed
prospecting with compilation of maps on a scale 0.5
1/5000 and larger

N ole: Numbers in brackets are rms errors for determining the positions of geological observation objects
desertous, woody, and mountainous regions.

graphic maps (plans) or aerophotogrammetric the accuracy recommended in Table 14.1.

plans with the required accuracy; and The elevations of these objects should be
(d) objects of geological observations determined with errors not exceeding the
whose coordinates are determined with the following data:
required accuracy. (a) in hydrogeological surveys, 0.5 of the
The mine-surveying control for transfer- adopted interval of hydroisohypses on hyd-
ring the design positions of objects of geolo-rogeological maps, but not more than twice
gical observations into nature includes the the error given in Table 14.1;
following steps: (b) for individual hydro geological surveys
(a) the preparation of initial data and thefor determining the gradients of underground
compilation of schemesand the plan of work; flows, inundations of sections and mining
(b) measurements for determining the posi- workings (mines, shafts, etc.), within t!!e
tions of observation objects on the ground; accuracy for technical levelling, i. e. 50 J L,
and mm, where L is the length of a geometric
(c) the fixation of the positions of trans-level line, km.
ferred objects. The coordinates of the mouths of station-
The accuracy of the determination of ary hydraulic boreholes should be determi-
planimetric and height coordinates of geolo- ned from the closest bench marks and points
gical observation objects can be taken by of a national levelling net with an rms
reference to Table 14.1 for deposits of solid accuracy not worse than I 10 cm.
minerals and to Table 14.2, for oil and gas In geological work, deep geological map-
deposits. ping and general search with the compilation
For the objects of hydrogeological obser- of maps on a scale 1125000 and smaller, the
vations, the survey work for determining the objects of geological observations are trans-
planimetric coordinates should be done with ferred into nature and connected, as a rule,
 14.3. Topographic Basis of Geological Exploration 327

Table 14.2

Kind (category) of borehole Ultimate errors, m

transfer into preliminary deter- determination of detennination

nature mination of eleva- planimetric posi- of elevations of
tions of borehole tion of borehole borehole mouths
mouths mouths

Single reference and parametric 150 150 100 5.0

boreholes
Structural and search boreholes 50 10 30 1.0
Exploratory boreholes 25 5 12 0.5
Boreholes on exploited areas 10 5 4 0.3
Boreholes in water areas 20 10 0.5

Notes: I. Errors are given relative to the points of a national geodetic net and geodetic densification nets.
2. As initial points of connection, it is possible to use any points including those by which the structural maps
are plotted, provided that this ensures the accuracy indicated in the table.

according to the topographic maps and
materials of aerophotogrammetric surveys,
Instrumental field measurements at these
stages of geological work are only possible in
exceptional caseswhen topographic maps are
unavailable or cannot ensure the specified
accuracy of the connecting work.
The points of a geodetic net or surveying
nets fixed on the ground by permanent bench
marks can be used for the layout, connection
and geological survey work, planimetric and
elevation control of topographic surveys, and
for solving certain engineering-geological
problems.
The points of geodetic survey control fixed
by temporary bench marks, points of geode-
tic reference nets, and distinct contour points
on the terrain whose coordinates are taken
from a topographic map can be used only for
the layout, connection and geological survey
work.
The coordinates of geological observation
objects can be used: for marking the positions
of these points on maps and sections with an
accuracy that can ensure reliable representa-
tion of the results of observations and accu-
rate calculation of mineral resources;for deter-
mining the boundaries of mineral deposits,
revealing geophysical anomalies, etc; and for
compiling special maps, sections, prospecting
profiles, and other graphical documentation.
14.3. Topographic Basis
of Geological Exploration
The topographic basis for the geological
exploration work can be provided by:
(a) topographic maps (plans);
(b) large-scale plans; or
(c) special topographic plans. .
In the geological, search and exploration
work, the scale of the topographic basis
should correspond to that of the map to be
plotted.
The recommended scales of the topogra-
phic basis for preliminary and detailed geolo-
gical prospecting are given in Table 14.3.
In the maps and plans of the topographi(;
basis on a scale 1/10000 and smaller, the
errors in the positions of contours, orienta-
tion marks and horizontals should be not
more than 2.5 times the errors permissible in
national topographic maps.
In special topographic plans used as the
328 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying
Table 14.3
Stage of geological prospec- Scale for topographic sur.
ting veying
Preliminary prospecting 1/10000 to 1/5000
Exploration of:
(a) metal ores 1/10000 to 1/1000
(b) carbonate rocks,
phosphorites, sands,
and gravels 1/25000 to 1/5000
(c) salts 1/25000 to 1/10000
(d) coals and oil shales 1/1000 to 1/2000
(e) underground water 1/1000 to 1/5000
(I) other non-metallic
minerals 1/10000 to 1/5000
topographic basis, the errors in the positions
of land contours and objects relative to the
nearest points of a surveying net should. not
exceedthe pef111issible errors of corresponding
topographic maps by more than 1.5 times for
a scale 1/5000 or 2 times for larger scales.
The errors of relief surveys relative to the
nearest points of elevation control on the
topographic basis should not exceed 0.5 m
for contour intervals of 1 m or 1/3 of the
contour interval in other cases.
For better clarity, the amount of topo-
graphic details on geological maps on a scale
1/10000 and larger is diminished. Coordinate
grids are shown as ticks of kilometre lines in
intervals of 10 cm. The points on geodetic
nets and on the schemesof geological obser-
vations are.taken selectively, i.e. only those
points which are essential for the compilation
of geological and geophysical maps are used.
The points of a national geodetic basis are
shown only in caseswhen this is specified by
the design. Land relief is indicated by
horizontals and numerical marks of indivi-
dual heights. For the topographic basis on a
scale 1/10000, land relief is shown in the
same vertical contour intervals as on national
topographic maps. For larger scales, the
following contour intervals may be recom-
mended: 2.0 m for a scale 1/5000; 2.0 m or
Control of Geological Exploration
1.0 m for a scale 1/2000, and 1.0 m for a scale
1/1000. For mountainous regions and foot-
hills, the recommended contour intervals are
respectively 5.0 m, 5.0-2.0 m, and 1.0 m.
Hydrographic objects are indicated on the
topographic basis only as the coastal lines of
seas,lakes, rivers, etc. without detailed char-
acteristics. Vegetation is not shown. Woods
are marked by contours. Swamps and mar-
shes are shown by conventional symbols
without detailed characteristics. Other typical
features of the terrain and ground are not
indicated on the topographic basis.
The topographic basis of geophysical
maps should give only the situation associa-
ted with the text of the report; land relief is
shown only in rare cases.
14.4. Transfer of Plan
of Exploratory Workings
into Nature
Exploratory workings are transferred into
nature according to the plan of the mine-
surveying work. Depending on local condi-
tions and the specifics of geological pros-
pectiDg, this plan may involve various kinds
and volumes of the topographic and mine-
surveying work. For instance, Fig. 14.1
shows the plan of the topographic and
mine-surveying work for detailed prospecting
of a deposit by drilling exploratory boreholes
along profile lines. The plan envisages trian-
gulation surveys (points I, II, III and IV);
running of base lines (main theodolite tra-
verses) for the layout of profile lines; the
connection of base lines (by closed theodolite
traverses) to triangulation points III and IV;
plane;.table surveying of the territory of a
deposit on 10 plates; and the transfer and
connection of points for borehole drilling.
Exploratory workings and objects of geo-
logical observations are transferred into na-
ture and connected relative to the points of
reference nets which can include main theo-
dolite traverses (base lines), profile lines. and
 14.4. Transfer of Exploratory
the points of a surveying net and national
geodetic net.
The layout work is carried out with an
accuracy which can ensure the required
accuracy of connection. If an object is
transferred into nature with an accuracy
insufficient for connection, additional con-
nection to the closest control points should
be carried out.
Networks for detailed geological prospec-
ting usually have a relatively regular geomet-
Workings Plan into Nature 329
ric shape and consist of a system of parallel
base lines intersected by a system of parallel
profiles (Fig. l4.2a). In many cases, some
base lines can be matched conveniently with
extended objects on the terrain (roads, river
banks, open watersheds, etc.). In such cases,
base lines may have a curvilinear shape
(Fig. l4.2b).
As a rule, the plans of exploration nets are
transferred into nature by instrumental
methods.
330 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying
(a)
.-~::. Main traverse
...Profile
Fig. 14.2 Construction of base lines and prospecting
In laying out geological exploration nets,
the mine-surveying and geodetic work is
practically organized on the following prin-
ciples:
(a) the initial points and directions are
transferred into nature, and the survey area is
delineated by laying out base lines, which
provides a 'framework' for subsequent layout
operations;
(b) the. base lines delineating the survey
area are connected to the points of a geodetic
net, i. e. the 'framework' is connected to the
existing system of coordinates; and
(c) profiles are laid out and picked points
are established.
For transferring the initial points into
nature and assigning direction to the initial
portions of base lines, the following methods
can be employed:
(a) one of the base lines passes through a
point of the geodetic reference net existing in
the region being explored. In that case, the
Control of Geological Exploration
(b)
with observation points
profiles
angle between the direction of the base line
and the direction onto another point of the
reference net (for instance, angle 13,Fig. l4.3a)
is measured on a topographic map. This
angle is then laid off on the ground by an
angle-measuring instrument set up in the
initial point;
(b) base lines pass far from the points of a
geodetic reference net. Then a point of the
reference net near the base lines is selected,
from which two or three adjacent reference
points are visible, and a theodolite traverse is
run between the selected reference point and
the base line (Fig. l4.3b). By means of this
traverse, the base lines can be connected to
the existing local system of coordinates;
(c) the region of geological prospecting is
located in an inhabited area, so that the
points of a geodetic reference net are invisible
from it. In that case, the directions of base
lines can be assigned by means of a magnetic
azimuth. If the prospected region is located in
 14.4. Transfer of Exploratory Workings Plan into Nature 331

(a)

.,A
/

-
--c.
~
(32
(b)

