Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Active Passive
Come to lectures prepared, pay attention, take Just sit in lectures because you have to be
notes, and ask questions. there
Buy new books and do the underlining Buy used books that already have the
yourself. important points underlined.
Take your own lecture notes. Borrow and use lecture notes from someone
who has already taken the class.
Skim assignments first, make up a list of Read assignments just to get them over with.
questions that you would like to answer, and
then read the assignments to answer the
questions.
Study returned tests carefully so that you don't Pay attention only to the grades you earned
make the same mistakes again. on tests when they are returned.
Volunteer to help someone in your class who Don't work any harder than you have to in any
is having a tough time. class.
The idea when using flash cards to study is to use a deck of cards with a question and answer on
opposite sides. You pick up the card from the top, look at the question, and think to yourself: "The
answer is...". Then you turn the card over to see the correct answer. Here's how you do it:
Put the card in one of two decks on the table: The ones you knew, or the ones you didn't
know (or alternatively, if your answer was incorrect you may also put the card right back
to the bottom of the deck you are holding).
When your hand is empty, you pick up the deck with the questions you didn't know, and
start over.
For each time you do that, the "did know" pile on the table will be a little bit bigger.
Finally, when your hand is completely empty, you may simply start all over again. You will
be surprised to see how quickly you learn.
Study Tips
Flash Carding System
Convert summary ruled notes and questions to index cards, question on one side of card,
answer on the other.
Do the same for any "chapter objectives" or "learning objectives" or lecture notes
Encoding - put information into a form you can process easily and at one glance - so keep it
short and precise!
Use pictures/imagery to represent ideas as often as is possible. Pictures are easier to
remember than either words or numbers!
Review all flash cards 5-10 minutes each day. One of the biggest stumbling blocks to
memorization success is failure to do sufficient rehearsal after you first understand a concept.
Essentially, you must commit to memory what you understand so you can recognize, recall,
or apply the information you've studied.
Carry your flash cards with you and study whenever you have the opportunity. Review your
flash card at stoplights; waiting in line at the bank, the grocery store, and the post office...just
anywhere you have some "down" time. You can get in some extra study time this way when
you've got nothing to do but wait in line.
"Chunk" material to be learned. Make sure all material practiced at any one time is concerned
with the same topic. Don't learn lists of "miscellaneous" facts, as they don't have relationships
to each other. Each "chunk" of study material should have its relationships well connected as
in an outline.
Use the method of logic wherever possible. This is sometimes called the "Method of Places."
Separate your pages of notes into smaller sub-sets and place each sub-set in a particular
location around your house or apartment. Try to visualize or picture the notes lying on the
dining room chair and what they contain. Another set is on top of the TV, etc...just all around.
The main idea is to distribute the information physically in a variety of locations and then on
the test you just mentally "walk-through" your house, "picking up the notes" in each location in
sequence. It organizes a series of notes, chains them together in a logical sequence, and
uses imagery (the easiest type of information review). Spend a moment to choose the places
to put them: parts of the arm on a list laid on the armchair, a list of head muscles placed on a
pillow on the bed, back muscles and vertebrae taped to the back of a chair, etc.
Remember to use mnemonics. Mnemonics are memory "tricks", such as rhyme schemes to
help organize information before you attempt to store them in your long-term memory system.
For example, take the first letter of each of several terms to learn and make a word out of
these letters. This will make remembering all the individual terms a snap!
Memorize all flash cards so well that you can recite your entire list of cards perfectly at least
twice. (Three times is even better.) If you merely learn the material so you can repeat the
answer one time, it may be the last time. Further rehearsal is good insurance against "pulling
blanks" on a test.
Keep reviewing mentally as you drive from home to the test. If there's time, review flash cards
before the test. It's okay to review one last time before the test, but keep in mind: "If you don't
know it now, you'll never know it", so don't wait to study till the last minute!
"Primacy and Recency" effects - The first and last items on a list to be memorized are learned
first. The bigger the overall list, the bigger the mid-section becomes and the longer it takes to
learn them. So, break big lists into smaller ones and there will be less of the "middle" of each
list, especially if you restrict your lists to the "Magic 7" rule: 5-9 items long only.
Chunking is a principle that applies to the effective communication of information between human
beings. It is particularly useful in the domain of written communication. It was first put forward in
the 1950s by a Harvard psychologist named George A. Miller. He published a landmark journal
article entitled "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two". Miller studied the short term
memory. For example, how many numbers people could be reliably expected to remember a few
minutes after having been told these numbers only once. The answer was: "The Magical Number
Seven, Plus or Minus Two".