==

~ -
B. """6

Fig. 14.3 Scheme of base lines

a closed area with poor visibility (woods, etc.)
and where there is a magnetic anomaly, base
lines can be' connected by a geographic
azimuth.
The intervals between the pickets (obser-
vation points) on profile lines are measured
in one direction by means of range finders or
tapes. Inclination angles wider than 5 are
measured by theodolites or inclinometers; in
such cases a length laid off between the
pickets is corrected for the inclination angle.
The coordinates of the final pickets of profiles
are determined by running theodolite tra-
verses between the ends of profiles.
For observation points and exploratory
workings not coincident with the points of a
reference net, connection can be done by
tacheometric or plane-table surveys, length
measurements or intersections.
14.4.1. Connection and Transfer
of Geological Observation
Objects from Topographic
Map into Nature
In the geological survey and search work
made on a scale 1/25000 or smaller, geolo-
gical observation objects are transferred into
nature and connected by reading off their
positions on topographic maps or aeropho-
tographic maps and plans.
For regions with a small quantity of con-
tours and for which renovated maps are not
available, the plane coordinates and eleva-
tions of geological observation objects are
transferred into nature and connected accor-
ding to the materials of the aerophotogram-
metric surveys of the latest years.
Objects can be transferred from aeropho-
tographs onto a topographic map by visual,
graphical or instrumental methods.
 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration

~ map; the directions connecting the central

I 430 431 ' 432
points on the transparent paper sheets are
matched with the corresponding line of the
topographic map. The intersections of like
2' directions determine the positions of the
point being transferred on the map.
The accuracy of the position of points
Fig. 14.4 Transfer of points from aerial photo.
transferred by the method of intersections
graphs onto topographic map by intersections
can be estimated by reference to Table 14.4.
The method of resections consists in that at
In the visual method, a point is transferred least four reference points are chosen on an
by linear intersections from two or three aerial photograph and a topographic map
reference points on a map. In that case, the (for instance, points a, b, c, and d on an aerial
lengths of corresponding sections on the photograph and points A, B, C, and D on a
aerophotographs and map are compared map). A sheet of transparent paper is laid on
visually. the aerial photograph, and directions are
The visual method is employed in cases drawn from the point to be transferred (say,
when the terrain has distinct contours and x) onto the selected reference points a, b, c,
only slightly dissected relief. Experience has and d. The transparent paper sheet is then
shown that, for transferring of points with the laid on the map so that the drawn directions
root-mean square error of I mill, the distance x-a, x-b, x-c, and x-d pass through the points
from reference points to the given object on A, B, C, and D on the map. After that, the
maps should be not more than 5 mill for flat point x is punched from the transparent
land, 3 mm for foothills, and I mm for moun- paper onto the map.
tainous regions. The instrumental method of point transfer
The graphical methods of transfer most is the most accurate and least labour-consu-
often employ direct intersections from the ming.
central points of aerophotographs and resec- Geological observation objects can be
tions. connected or transferred into nature from a
In the method of direct intersections, the topographic map (aerial photograph) by one
central points of aerophotographs are first of the following methods.
transferred onto the map by the method of
photo triangulation. The points to be trans-
ferred onto the topographic basis are read off Table 14.4
and punched on two adjacent aerial photo~
graphs. The central points (431 and 432 in Map scale Accuracy of positions of points, mm, for
Fig. 14.4) and points to be transferred (say, mean difference of elevations between
points, m
points I, 2, 1', and 2' in Fig. 14.4) are
punched from each aerial photograph onto 50 150 200 500
transparent paper. Then, the directions onto
the central points and points to be transfer- 15000 1.4 2.0 2.7 5.4
red are drawn on the sheets. Mter that, the 110000 0.6 1.0 1.4 2.7 6.7
sheets of transparent paper are laid onto the 125000 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.8 2J
topographic basis and oriented so that the 150000 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.5 1.4
1100000 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.7
central point of each sheet is coincident with
1200 000 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
the corresponding point on the topographic
 14.4. Transfer of Exploratory Workings Plan into Nature 333

1. By reading off a point if this point
coincides with a contour point on the map.
2. If the given point is located between two
contour points on the map, by measurements
on the range line of these points from one of
the points to the point to be connected (or
transferred).
3. If the point to be determined is visible
from contour points, its position can be
found by direct intersections.
4. If three typical points are visible from
the point to be determined and these points
are indicated on the map, the position of that
point can be found by resection.
The determination of the planimetric coor-
dinates and elevations of geological observa-
tion objects on topographic maps (aerial
photographs) includes the following steps:
(a) contours and orientation marks depic-
Table 14.5
ted on a topographic map are found on the
terrain; measurements are carried out, when
needed, on the terrain between the objects
being determined and the orientation marks;
and the objects are indicated on the map;
(b) observation objects are transferred
from aerial photographs onto a map; and
(c) the planimetric coordinates and eleva-
tions of observation objects are read off on a
map.
Measurements on maps and terrain should
be carried out by methods which can deter-
mine the plan positions of objects relative to
a known contour with a root-mean square
error not exceeding 0.2 mm on the map being
used.
The measurements of planimetric coordi-
nates and elevations on maps are made twice.
The errors in elevations of observation

Pattern of terrain and relief Root-mean square errors (m) of elevations determined by interpolation between
marked points (numerators) and between horizontals (denominators)

map scale

Flat terrain (inclination

angles up to 2)

Flat woody terrain (inclina-

tion angles up to 2-4)

Flat densely inhabited ter-

rain (inclination angles up
to 2)
Hilly rugged (open) terrain 0.4-0.8 0.8-1.6 1.2 2.5 5.0 11.0
with prevailing inclination 0.5-0.8 0.8-1.6 1.5 3.0 6.0 12.0
angles up to 6
Hilly rugged (closed) terrain 0.4-0.8 0.9-1.6 1.5 3.5 7.0 14.0
with prevailing inclination
0.6-1.0 1.2-2.0 2.5 5.0 10.0 20.0
angles up to 6
Foothill and mountainous 1.0 1.8-2.2 4.0 8.5 17.0 33.0
terrain with prevailing in- Error not more than 1.5 of contour interval
clination angles up to 15
High-mountainous terrain 10.0 20.0 40.0
Error not more than 2.0-2.5 of contour interval
334 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration

objects on topographic maps should corres-
pond to the data given in Table 14.5.
The determination of the planimetric coor-
dinates and elevations of geological objects
on topographic maps should be made with a
check of at least 20 per cent of the points
being measured.
of the oriented directions from the rotor
centre in order to establish deviations and
(b) the layout and fixation on the ground
of the design direction of boreholes and the
determination of the plan position of faces.
14.5. Layout of Exploratory
Ditches

14.4.2. Transfer of Geological The layout of open exploratory workings

Observation Objects
from Reference Net
into Nature
In the geological search and exploration
work made on a scale 1/10000 or larger,
exploratory workings and geological obser-
vation objects are transferred into nature and
connected by instrumental methods to the
points of a national geodetic net, densifica-
tion nets, surveying nets, or reference nets. If
workings are located at distances not more
than 300 m from a reference net, their posi-
tions can be determined by a polar method
(by a theodolite 01 a plane table), the distan-
ces being measured by a range finder. The
positions of points near profile lines can be
determined by the method of perpendiculars
with the distances measured by measuring
tapes or range finders.
The positions of fixed boreholes and
mining workings can be determined by ana-
lytical methods relative to the points of a
national geodetic net, densification nets, sur-
veying nets or base lines.
The work for the connection of geological
observation objects includes:
(ditches, trenches, etc.) consists in transferring
the design position of an axis and side crests
of a working into nature. The layout pro-
cedure is started by transferring the ends of
the axis onto the ground, which can be done
by various methods or their combinations
depending on the conditions of measurements
and the provision of a geodetic basis. These
methods have been discussed earlier. On a
closed (woody or hilly) terrain it is however
more preferable to use the method of a design
theodolite traverse.
In the plan shown in Fig. 14.5, points K
and N are the ends of the design axis of a
ditch and A and B are the points of a
geodetic basis. In order to transfer the points
K and N onto the ground by the method of a
design theodolite traverse, it is essential to
know angles /3B and /3K and horizontal
distances BK = SBK and KN = SKN which
can be obtained by solving inverse geodetic
problems by the formulae:
tanaBK =
YK -YB
,
XK -xB
YK-YB XK-XB
SBK
--
--

(a) the compilation of a connection scheme; sin IlBK COS IlBK

(b) measurements for determining the pla-

YN -YK
nimetric coordinates and elevations of geolo- tanaKN
gical observation objects; and XN XK

(c) the compilation of the list of plani- YN-YK XN-XK

metric coordinates and elevations of geolo- SKN= .=
smaKN cosaKN
gical observation objects.
With directional drilling of boreholes, the 13B= aBA -aBK' 13K = aKB -aKN
following additional operations are made: where x K' Y K' X N' and Y N are the coordinates
(a) the layout and fixation on the ground of the points K and N determined graphically
 14.5. Layout of Exploratory Ditches 335

(a)

v
~

~o
~o
0( . 6
0 ..inewood 7 PK :