Millers concept goes beyond numbers. For example, most of us can remember about seven
recently learned chunks of similarly classified data.
Written documents
Object, data, functional and dynamic models
Computer programs
Benefits By chunking information the author improves the reader's comprehension and
ability to access and retrieve the information.
Examples No more than nine bullet points on a slide
No more than nine bullet points on a bulleted list - classify the information
into smaller logically related groups and introduce a subheading
No more than nine bubbles on a single data flow diagram - consider
reducing this further if the functions are complex
No more than nine classes in an object model module - consider creation
of more super-classes or a more granular partitioning
No more than nine states in a single state transition diagram - consider
creation of super-states
This principle statement is chunked into 7 units of information. No unit has
more than 6 thoughts or sub-chunks.
The chunking principle requires you to classify the items into groups to
reduce the information overload as follows:
System Concepts
Describe:
Functional Requirements
The missions, features, capabilities and functions of the system
Major system components and interactions
Operational environment including manual procedures required
Operational modes such as production, backup and maintenance
Interfaces with other systems
Non-functional Requirements
Required performance characteristics such as response time, throughput
and data volumes
Quality attributes such as availability, reliability and usability
Other considerations such as security, audit, safety and failure modes in
emergency situations
Remember Success: Recalling past success is just as important as learning from and
overcoming past failures. It doesn't matter who you are, you have succeeded at something at
sometime in your past. Don't gloss over these moments. Use them to remind you that you can in
fact achieve your goals.
The Moment: Remember a time when everything seemed to be going just right? When nothing
could get you down? When you thought to yourself, 'This moment, right now, is what life is all
about.' We all have moments in life when we feel we are at our best, but most people don't utilize
them. Use the special moments in your life to bring to light goals and desires that are sure to fulfill
your needs. Learning from and building on these times will help you create magic moments on a
daily basis for the rest of your life.
Realize the Possibilities: It's possible. Accept the fact that you can create a better life. This will
serve as the springboard of belief you need to succeed.
Get excited about what's to come: You are on your way to getting a passing score on the PMP
Exam! Now is the time to get excited and inspired about what your future holds. Imagine your life
as a certified PMP - now make it happen!
Focus Areas
The following is a list of key concepts that you should understand for the PMP Exam. Refer
back to this list as you highlight key facts, terms, and concepts in the PMBOK Guide 5th Edition.
Understand the PMBOK Guide definition of what a Project is.
Know that projects are temporary, unique, and create a product or service.
Understand the relationships among Portfolios, Programs and Projects.
Be able to define progressive elaboration (as defined by the PMBOK Guide).
Understand what a project deliverable is.
Understand the PMBOK Guide definition of what Project Management is.
Be able to distinguish between Project Work and Operational Work.
Understand the difference between a Program and a Project.
Understand which Stakeholders determine priorities, requirements, constraints, and
assumptions.
Understand how Environment affects a Project.
Know that Projects must operate with the organization structure.
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Understand what a PMO is and does.
Know that the project moves through phases to reach completion.
Know the five process groups and how they interrelate throughout the life cycle.
Understand how data and information is collected, analyzed, transformed, and distributed in
the various processes
Know that the project manager oversees the project work as it moves through phases.
Know that the collection of the project phases is referred to as the project life cycle.
Project life cycles define the beginning, middle, and end of a project.
Know when Projects have a greater risk and uncertainty.
Know when the project is most susceptible to change, failure, and stakeholder influences.
Understand project constraints: scope, quality, schedule, budget, resources, and risks.
Be able to define the ten knowledge areas.
Exam Note:
1. On the exam you won't need to make subjective decisions like which process is the most
important, but rather which activity should the project manager complete next.
2. The PMP exam will focus very little on product-orientated processes and more directly on
project management processes. Focus on the project management processes. Know the five
process groups (IPECC) and how the processes among the groups are interrelated.
3. It will benefit you to memorize Table 3-1, Project Management Process Group and
Knowledge Area Mapping, in the PMBOK Guide, to understand the relationship between
the Process Groups and the Knowledge Areas. .
Projects
Several definitions exist for project. According to the PMBOK Guide A project is a temporary
endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.