0 v
VI
v
v

Fig. 14.5 Layout of exploratory ditch

on the plan; x B' y B are the coordinates of the
point E taken from the list of calculated
coordinates of the points of a geodetic net;
and aBA is the initial direction angle taken
from the list of the calculated coordinates of
the points of a geodetic net.
A theodolite is set up in the point E and
the junction angle 13Bis constructed from a
direction EA at two different positions of a
circle, after which the length of a line SBK is
laid off in that direction, and the point K thus
obtained is fixed.
The angle ~K is constructed in the point K
relative to a direction KN, the design length
SKN of a ditch is laid off, and the point N is
fixed.
The upper crests of a ditch are laid out by
using a number of profiles which are plotted
on millimetre-squared paper on a large scale
(say, 11200).The width 1 of the ditch bottom
 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
(Fig. 14.5,where it is shown by a dotted line),
the depth h, and the inclination angle of ditch
sides are taken from the design and the
elevations of the points of the Earth's surface,
from the plan. In the case considered, three
profiles are plotted: a longitudinal profile
along the axis KN (Fig. 14.5b) and two
transverse profiles through the points K and
N (Fig. 14.5c).
The construction of profiles gives the
points of intersection of ditch crests with the
Earth's surface (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6). Inclined
distances K-l, K-2, N-3, and N-4 are then
found on transverse profiles and K-6 and
N-5, on a longitudinal profile. These distan-
ces are laid off on the ground from the points
K and N; the former four perpendicularly to
the ditch axis and the latter two, along the
axis. The points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are fixed on
the ground.
The angles of the upper crests of the ditch
(points 7, 8, 9 and 10 in Fig. 14.5) are
obtained at the intersections to the continued
lines 1-4 and 2-3 and perpendiculars raised to
the ditch axis in the points 5 and 6.
If the terrain is flat, cross-sectional profiles
are not constructed, and the distance from
the ditch axis to its crest is determined by the
formula:
N-4 = N-3 = 112+ d
where d is calculated by the formula:
d = hltan..<p
14.6. Geodetic Control
of Geophysical Prospecting
Methods
14.6.1 .General Data on Geophysical
Prospecting Methods
Geophysical prospecting includes the
methods of the investigation of the Earth's
crust, search and prospecting for minerals,
and engineering geological studies which are
based on the analysis of various physical
fields, either existing in nature or formed
artificially. Any kind of these fields can be
characterized by its specific parameters. For
instance, a gravitational field can be repre-
sented by the acceleration due to gravity or
second derivatives of the gravity force poten-
tial; a magnetic field is characterized by the
total intensity vector and its components
(vertical, horizontal, etc); an electromagnetic
field is characterized by the vectors of magnet-
ic and electric components; an elastic field is
described by the time of the propagation of
various elastic waves; etc.
The principal possibility of geophysical
methods of prospecting with the use of
various physical fields is based on the fact
that the distribution of field parameters on
the Earth's surface, underground, in air, outer
space, and in the Ocean is determined by the
general structure of the Earth and the near
space, variations in the physical properties of
rocks, and the dimensions and bedding
depths of geological objects.
Geophysics has to solve two types of
problems: a direct problem and an inverse
one. Since the parameters of physical fields
depend uniquely on the properties and
dimensions of the geological objects being
prospected, the parameters of a field can be
uniquely determined when one knows the
properties and dimensions of geological
objects. This is the direct problem to be
solved in geophysics. The inverse problem
consists in determining the dimensions, bed-
ding depth and other characteristics of geolo-
gical objects by the measured parameters of a
physical field, which, as a rule, cannot be
determined uniquely.
The inverse problem can be solved
uniquely by studying a complex of fields.
Geophysical prospecting methods can be
employed in outer space, on the Earth's
surface, in seas,and underground. According
to the problems and objects of investigation,
geophysical prospecting can be divided into
regional, structural, prospecting for ores,
 14.6. Geodetic Control of Geophysical Prospecting
petroleum and gas, and engineering geo-
physics.
Among the various methods used for
geophysical prospecting, the gravitational,
magnetometric, electric, seismic, nuclear and
geothermal methods are more popular.
14.6.2. Principles of Gravitational
Prospecting
Gravitational prospecting is based on
measuring the acceleration due to gravity
and its variations (gradients) in different
directions. The parameters of the field of
gravity force depend, on the one hand; on
some factors associated with the shape and
rotation of the Earth (normal field) and, on
the other, on the density variations of rocks
in the lithosphere (anomalous field).
The gravitational (normal) field of the
Earth is the field of the gravity force which is
the resultant of two forces: the force of
attraction of the Earth and the centrifugal
force caused by the rotation of the Earth on
its axis. The force of gravity can be measured
in terms of the acceleration 9 acquired by a
freely falling body. In gravitational prospec-
ting, the unit of acceleration is 1 cm s- 2
which is called the gal.
Gravitational prospecting is based on
measuring the anomalies of the gravity force,
i. e. its deviations from normal values. The
normal field of the gravity force can be
analysed by the formula:
Yo =Ye(l- ~sinB- ~lsin22B)
where
~ = (Yp-Ye)/Y, ~1 = (1/8)a2 + (1/4)a~
a is the contraction of the Earth's ellipsoid; B
is the geodetic latitude; Yp is the normal
gravity field at a pole; and Ye is the normal
gravity field at the equator.
Thus, the anomaly of the gravity force is
essentially the difference between the gravity
force observed and its theoretical value which
can be calculated by one of the formulae for
22-1270
337
the normal gravity force with the introduc-
tion of corrections (reductions). In gravita-
tional prospecting, the most popular formula
for describing the inhomogeneous density of
the Earth's crust is based on Bouguer's
anomaly (Bouguer's effect):
AgB = gm -'Yo + Agl + Ag2 + Ag3
where gm is the measured gravity force; Agl
is the correction for altitude which reduces
the measured value to the sea level (Faye's
correction), A 9 1 = 0.308 H (H is the altitude
above sea level, m; Ag2 is the correction for
the attraction of an intermediate layer, which
is equal to the attraction of the masses
located between the sea level and a real
surface, Ag2 = 0.0419 o-H (0- is the mean
density of rocks in that layer and H is the
altitude of an observation point); and A g3 is
the correction for relief. The relief correction
takes into account the deviations of the
physical surface of the Earth from the hori-
zontal plane passing through the given point.
For calculating the relief correction, the por-
tion of the Earth's surface around the point
of observation is divided in a particular
manner into a number of areas so as to
approximate the relief by simple geometric
bodies whose gravitational effects can be
determined analytically.
The correction for the surrounding relief is
calculated for particular annular zones ar-
ranged concentrically around a gravimetric
point. Since the shape of the relief in each
zone may be variable, these zones are divided
further into curvilinear prisms. The actual
(physical) surface of the Earth within each
prism is replaced by a horizontal plane whose
altitude is equal to the mean altitude of the
prism relative to the observation point.
The effect of the terrain on the topographic
correction decreases proportionally with an
increase in the distance from the observation
point, because of which the entire region for
which the correction is taken into account is
divided into three zones: the closer (up to
338 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration

200 m), the mid (from 200 m to 2000 m), and sections composed of horizontally bedded or
the farther (from 2000 to 13000 m). gently dipping structures; and (3) under-
The highest effect is produced by the relief ground electric prospecting used for the detec-
elements in the closer zone. In some cases,a tion of geoelectric inhomogeneities between
central zone of a radius of 10-50 m is separa- the boreholes or underground workings and
ted in the closer zone. In high-precision the Earth's surface.
gravimetric surveys, the relief corrections in Electric prospecting deals with the fol-
the mid and closer zone are determined by lowing kinds of field:
instrumental methods. I. Local natural electric fields, including
those of electrochemical and electrokinetic
14.6.3. Electric Prospecting origin. Electrochemical fields can be caused
by oxidation-reduction reactions at bounda-
The electric methods of geological prospec- ries between the electronic conductors (ore or
ting are based on studying natural and mineral bodies) and ionic ones (underground
artificial electromagnetic fields in the Earth's water surrounding an ore body). Electro-
crust. Natural fields may be either permanent kinetic fields exist due to the filtration of
or variable in time. The former are conven- underground waters through porous rocks
tionally called electric fields and the latter, and the associated processesof diffusion and
electromagnetic. adsorption of ions on solid particles.
In electric prospecting, both normal and 2. Regional natural electromagnetic fields
anomalous fields are studied. Normal fields (called magneto-telluric fields) which appear
are those which exist above a semispace in the Earth's crust in the regions of an
having homogeneous electromagnetic pro- appreciable area. Their origin is attributed to
perties. An anomalous field may appear due the influence of flows of charged particles
to an inhomogeneous structure of the geo- emitted by the Sun on the ionosphere of the
electric section of an area being prospected, Earth, and therefore, they depend on the
i. e. of the combination of geological bodies solar activity.
and seams, each of which has particular 3: Artificial permanent electric fields pro-
dimensions and specific electromagnetic duced in the Earth by means of earthed
parameters. cables connected to a d. c. voltage source.
In electric prospecting, the measured field 4. Artificial variable harmonic electromag-
parameters are the amplitudes and phase netic fields formed by various electric gen-
shifts of the intensities of electric and mag- erators producing a voltage that varies har-
netic fiel~. The principal electric properties monically in time.
(parameters) of rocks are the specific electric With the use of an alternating current, a
resistance, dielectric constant, magnetic per- field can be excited by an inductive (contact-
meability, electrochemical activity, and po- less) method. For this, a loop of a number of
larizability. wire coils, usually of a square shape with the
Depending on the problems to be solved, size from 10 m to 1000 m, is laid on the
all methods of electric prospecting can be Earth's surface and connected to an a. c.
divided into three groups: (I) profiling, which generator.
is used for the examination of inhomoge- 5. Transient electric and electromagnetic
neous geoelectric sections represented by fields excited by quick switching of rectan-
closely folded strata and electromagnetically gular d. c. pulses into the feed line.
inhomogeneous inclusions; (2) probing, In any method of electric prospecting, the
which is employed for the investigation of set of instruments contains electric generators
 14.6. Geodetic Control
and other supply sources, measuring and
recording instruments, earthing electrodes or
non-earthed contours for the galvanic or
inductive field excitation, earthing electrodes
and antenna rods for measuring the electric
field components or frames and loops for
measuring the magnetic components, and
auxiliary equipment.
14.6.4. Seismic Prospecting
Seismic prospecting for minerals is a
geophysical method based on studying the
propagation of elastic waves excited by
explosions or other sources.
Since rocks have different density and are
characterized by different velocities of the
propagation of elastic waves in them, reflec-
ted and refracted waves can appear at the
boundaries between the rock strata and,
besides, elastic waves of a different kind can
form in inhomogeneous media. The records
of these waves provide information on the
structure of the region being studied.
Seismic prospecting is based on the
analysis of the kinematics and dynamics of
waves.
The seismic.methods of prospecting consist
essentially in the excitation of elastic waves
and detection of the induced soil oscillations
which are transformed into electric pulses;
these pulses are amplified and recorded on
seismograms and magnetograms. These are
processed in order to separate various kinds
of seismic waves and determine the time of
their propagation to a point with the known
coordinates. Quantitative interpretation of
the results of seismic prospecting gives the
velocities of wave propagation, variations of
their propagation along the depth and over
an area, bedding depths of seismogeological
boundaries, their dipping, extension, etc.
Using additional geological characteristics, it
is often possible to establish the geological
nature of detected boundaries of geological
bodies, i. e. to construct a seismogeological
section.
22.
of Geophysical Prospecting 339
The principal methods of seismic prospec-
ting are as follows: reflected wave method;
refracted wave method, sometimes called ref-
racted wave correlation method; transmitted
wave method; method of common reflection
point; method of vertical seismic profiling;
etc.
In practice, the reflected wave method is
used most often, in particular for the dissec-
tion of sedimentary beds. It is the leading
method for structural investigations and
prospecting for petroleum, gas, and other
minerals.
The refracted wave method can provide
information on the elastic wave velocities and
the depth of beds composed of rocks with
high elastic moduli and on the bedding
depths of these rocks. The transmitted wave
method is employed for detecting various
inhomogeneities in rock beds.
14.6.5. Magnetic Prospecting
Magnetic prospecting is a geophysical
method based on studying the spatial distri-
bution of variations of the geomagnetic field
which can appear due to different magneti-
zation of rocks.
The principal methods of magnetic pros-
pecting are the aeromagnetic, hydromagnetic
and ground magnetic surveys, underground
and borehole observations, and the measure-
ments of the magnetic properties of rock
specimens.
In any point on the Earth's surface, there
exists a magnetic field which can be described
by the total magnetic intensity vector T or its
vertical (2) and horizontal (H) components.
As a first approximation, the magnetic field
of the Earth can be likened to the field of a
uniformly magnetized sphere or dipole (To).
In addition to this unifQrm field of the
magnetized sphere, however, the magnetic
field of the Earth also has the components of
anomalous geomagnetic fields which are
associated with continental (TJ, regional (T2),
and local (T3) anomalies. In the practice of
340 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
magnetic prospecting, the normal magnetic
field is usually taken as the field of a uniform-
ly magnetized sphere (To) plus the continental
anomaly (TJ. The normal geomagnetic field
can be characterized by a normal gradient,
i. e. a change in field intensity per kilometre.
The deviations of the observed values of
magnetic vectors from the normal field are
regional or local anomalies depending on the
area of their appearance.
In magnetic prospecting, the measure-
ments of the magnetic field may be either
absolute or relative. In ground magnetic
prospecting, however, relative vertical com-
ponents of the geomagnetic field, A Z, are
measured most often and, less frequently,
relative values of the total vector, A 1;' i. e.
increments of these characteristics relative to
an initial (reference) point.
Ground magnetic surveys can be done on
scales from 1/50000 to 1/2000 and larger.
With scales 1/50000, 1/25000 and 1/10000,
geological magnetic surveys are carried out
for mapping the territory being studied, as
well as directly for searching iron-containing
ores.
Magnetic surveys on scales 1/10000,
1/5000 and 1/2000 are fulfilled for more
detailed analysis of magnetic anomalies,
detection of ore bodies and tectonic distor-
tions, and for the estimation of the dimen-
sions, shape and location of ore bodies.
Ground magnetic surveys are carried out,
as a rule,. on areas which are recognized
prospective by the results of aeromagnetic
surveys. Observation profiles are assigned
across the strike of anomalies on aeromag-
netic maps. Spacings between the profiles
depend on the scale of surveys and can range
from 500 m (1/50000) to 50 m (1/5000).
Distances between the observation points on
profiles should be 50-60 per cent smaller than
the profile spacings.
The connection of observation points can
be done by instrumental (in prospecting
work) or semi-instrumental methods. In the
latter case, however, the starts and ends of
profiles and the centres of anomalies are
connected instrumentally.
14.7. Mine-Surveying Work
in Geophysical Prospecting
The principal object of the mine-surveying
work in geophysical prospecting is to layout
the set-up points for instruments and to
determine their planimetric and height coor-
dinates. A particular method of geodetic
control in geophysical surveys is chosen
mainly depending on the scale of geophysical
work, provision of the geodetic basis, and
physico-geographic conditions in the pros-
pected region.
The elevations and plan coordinates of
points for geophysical measurements can be
determined easily and efficiently by reference
to topographic maps. If reliable maps are
unavailable, the plan positions of points in
regional geophysical surveys can be determi-
ned on aerial photographs. The elevations of
these points are usually determined by
barometric levelling.
In geophysical field surveys on scales
1/50000 to 1/10000, point coordinates are
most often determined by running main
traverses (base lines) and laying out profiles
between them. Theodolite traverses and level
lines are then run along base lines and
sometimes along profile lines.
The topographic and geodetic control of
geophysical prospecting includes the fol-
lowing steps:
(a) the design positions of prospecting
profiles or individual observation points are
transferred into nature and fixed on the
ground; in gravimetric and magnetometric
prospecting, all observation points should be
transferred into nature, and in seismic and
electric prospecting, this involves all centres
of excitation and reception of signals; the
positions of profiles and individual points
should be transferred onto the ground with
 14.7. Mine-Surveying Work in Geophysical Prospecting 341

the accuracy of planimetric connection;
(b) observation points located on profiles
and beyond them are connected, i. e. their
plan coordinates and elevations are deter-
mined; this should be done for all points of
geodetic observations;
(c) the topographic basis for geophysical
maps is formed; and
(d) height differences around the gravi-
metric points are determined in order to take
into account the effect of a terrain relief on
the measured values of a gravity force.
In aerogeophysical prospecting, the plan
connection of aerogeophysical routes is
usually done by aerial photogrammetry.
14.7.1. Mine-Surveying Work
in Gravitational Prospecting
The mine-surveying work in gravitational
prospecting consists of the following opera-
tions:
(a) the transfer of the design position of
reference and ordinary gravimetric points
into nature (laying-out of base lines, profiles,
etc.);
(b) fixation of the points by suitable marks;
(c) determination of the plan and elevation
coordinates of observation points;
(d) determination of relative height dif-
ferencesaround observation points in order to
take into account the effect of a terrain relief;
(e) provision of the geodetic basis for
gravimetric maps; and
(f) the technical control and estimation of
the accuracy of the work performed.
The planimetric connection of gravimetric
prospecting points can be carried out by
using topographic maps on scales corres-
ponding to or larger than the scale of a
gravimetric survey, aerophotogrammetric
materials, instrumental geodetic methods,
autometric topoconnectors, etc.
For determining the elevations of gravi-
metric points, it is possible to use topo-
graphic maps on scales which ensure the re-
quired accuracy; geometric and trigonometric
levelling; barometric levelling; materials of
stereophotogrammetric surveys; and hydro-
static levelling.
The permissible errors for determining the
positions of the points of gravimetric obser-
vations are given in Table 14.6.
In cases when the surface of observations

Table 14.6

Scale of gravimetric Interval, milligal Root-mean square erros (m) of point position relal
map initial points

in plan in elevation

flat terrain mountainous flat terrain mountainous flat terrain mountainous

terrain terrain terrain

'1000000 ::t200 :!: 5.0

'200000 ::t100 :t 100 :!: 2.5 :I: 3.0
'100000 ::t80 :t 100 :!: 1.2 :I: 1.8
150000 0.5 1.0 ::t40 :t 50 :!: 0.70 :I: 1.6
0.25 0.50 ::t40 :t 50 :!: 0.35 :I: 0.9
1/25000 0.25 0.50 ::t20 :t 25 :!: 0.35 :I: 0.9
0.20 0.25 ::t20 :t 25 :!: 0.25 :I: 0.45
0.20 0.50 ::t4 :t5 :!: 0.20 :I: 0.25
0.10 0.20 ::t4 :t5 :!: 0.10
0.05 0.10 ::t2 :t2 :!: 0.05 :to.1
 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration

cartographic materials of an appropriate

accuracy, which are not always available,
especially for what is called the closer zone,
i. e. the portion of the Earth's surface in the
direct vicinity of a gravimetric point. In such
cases, levelling of the surrounding terrain is
carried out along radial rays (eight or six-
teen). The radial distances from a gravimetric
point to staffing points are usually taken
equal to 1.2 m, 2 m, 6 m, 15 m, 35 m, 75 m
or 150 m.

14.7.2. Mine-Surveying Work

~ in Electric Prospecting
"Z The mine-surveying work in all kinds of
--( electric prospecting is carried out mainly for
~ the preparation and connection of obser-
vation points and detected anomalies on the
Fig. 14.6 Terrain relief representedas combina-
terrain and for laying-out and surveying of
tion of elementaryseparations
base lines and profiles.
differs substantially from a planar one deter- The principal requirements to the accu-
mining the relief corrections which are intro- racy of the mine-surveying work in electric
duced into the observed values of the gravity prospecting are given in Table 14.7.
force has certain specifics. With either posi- The mine-surveying work in various kinds
tive or negative relief, the gravity force of electric prospecting has certain specifics.
decreases, because of which the relief cor-
rection is always introduced with a positive
sign.
Corrections for the surrounding relief are
calculated for individual annular concentric
zones around a gravimetric point. Since the
terrain relief in an annular zone may be
variable, these zones are further subdivided
into curvilinear prisms which are called
elementary separations (Fig. 14.6). The real
surface of each elementary separation is
replaced by a horizontal plane whose eleva-
tion is equal to the mean elevation of the
elementary separation relative to an obser-
vation point.
The correction for the surrounding relief
can be determined directly on a topographic
map or by instrumental measurements.
For determining the relief corrections with B
the required accuracy, it is essential to have Fig. 14.7 Electric prospecting by probing

~
 14.7. Mine-Surveying Work in Geophysical Prospecting 343

Table 14.7

Method of electric prospecting Map scale Root-mean square errors of point position relative
to initial points

in plan in elevation

flat terrain mountainous

terrain

Natural field, induced polarization, transient, 1/5000 4 5 5

electroprofiling, isolines, etc. 1/10000 8 10 5
1/25000 20 25 10
1/50000 40 50 10
Telluric currents, magnetotelluric profiling, 1/50000 40 50 1/50 of reference
and magnetotelluric probing 1/200000 160 200 level depth, but not
more than 15 m
Vertical electroprobing; dipole probing, Ditto Ditto Ditto Specified
partial electromagnetic probing
Formation of electromagnetic field Ditto Ditto Ditto 1/50 of reference
level depth

For instance, in the method of isolines, linear
electrodes are laid on the ground at distances
of 500-1500 m from one another and connec-
ted by insulated wires to the poles of a
current source. The points of the same poten-
tial are found on the terrain by means of
what is called a search circuit. The mine-
surveyor's task in this caseis to determine the
positions of these points. In regional pros-
pecting, the coordinates of these points are
mainly determined by the materials of aero-
photogrammetry and in detailed work, by
instrumental methods.
In induction, natural direct current and the
like methods, the points for setting up instru-
ments in regional prospecting are determined
by reference to aerophotogrammetric mate-
rials and topographic maps and in detailed
work, by measurements on a preliminarily
laid-out square or rectangular network.
In electric prospecting by probing meth-
ods, the object of mine-surveying is to
determine the plan and elevation coordinates
of a record point Q, which is required for the
construction of a geoelectric section, the
length of a feeding dipole AB, the area of a
receiving loop q, an active distance 001 and
an angle 6 (Fig. 14.7). The length of the
feeding dipole can be calculated by the coor-
dinates of the feeding dipole AB centre 0 and
the centre of a receiving circuit 01. The
connection of points A, B, 0, and 01 is
usually done by means of topographic maps
or aerophotogrammetric materials.
14.7.3. Mine-Surveying Work
in Seismic Prospecting
In seismic prospecting by the reflected
wave method, seismic profiles are laid out on
the ground and connected in plan and ver-
tically by instrumental methods. In the ref-
racted wave correlation method, seismic pro-
files are connected instrumentally, and the
explosion points located beyond the profiles
are connected in plan. In seismic logging, it is
required to determine the distances between
the logged and explosion boreholes, height
differences between them, and the direction
angle from the logged boreholes onto explo-
sion points. In spatial mass probing, the plan
and elevation positions of probes and explo-
344 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying
Table 14.8
in plan in elevation
sion points are determined, and the figure for
the arrangement of seismographs is con-
structed.
The accuracy requirements for the mine-
surveying work in seismic prospecting are
given in Table 14.8.
In seismic prospecting in seas at a small
distance from the coast, observation points
can be connected by means of a reflecting
circle (index) by the method of resections
onto the initial points on the coast. In such
cases, profiles are ranged out by poles or
buoys set up at intervals not more than
2-3 km in detailed surveys or 5-6 km in
regional surveys. In cases when the seismic
work is being carried out far from the coastal
line, observation points are connected mainly
by radiogeodetic methods.
14.7.4. Mine-Surveying Work
in Magnetic Prospecting
In ground magnetic surveys, the mine-
surveying work includes the transfer of the
contours of a survey area, layout, connection
and fixation of observation points, and the
connection and fixation of detected anom-
alous zones, structures, etc.
In ground magnetic prospecting, the meth-
ods of the preparation of observation points
can be divided into three main types:
Control of Geological Exploration
Table 14.9
Scale of magnetic Root-mean square Relative error of
surveying error of connection measured distance
of initial point of between profile
profile or base line points
relative to initial
points
1/50000 15 1/100 of interval
1/25000 15 between points
1/10000 8 on profile
1/5000
1/2000
1/1000 8
(a) profile methods with a preliminarily
laid-out observation network;
(b) profile methods with the simultaneous
semi-instrumental layout of an observation
network; and
(c) route methods with the observation
points being read off from a topographic map
or aerophotogram.
In magnetic prospecting with a prelimi-
narily laid-out observation network, the
accuracy of the mine-surveying work should
be as given in Table 14.9.
Profile methods with the simultaneous
semi-instrumental layout of an observation
network are usually employed in the search
work on a scale of 1/50000, 1/25000 or
1/10000 in woody territories; in that case,
survey profiles can be ranged out by a
magnetic azimuth, and distances along a
profile can be measured by striding.
Magnetic surveys are carried out, as a rule,
along roads, forest cuttings, footpaths, rivers,
etc., and the surveying net is connected
visually to the orientation marks which are
present both on the ground and on the map.
The errors of the planimetric positions of
points on a survey line should not exceed 1/4
of the spacing between the points, but not
more than 250 m in any case.
 14.8. Barometric Levelling of Observation Objects 345

14.8. Barometric Levelling Table 14.11

of Geological
Observation Objects Root-mean square Time intervals between meas-
error of measured urements of pressure and tem-
Barometric levelling has found rather wide heights, m perature of atmospheric air at
barometric stations, min
use for the elevation control of geological
surveys. It is mainly resorted to in caseswhen in flatland re- in mountain-

other levelling methods are insufficiently gions ous regions

accurate or less efficient economically. The

method is especially popular in gravitational 0.35 10 10
prospecting. An essential advantage of baro- 0.5 10 10
1.0 15 10
metric levelling is that it is applicable even
2.5 20 15
when the points to be levelled are mutually 5.0 30 20
invisible.
The accuracy of barometric levelling de-
pends on the instruments employed, kind of a accuracy. In all methods, however, the mea-
terrain relief, and the techniques of levelling. surements of air temperature at particular
Barometric levelling is based on a certain points and initial barometric stations are
correlation between the elevation of a terrain done at the same time with measuring the
and atmospheric pressure. As has been de- atmospheric pressure. Barometric stations
monstrated by the practice of levelling, with should be located on open places with smooth
properly organized work it is possible to shapes of the relief. It is not advisable to
measure elevations with an error less than locate stations on sharp summits, in deep and
0.5 m. Depending on the accuracy of mea- narrow valleys, on the crests of cliffs, and (in
surement of the elevations of geological ob- summer time) near large water basins.
servation points, the recommended accuracy Instruments for atmospheric pressure
in the measurements of atmospheric pressure measurements should be placed at baromet-
is given in Table 14.10.
Barometric levelling in geophysical surveys
can be carried out by various methods, the
choice of a particular method being depen- Table 14.12
dent on the scope of work, available instru-
Root-mean Mean distance Mean height difference
ments, number of observations, and required square error of observed of observed points re-
of height dif- points from lative to TBS *, m
Table 14.10 ference, m TBS *, kIn

Root-mean square Root-mean square error of meas- without cor- with cor-
error of measured ured atmospheric pressure, mb rection for sys- rection
heights, m tematic error
of air tempe-
rature meas-
at observation at barometric urement
-~:-,.

0.4:> L.-() )U-IU 14U-4j

:I: 0.35 ::!: 0.015 :t 0.010 0.70 2-9 80-20 245-55
:I: 0.5 ::!: 0.020 :t 0.015 0.90 2-13 110-10 320-45
:I: 1.0 ::!:0.05 :t 0.03 2.0 10-25 210-30 680-180
:I: 2.5 ::!: 0.15 :t 0.05
:I: 5.0 ::!: 0.30 :t 0.10 .TBS -temporary barometric station.
346 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration

Table 14.13

Root-mean square error Time of traverse Mean length of tra. Mean height difference of observed points
of height difference, m run, h verse, km relative to TBS, m

without correction with correction

for systematic error
of air temperature
measurement

0.25 1.0 2.7 20-5 70-25

2.0 2.6 20-5 70-10
4.0 2-4 20-5 60-5
0.45 1.0 5-15 50-10 140-25
2.0 5-14 40-10 130-20
4.0 5-9 40-5 120-10
0.70 1.0 5-40 85-35 240-70
2.0 5-25 85-35 240-90
4.0 5-15 75-10 235-65
0.90 1.0 5-50 110-50 320-130
2.0 5-40 110-10 320-40
4.0 5-20 100-25 310-40
6.0 5-13 100-10 290-50
8.0 5-12 95-5 280-5
2.0 2.0 10-50 240-200 700-550
4.0 10-30 240-200 700-540
6.0 10-15 230-210 700-590
8.0 10-15 220-200 700-570

Table 14.14 Table 14.15

Root-mean Mean dist- Mean height difference of Root-mean square error of up up above
square error ance between points relative to RBS * in measured heights of points, to I to 2.5 2.5
of height dif- RBS *, km calculation, m
ference, m
Permissible fInS error of
without cor- with correc- comparison of mercury
rection for sys- tion
tematic error of barometers at reference
air temperature stations, mb 0.03 0.07 0.10
measurement

1.2 50 90
2.0 50-130 180-50 500-135
3.5 150 250 700

* RBS -reference barometric station.

 14.8. Barometric Levelling of Observation Objects 347

B 00
>< ~ ,..;
;0
-

""' -
-
~ ~ "'
ai
Ir)
.,;
O
- - N

00 V) ~
~ r-i
~ ~ ~ ""' -0
+ +

"' 1- N
r- 1- t-
~ ~ O
A :=: ~ -
b
<=! N 0-
Fig. 14.8 Calculation of elevation of observed Q,. -
-
...; It"i
~
point by method with severalbarometricreference + +
stations
c N
ric stations permanently for the entire period '0
"" :=; r.:
of station operation. Air temperatures are ~
~
measured at barometric stations and meas- ~
uring points by means of aspiration (sling) .. ,9 N 0 -

< ~ 0- oci ...;

~ .q-
thermometers set up at a height roughly 2 m 1- ~ \I')
r--
~
above the Earth's surface, with an accuracy c
~ ~
to 0.5 degree C. "
.& ~ ci
~
Time intervals between the measurements ~
+
&
at barometric stations and points depend on ~
9 .9 ~ ~ ~
the error in elevation measurements at the '" ~ ... 0 0
~
points and can be determined according to < + +
~
Table 14.11.
o
Barometric levelling can be carried out by ""' -0 8
"'
8
N
0
N
one of the following methods. 0 O O

Barometric levelling by the methods of

level lines can be performed with reference to "' "1
-I/")
1 "!

one initial point.(closed level lines) or to two !1 ~. I/") ~

points (open lines). A temporary barometric

e r- ~
~
station is arranged at the initial point of a "'" ...;

closed level line. With an open level line, one :I:. ~ 0-

- ~
temporary station is placed at the initial , .:
~o
".-
point and another, in any point of the line. e,,"
o~ .., < ~ u
'" ~
In the method of closed level lines, it is ..()
~.E:
possible to work with one or two barometers. "'
..
Barometric levelling by the method of "1:)
closed level lines should"be done according to .:8
.g.~ '0
N
the requirements given in Table 14.12. """"
~
Barometric levelling by the method of ~;
~
.I;) >,0
-0
open level lines is carried out with the use of ~ o .,...,

two sets of barometers. In this method, the ..;

'O~
deviations of observed points from the range .. .:
:s 0.8
" Z""
~
348 Ch. 14. Mine-Surveying Control of Geological Exploration
line of initial points should be not more than
0.2 of the distance between these points. The
principal requirements to the field work by
this method are given in Table 14.13.
In barometric levelling by the method with
several barometric reference stations, these
stations are located so that all points of
observation can be inside the figure formed
by the stations (in most casesa triangle). In a
particular case, barometric reference stations
can be located on the range line. The permis-
sible distances between the barometric re-
ference stations should be as recommended in
Table 14.14.
In this method, it is possible to use meteo-
rological stations or special temporary ref-
erence stations. All barometers used at the
stations are standardized by determining
their corrections relative to one of them
which is taken as the standard instrument.
The standardization of barometers should be
carried out with an accuracy as specified in
Table 14.15.
The elevations of observed points are de-
termined by the results of the measurements
of air temperature and pressure at these
points, which are done at the same time with
air temperature and pressure measurements
at the stations. The point elevations are
calculated as weighted mean values, by con-
sidering the following circumstances.
Let an observed point O be inside a
reference .triangle ARC (Fig. 14.8). The ele-
vation of the point O can be calculated by the
formula:
H = H~k1 + H~k2 + H~k3
where H~, H~, and H~ are the preliminary
elevations of the point observed and k1, k2,
and k3 are the weight coefficients which
depend on the position of the point and can
be found by the formulae:
k1 = 11/Ll, k2 = 12/L2, k3 = 13/L3
where 11= Oa, 12= Ob, 13= Oc, L1 = Aa,
L2 = Bb, and L3 = Cc.
The elevation of the observed point is
calculated by a scheme given in Table 14.16.
The elevations, H, of reference stations are
recorded in column 4. The distances, I, from
the observed point to the side connecting two
other barometric stations are written as nu-
merators in column 5 and the distances, L,
from a barometric station to the same side
through the point being observed, as deno-
minators in the same column. Columns 7, 8,
9, and 10 contain data from the field books.
The difference in atmospheric pressure, l\P ,
between the barometric station and the point
observed is calculated in column 11. Column
12 contains the values of barometric stages.
The values given in columns 11 and 12 are
then multiplied to give the height difference
between the barometric station and the point
observed (column 13). The preliminary values
of elevations found by algebraic summation
of the elevations of barometric stations and
elevation differences are written in column
14. Finally, column 15 gives the elevation of
the 'point observed, which is obtained by
summing the products of preliminary eleva-
tions and the c9rresponding coefficients.
 Chapter
Mine-Surveying Work for Mineral Extraction
in Water Areas of Seas and Oceans
15.1. General
One of the novel trends in mining industry
is the exploitation of mineral resources of the
Ocean bottom. Our knowledge of the Ocean
is still insufficient for large-scale mining of its
minerals, but it can be already stated quite
definitely that the mineral reserves in the
shelf and deep-sea zones of the Ocean are
enormous and can be estimated approxi-
mately by the following figures: 4 x 1015t of
aluminium, 100 x 109t of cobalt, 300 x 109t
of nickel, 350 x 109t of copper, 42 x 109t of
manganese,120 x 106t of zirconium, 80 x 106t
of molybdenum, etc. In addition, almost all
elements of the Periodic Table are present in
the Ocean in the dissolved state.
The sea medium has certain specific fea-
tures which can influence the organization
and accuracy of the mine-surveying work.
The principal among them is the dynamics of
water masses.The level surface of the Ocean
is subject to periodic, non-periodic and secu-
lar variations. Periodic variations mainly
include tidal oscillations. Non-periodic va-
riations may be of geodyllamic or geothermal
origin, i. e. they may be caused by earth-
quakes, underwater volcanic eruptions, tec-
tonic disturbances in the Earth's crust, water
surges, occasional sharp changes of atmos-
pheric precipitation, changes of atmospheric
pressure, etc. For estimating the dynamic
conditions of the level surface of the Ocean,
of prime importance are the tidal phenomena
which may depend substantially on the geo-
graphic latitude, depth of sea, and the shape
of a coastal line. The highest water level at
Fifteen
tides is called high water, the lowest level at
ebbs is low water, and the medium level is
what is called mean water. In open sea, the
tidal variations of the water level are equal to
roughly 1 m; near coasts, especially at the
head of narrow bays, the difference between
high and low water may attain a few tens of
metres.
The surface of seas and oceans to a depth
up to 60 m can be disturbed substantially by
winds which often create waves up to 12-13 m
high. The effect of wind disturbance is espe-
cially detrimental for the accuracy of mine-
surveying observations, since prospecting
and mining work in seasare carried out now
and will be done in the nearest future only in
the shelf zone where the effect of wind waves
is quite strong.
Water waves can be characterized by the
length, height, velocity, period, front, and
steepness. The length A of waves is the
horizontal distance between the crests (or
troughs) of adjacent waves; height h is the
vertical distance from the trough to the crest
of a wave; velocity v is the distance covered
by a wave crest in unit time; wave period Tis
the time interval during which two wave
crests pass successivelythrough a given point;
wave front is a line perpendicular to the
direction of wave motion; and steepnessis the
height-to-length ratio of a wave.
As a wave approaches the coastal line, its
profile changes substantially. The top portion
of the wave slope facing the coast becomes
steeper, i. e. the wave profile becomes asym-
metrical. The asymmetry of waves is notice-
350 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying
able at depths roughly twice the wave height.
At the coast, wave crests tip over and form
feathers, or breakers.
As the wind velocity decreases,water wa-
ves attenuate slowly, the rate of attenuation
being proportional to the wave length. The
waviness of the sea surface that remains after
winds have ceased to blow is called swell, or
aftertossing.
15.2. Brief Data on Geomorphology
of Ocean Bottom Relief
By modern concepts, the ocean bottom has
four structural zones (Fig. 15.1).
I. The first is the submerged margin I,
which includes the shelf la, continental slope
Ib, and continental base Ic. The submerged
margin is regarded geologically as the flood-
ed portion of the continental plateau which is
characterized by relatively calm tectonic
conditions and markedly prevailing slow
vertical deformations of the surface. The shelf
is essentially a shallow-water portion of the
submerged margin, which extends from the
coastal line to a sharp bend of the bottom
surface, usually at a depth of 130-140 m. The
part of a shelf to a depth of 30-50 m is called
shoal.
The continental slope is a relatively steep
Fig. 15.1 Profile of ocean bottom: l-submerged margin; la-shelf; lb-continental slope; lc-contin~ntal
base; ll-transition zone; lla-pits of marginal seas; llb-island arcs; IIc-deep-sea troughs; III -ocean
bottolD; lV -mid-ocean ridges
Work in Water Areas of Oceans
portion of the bottom at the external edge of
the shelf. Its width is rather small and usually
measures from 15 km to 30 km. Inclination
angles are equal to 3-6 on the average,
ranging from lO to around 45. The surface of
the continental slope is often furrowed by
U-shaped valleys called submarine canyons.
Submarine canyons may have a length from
a few tens to a few hundreds of kilometres
and penetrate to depths of 3-4 km.
The continental slope changes to what is
called the continental base, a slightly inclined
undulating plain at depths of 2-4 km.
2. The transition zone II is an intermediate
zone between the submerged margin I of the
continent and the ocean bottom (floor) III.
This zone has the basin of marginal sea at the
side of the continental base and island arcs
lIb and deep-sea troughs IIc, at the side of
the ocean. The deep-sea troughs form the
boundary between the continent and ocean,
so that one of their slopes is represented by
the continental crust and the other by the
oceanic crust.
3. The ocean floor III is represented by the
oceanic type of the Earth's crust and lies at
depths of 2500-6000 m. It mostly has a hilly
relief of the accumulative type with large
oceanic troughs and uplifts.
 15.4. Geological Prospecting and Mining 351

4. Mid-ocean ridges are essentially moun- of sands and a high concentration of useful
tainous formations of a width of 500-2000 kID. components in them (up to 90% of non-na-
A depression, or rift valley, usually runs tive ones). As a rule, band-shaped shelf pla-
along the axial line of a ridge. At both sides cers have discontinuities at capes and in river
of the rift valley, there are rift crests with estuaries.
individual summits 7000-8000 m high above Placers in the continental slope are usually
the foot of a mid-ocean ridge. Earthquake located at distances from 500 m to 15 km
centres (foci) are confined to rift crests. from the coastal line and have a length of a
few tens of kilometres and width, .a few
hundreds of metres.
15.3. Characteristics The mechanism of transfer of heavier
of Some Solid Minerals minerals forming a submarine placer is deter-
At present, over loo countries are carrying mined by the same processes as the transfer
out geological prospecting in the water area of the mass of sediments forming the bottom
of seasand oceans, and enormous reserves of topography.
minerals have already been discovered
(Fig. 15.2). 15.4. Mine-Surveying Service
Submarine deposits of minerals are con-
of Geological Prospecting
ventionally classified by the following groups:
and Mining in Water Areas
metal-bearing concretions and red clays;
primary deposits; and submarine sedimenta- In prospecting for submarine deposits, the
ry deposits, mainly shelf placers and mine-surveying service has the following
metal-bearing silts. objects:
At present, shelf deposits attract the main (a) the collection and examination of geo-
interest, in particular, placer deposits formed detic, hydrographic and meteorological
due to the dynamic activity of seas and the documents available for a given water area;
chemical processes occurring in sea water. (b) the provision of the planimetric and
By the time of origin, submarine placers elevation survey control for the coastal part
can be classed into buried (concealed), con- of land and alloted water area;
tinental, and young (present-day). Buried (c) the complementary surveys of the bot-
placers formed on overlapping of ancient tom relief and prospecting workings;
placer deposits by younger sediments at (d) the control of the positions of pros-
changes of the sea level and displacement of pecting and mining workings in the water
the coastal line. Continental buried deposits area upon their transfer into nature;
are formed due to sinking of the coastal (e) the compilation of the graphical
surface of land below the sea level. All buried documentation of the alloted water area,
submarine placers, as a rule, are not subject which should reflect the bottom relief of a
to hydrodynamic actions and lithodynamic basin, the shape, dimensions and geological
changes. Present-day placers are more easily characteristics of a deposit, and the charac-
accessible for exploitation than other types, teristics of enclosing rocks;
since they are not covered by sediments. (f) surveying of underwater workings;
Present-day placers mostly have the shape of (g) the calculation of the mineral reserves;
bands extended along the coastal line. and
Delta placers have an irregular shape in (h) the analysis of the lithodynamic chan-
plan and variable characteristics. Shelf pla- ges of the bottom relief.
cers can be characterized by a very thin bed In the construction of underwater wor-
352 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans
...~ .
"' ., ..
..o.~
~.~ ...
;~~
~
I... ~
'"'I~S
"' ..= 0
8~... ~
~ ~ ..,
c...8
-g]=,
., =' .~
0 , =
S~~ = .-
~
.-=' ...
~o>.
...,~~
1
, ~
=~(.)"'
08~8.=I ~.~
~ ..."'
= L.--:
.~~.!!!.O
I
~ I!! I~ ~
.-I,
"' S o
~~I~ ,Q
~ .=~
"o;UI~ ~
"' 0
.."'
==e~
.S S.S ~
~:aS~
~ ~ .~ .S
~~-
t:.(.)"0;"'
~...C , ...~ ..."'
="0;So
='... c.
~..'0..
=S ~
~.s~~
~ .~ ~ 'E.
0,,--
~"'c.='
~ I "'
~ ~ ...I
~ta~oo
.0 "' ...
-1;;='-;;-
c.0 1;;
>< ='
~
0...,
~ ,Q ~ ..,
=
~
I
.-
~
""'=c.
~ ..00 ~
~~..:=
&.9N ~
"'~..';"::i.
0(.)..,.0
~= .~
C(E::: .
0 -..
= ~ ; .E
..,
0 .S fiJ
='~=~
:gSS
..."' 1;; ...=
0 .
.~
f"\ ' ...~
...= ...
0 "' .
M .= " S
='
II') 0 = .~
~ "'.-
.~ S (.)
~- ...
~
~l,:=oN
 15.5. Marine Mine-Surveying Reference Nets 353

kings and the exploitation of deposits, the 15.5. Marine Mine-Surveying

tasks of the mine-surveying service are as Reference Nets
follows: Marine mine-surveying reference nets are
(a) survey work for the construction of
developed for making various surveys asso-
engineering structures in the water area ciated with prospecting and mining of the
(wharfs, pulp pipelines, hydro-engineering bottom of seas and oceans (Fig. 15.3). De-
objects, etc.); pending on the distance from the coast, they
(b) the development of measures for the
can be divided into off-shore nets which are
protection of structures and environment
formed in the zone of geometric visibility
against harmful effects of underwater wor-
from the coastal line and open-sea nets, i. e.
kings; those beyond the geometric visibility.
(c) the transfer of the geometrical elements
Off-shore surveying nets are developed
of designed structures and objects into na-
from geodetic nets on the shore land and
ture.,
(d) the control of assembling of plants,
hydro-engineering objects, etc.;
(e) the assignment of directions to strip-
ping and preparatory mining workings;
(1) servicing and control of the dynamics of
stripping and mining work;
(g) the complementation of mine-sur-
veying plans, sections and graphical docu-
mentation with the results of the surveys of
mining workings and waste dumps;
(h) the compilation of mining-geometricaf
graphs for more accurate determination of
the shape of a deposit, quality of a mineral,
properties of enclosing rocks, and the distri-
bution of useful components;
(i) the control of the variations in litho-
dynamic processesduring the exploitation of
deposits and the prediction of changes in the
depth and contours of underwater workings;
and
0) the calculation of the dynamics of
mineral reserves, output, losses and dilution
of minerals.
Mine-surveying measurements in the water
area should provide data on the dimensions,
shape and structure of submarine deposits,
which are then represented in graphical
documents. The mine-surveying work in
water areas consists mainly in profiling of the
sea bottom and underwate:r workings.

23-1270
354 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans

1a) Ibl (c)

12

(d) (e)

Fig. 15.4 Benchmarks for marine mine-surveyingnets:(a) pole-type;(b) pile-type;(c) wooden frame;
(d) metallicframe;(e)buoyant; 1- bottom of seaor basin;2 ~ water line; 3 ~ earth embankment;4- tube or
rod; 5- benchmark centre;6- end fastening(plug);7~ concretefilling; 8- instrumentalplatform enclosure;
9-navigation signal; 10-bench mark platform or pontoon; 11-boundary of compacted layer;
12-concrete filling; 13-concrete base; 14-counterweights; 15-buoy rope; 16-anchors; 17-bottom
centre
those in the open sea, from the points of a polygonometric method is mostly employed
marine mine-surveying net, in particular for deposits extended along the coastal line.
from a local net connected to the geodetic The root-mean square error of determi-
reference net on the land. nation of the direction angles of sides in
Marine mine-surveying nets can be const- marine mine-surveying nets should not ex-
ructed by the methods of triangulation, trila- ceed I'. For the plan positions of the points of
teration and polygonometry. Reference nets a net, the rms error should be not more than
for deposits located near the shore can be 0.2 mm on the scale of a plan.
constructed by the methods of intersections, The elevation control for the surveying
combined intersections or resections. The work in the near-shore water area is provided
 15.6. Special Mine-Surveying
by levelling points. The absolute elevation
marks of survey points on the shore are
determined by geometric or trigonometric
levelling and of those in the water area,
mostly by trigonometric levelling. The rms
error in the determination of heights of the
points of marine (off-shore) nets relative to
initial (control) bench marks should not ex-
ceed 0.02 m and the rms error of height
difference between two adjacent points,
should be not more than 0.05 m. When the
water area is covered by firm ice, it is more
preferable to use geometric levelling.
The points of marine reference nets are
fixed by means of special bench marks (bea-
cons) which may be of the pole-type (Fig.
l5.4a), pile-type (Fig. l5.4b), with a wooden
or metallic frame (Fig. l5.4c and d), or
buoyant (Fig. 15.4e) with automatic correc-
tion or recording of their deviations from the
centre.
Marine bench marks should be set up
before the beginning of stormy seasons, and
each should be provided with a navigation
signal. If a marine mine-surveying net is
developed on ice, its points can be marked by
metal rods qr wooden poles frozen into the
ice.
Polygonometric traverses should be run so
that the mean arithmetic error of the final
point of a traverse line of any shape is not
higher than the value calculated by the
formula:
Work in Water Areas 355
nometric traverse; L is the length of the
closing line of a traverse; mp is the rms error
of angle measurement; n is the number of
sides in a traverse; and D is the distance from
the centre of gravity of a traverse to each
turning point.
The best time for observations and mea-
surements is when the temperature of water
surface is close to that of air, since this
minimizes the effect of refraction on meas-
ured results.
15.6. Special Mine-Surveying
Work in Water Areas
In the general case, all kinds of the mine-
surveying work carried out on submarine
deposits can be divided into special and
routine.
In special mine-surveying work, mine sur-
Veyors together with geologists determine the
geological and hydrogeological characteris-
tics of deposits, geomorphological and li-
thodynamic specifics, hydraulic conditions in
the water area, etc. The main object of special
work is, however, to analyse the lithodyna-
mic processes responsible for the variability
of a given relief and to determine the prin-
cipal parameters of the deposit and under-
water workings. Surveys for mapping of a
deposit should be carried out both in the
period of detailed prospecting and during
exploitation. It is principally important to
decide on the frequency of repeated obser-
vations which should be such that the varia-
tions of relief that may occur between the
surveys can be commensurable with the
accuracy of surveying. The frequency of ob-
servations is usually determined experimen-
tally.
Special mine-surveying work also includes
the formation and development of planimet-
ric and elevation control (for off-shore and
open-sea mine-surveying nets), establishment
of level-gauging stations, navigation marks,
etc.
356 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans

15.7. Routine Mine-Surveying

Work in Water Areas
The main objects of the routine mine-sur-
veying work are to provide the basis and
control for geological prospecting and the
basis for the mining work.
The basis for geological prospecting in
water areas is done by preliminary investi-
gations which consist in observations on the
hydrologic conditions of the sea and the
lithodynamic processesin loose sediments on
the bottom. These observations include lar-
ge-scale surveys of the bottom relief and the
determination of the planimetric and height
coordinates of prospecting boreholes, con-
tours of ditches and trenches, points of geo-
logical sampling, and the corner (final) points
of traverses in mine-surveying and geophy-
sical profiling. dinates and depth measurements are planned
In the period of underwater mining work, so as to attain the required accuracy and
mine-surveying service makes the surveys of minimize the number of traverses which may
have different directions depending on the
underwater workings and represents them on
the plans of the mining work and compiles pattern of the bottom relief and the purpose
of surveying (Fig. 15.6). The survey method
profiles and sections. The results of surveys
make it possible to calculate the volumes of with parallel traverses is used most often
extracted rock and determine the places of (Fig. 15.6a). Traverses should be directed in
mineral losses and sources of mineral dilu- the sense of the highest ruggedness of the
tion. bottom relief; for workings, they should be
The set of mining graphical documentation oriented perpendicular to their axis. Depth
includes the plans of the submarine mining measurements can be made by zig-zag
work on scales 1/1000 or 1/2000, lithological (Fig. 15.6b and c) or radial traverses (Fig.
sections along prospecting lines, and the 15.6d). Zig-zag traverses are used when it is
essential to reveal sharp bends of the relief,
profiles of ~arlier exploring and mining wor-
such as in hollows, valleys, ranges, etc. Radial
kings in the most typical directions.
The contours of a deposit and design traverses are run in cases when they can
boundaries of underwater workings are represent a relief without noticeable distor-
tions (which is possible since radial traverses
transferred into nature and marked by means
of stakes, beacons or buoys (Fig. 15.5) set up diverge from the coast or control points, i. e.
distances between them increase with moving
in the sea at intervals of 100-200 m.
farther into the sea). Radial traverses are
During prospecting and mining of a de-
used, for instance, for surveying of capes,
posit, surveys are carried out in order to
off-shore bars, islands, and extended and
obtain the plan coordinates and depths of the
weakly dissected surfaces of the bottom relief.
points of the bottom relief and underwater
The root-mean square error of locating the
workings. In practice, these measurements
bottom relief points in mine surveys should
are usually made simultaneously. In the ge-
be not more than 1.5 mm on the scale of a
neral case, the surveys of planimetric coor-
 15.7. Routine Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas

(a:

(c)
Id)

,~~
-I
, \--
~

~
Fig. 15.6 Typical schemes of traversing in bottom relief surveying: (a) with parallel traverses; (b) with
zig-zag extension traverses; (c) zig-zag traversing with control extension traverses; (d) radial traversing
with additional transverse extension traverses
358 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work in Water Areas of Oceans

base line and the line of sight on a vessel);Dl

and D2 are the distances from the base points
to a vessel; and mp is the instrumental rms
error of angle measurement.
The plan position of a moving target is
determined by the method of linear intersec-
tion with the use of optical or radio range
finders and with reference to two or three
initial points. Optical range finders are emp-
loyed in cases when linear intersections are
made to relatively shortJ distances (up to
2 km and less frequently, up to 4-5 km).
When the objects of marine surveys are
removed from the coast to distances more
than 3 km, use is made of high-precision
radiogeodetic and radionavigation systems
which can determine the positions of points
in the sea with the rms error around 1 m.

15.9. Depth Measurements

The measurements of the depths of bottom
points relative to the sea level can be made by
sounding poles, sounding leads,echo sounders,
where v is the vessel velocity, m/s; D is the photometric and stereophotogrammetric
distance from an observer to the measured methods. At present, echo sweeps and bot-
point, m; <pis the angle between the sighting tom-scanning sonars (asdics) are being emp-
line and the traverse line; p" = 206265"; and loyed widely.
mIl is the rms error of angle measurement of A sounding pole is a metal or wooden
an instrument. round pole up to 5 cm in diameter and up to
Noting the accuracy of angular measure- 8 m long, which has 5-cm or 10-cm gradua-
ments with a moving target, the rms error of tions. Depths can be measured by sounding
the plan position of a moving target deter- poles with an accuracy to 2-3 cm. A hand
mined by the method of intersections can be sounding lead consists of a hemp or metal
expressed by the formula: rope with a lead or cast-iron weight around
2
mmt =
b2
2 .4
p Sill '1
[ (.2
mIl Sill A + Sill
1'1 .2 A )
1'2
5 kg in mass tied to its end. The rope is
graduated in metres and decimetres by the
marks of different colour. Hand leads can
measure depths up to 50 m with a relative
accuracy of I/lOO to 1/200. A mechanical
lead (sounding machine) has a winch with a
counting mechanism, rope, and weight up to
+~)J D~ loo kg in mass. The accuracy of depth mea-
where b is the length of a base; 'Y is the angle surements by sounding machines depends on
at the measured point; 1:11and 1:12are the the degree of rope sagging which is deter-
angles at the base points (angles between the mined by the size and shape of the weight,
 15.9. Depth Measurements
359

Fig. 15.7 Operation oflaser-acousticsystemin bottom profiling: Ah3-height of lasersight abovebench

mark; R,,-elevation of point (benchmark) in adopteld system;h -depth of measuredpoint on echogram;
ho-reading of nth stageof photodetector;hi -readil Ig of laser beam on vertical staff
water flow velocity, variations of water ve-
locity along the depth, and the length of a
rope. At present, depth measurements are
most often made by using echo sounders
whose operating principle is based on the
propagation of ultrasonic pulses emitted by
an ultrasonic source and reception of pulses
reflected from the sea bottom.
The oscillations of floating vesselsin rough
sea reduce substantially the accuracy of
depth measurements by echo sounders. This
effect is largely eliminated in laser-acoustic
systems which have come into use in recent
time.
A laser-acoustic system (Fig. 15.7) is a
combination of a laser and echo sounder and
consists of a laser sight 1 with a scanning
attachment 2, vertical staff 3 with a photo-
detector, acoustic system 4, electric pulse
generator, amplifier, and a recorder.
The laser sight sends a beam 0-01 which
defines a reference plane and enters the
photo-detector on the staff. The received
pulse is transmitted to a pulse delay gene-
rator which fonns a delayed pulse and then
sends a starting pulse to the generator. The
latter produces an electric pulse to excite the
acoustic system which transfonns electric
pulses into acoustic signals. Upon reflection
from the sea bottom, acoustic signals are
transfonned back into electric pulses. These
are sent to the recorder which makes a record
of the sea bottom depths and the elevation
marks of the sea level.
The measured values of depths are reduced
to a particular level of sea surface which is
called the hydrographic datum, or datum
level. For seaswith small amplitudes of level
oscillations (height of tide up to 0.5 m), the
mean water level of many-years observations
is taken as the datum level. For seas with
substantial level oscillations, the lowest level
surface of the sea is taken as the datum level.
In surveys in water areas, depths are
measured relative to a conventional (phan-
tom) horizon which is called the datum and is
360 Ch. 15. Mine-Surveying Work
somewhat lower than the horizon of the
lowest level. This is done in order that
calculated levels may be always positive.
A level-gauge station, or simply gauge, is
made in the form of a level-measuring pole
which is fastened to a pile, wharf or another
stationary structure. Level-gauge poles are
mostly made of cast iron and have inserted
porcelain pieces forming 2-cm graduations.
Enamel-painted metal poles are also in use.
Depth measurements are also carried out
for studying the lithodynamic processes, in
particular, the intensity and amount of
wash-out (erosion) or, on the contrary, the
accumulation of drifted sediments on the
bottom and in underwater workings.
The thickness of an active layer of sedi-
ments is established by measuring the max-
imum depth in fixed points in the periods of
rough sea, which can be done by the method
of a 'movable disc' or by successive mea-
surements between the periods of rough sea.
The former method is employed at depths
up to 3 m and consists essentially in that the
disc is let to slide down a metal rod fixed in
the bottom, after which the depth of disc
sinking is determined on the staff that is
connected with the disc and protrudes from
water. If the bottom ground is washed out,
the disc sinks deeper and this is detected by
the changed position of the staff. Staff rea-
dings can be done instrumentally from the
on-shore or off-shore points of a reference
net. .
The method of successivemeasurements is
not as accurate as the former, but is less
laborious. Measurements are carried out
strictly on the same profiles, and the thick-
ness of an active layer is determined by
differences between successivemeasurements.
15.10. Calculation of Volumes
of Extracted Rock
The volumes of rock extracted in subma.
rine mining can be calculated by the follow.
in Water Areas of Oceans
ing methods: (I) by the results of surveying;
(2) by measuring the volumes of extracted
rock shipped in ore carriers or contained in
on-shore stores; (3) by the readings of flow
meters and consistometers mounted on pulp
pipelines.
Volume calculation by results of surveys.
This method can be recommended for cases
when the contours of mining workings are
not changed substantially during the period
of measurements.
The calculation of the volume of the ext-
racted mineral on the basis of the results of
surveys can be made most easily by the
method of horizontal sections. The volume of
a working is determined by the formula:
v = hm8m
where hm is the mean depth of a working, m
and 8m is the mean area of a working, m2.
The mean area is found as the half-sum of
the upper and lower areas:
8m = (8u + 8,)/2
and the mean depth:
hm = ~h.I/ n
where ~hi is the sum of measured depths
within the boundaries of a working floor, m
and n is the number of measurements.
In practice, the mean extractive capacity of
a mineral is usually determined as the dif-
ference of the mean elevation marks of the
surface of a submarine deposit (within the
boundaries of the upper crests of slopes) and
of the bottom or as the difference of the mean
depths of a working floor and the mean
depths of the initial surface of the sea bottom.
Calculation of volumes in vessels and on-
shore stores. In this method, the mine sur-
veyor has to make the following operations:
(a) measuring the geometrical parameters
of a vessel or store;
(b) determining the coefficient of filling of
a capacity with loose rock mass;
(c) calculating the volumes of loose rock in
 15.10. Calculation of Volumes of Extracted Rock 361

Table 15.2 (I) making an additional survey of sub-

marine workings in order to determine the
Rock Loosening Rock Loosening mineral reserves left in the ground and the
factor factor
-- amount of losses and dilution.
Sand 1.01-1.02 Loam 1.15-1.30 The most difficult step is the determination
River gravel 1.03-1.04 Clays 1.30-1.45 of a loosening factor, but this can be taken
Gravel 1.07-1.18 Shingle 1.40-1.60 from Table 15.2.
Coarse- and Hard rocks 1.45-1.65 Determination of volumes of rock mass
medium- transported through pulp pipelines. In this
grain sand I. 14-1.28 Frozen flood
case, the volumes of rock mass are determi-
Pebbles, plain de-
crushed posits in
ned in terms of the flow rates of pulp
stone I. 23-1.30 river val-
transported through pipelines and measured
Sandv ]nam 1.1 07-1.18 leys and by means of flow-meters and consistometers.
estuaries 1;-
20-1.17 Hydraulic-type flow-meters are used to
- measure the flow rate of hydraulic mixture
a waste dump or vesselby the formula for the (pulp) sucked in by a dredge. The density of a
volumes of regular geometrical bodies (a pulp is determined by the pressure gradient
cone, pyramid, cylinder, cube, etc.); appearing in the pulp in a vertical pipeline
(d) determining the loosening factor of the owing to the settlement of heavier fractions.
extracted rock by considering the physical Automatic recorders have been developed
state and quality (moisture content, granu- which record instantaneous and summarized
lometric composition, etc.), time of storage, data on the throughput capacity of a pum-
and the amount of settling; ping station and dredge, pulp density, and
(e) recalculating the volume of loose rock actual time of operation. The error of volume
to that of rock in the rock massif, using the measurements by flow-meters is not more
loosening factor; than 3 per cent.