1. Temporary endeavor
It has a definite start and end date
The outcomeof a project may last for a long time, but the project itself ultimately
has an end date
Not something you do on an ongoing basis, even though a project may be long
2. Unique product, service or result
Result is unique even though it may be similar to the results of other projects
The outcome of the project (product, service, or result) could be tangible or
intangible
The uniqueness is one reason it is hard to plan and manage projects. You do not
have prior experience on a project exactly like this one. Whichever specific
definition you choose, nearly every project you manage will have many of the
same characteristics. Lets examine some of the most important ones.
At the most basic level, a project is actually the response to a need, the solution to a problem.
Further, its a solution that promises a benefit.
By definition, a project is temporary in nature; that means that it has a specific start and finish. A
project consists of a well-defined collection of work (tasks) and ordinarily culminates in the
creation of an end product or products (deliverables). There will be a preferred sequence of
execution for the projects tasks (the schedule). A project is a unique, one-time undertaking; it will
never again be done exactly the same way, by the same people, and within the same
environment. Youll have to launch your project with limited information or, worse yet,
misinformation. There will always be some uncertainty associated with your project. This
uncertainty represents riskan ever-present threat to your ability to make definitive plans and
predict outcomes with high levels of confidence. All projects consume resourcesresources in
the form of time, money, materials, and labor. One of the primary missions of a project manager
is to serve as the overall steward of these resourcesto apply them as sparingly and as
effectively as possible.
Some examples of projects include:
Developing a new product (or service)
Constructing a building
Implementing a computer application
Project Management
The PMBOK Guide defines project management as . . . the application of knowledge, skills,
tools and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements. Although this definition
may sound pretty straightforward, you will find that the skillful application of those skills, tools, and
techniques will come only after youve had a significant amount of education and on-the-job
experience.
Managing a project (as is stated in 1.3. What is Project Management?) includes:
Identifying requirements
Addressing the various needs, concerns, and expectations of the various stakeholders
Setting up, maintaining, and carrying out communications among stakeholders that are
active, effective, and collaborative in nature
Managing stakeholders toward meeting project requirements and creating project
deliverables
Balancing the competing demands for quality, scope, resources, risk, schedule, and
budget
Problems, needs, and opportunities continually arise in every organization. Problems like low
operational efficiency, needs like additional office space, and opportunities like penetrating a new
product market are just a few of a nearly endless number of situations that management must
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address in the process of operating an organization or company. These problems, needs, and
opportunities give rise to the identification of solutions. Executing those solutions entails a change
for the organization. Projects are generally established to carry out this change and theres
always someone responsible for the successful completion of each project. As the project
manager, you are the primary change agent, and your guide for carrying out the change is the
project management process.
The idea of progressive elaboration is introduced in this section. Progressive elaboration means
that you are continually improving and detailing your plans as more specific and accurate
information becomes available during the project.
Project Manager
The project manager is the person assigned to achieve the project objectives. The role of the
project manager may vary depending on the type of organization that exists in your company
(matrix, projectized, functional explained later). Many of the skills and techniques that a project
manager needs to be successful are specific to the domain of project management. However, the
project manager also needs many general business skills and knowledge of the subject matter of
the project.
Exam Note: The project manager is a professional in PMIs eyes. That means that the project
manager has a responsibility to have a good education, a good understanding of the practice,
and experience in the respective field. The PM will play a series of roles: project manager,
integrator, communicator, team leader, decision maker, etc.
Business Value
Business value is unique to each organization and includes both tangible and intangible
elements. Tangible value could include assets, equity, and fixtures. Intangible elements could
include brand recognition, trademarks, and goodwill. The business value is derived from tangible
and intangible elements and reflects how the business operates. This includes the management
of portfolios, programs, projects, and operations. Ensuring these activities align with strategic
objectives, and investing in effective management of these activities, provides a means for the
organization to attain business value realization.
1. Progressive elaboration means that you keep creating, modifying, and building up the
necessary components of your project in an organized way in order to achieve the
project's specific outcome/deliverable.
2. You should be familiar with the difference between a project, program, and portfolio.
Programs are larger in scope than projects and comprise several interrelated projects.
Also, programs usually last longer than projects and often have a much less definite end
point in mind. Portfolio refers to a collection of projects or programs and other work that
are grouped together.
3. Know the relationships between portfolio management, program management, project
management and organizational management and the role of the PMO. It is also
important to know the different types of PMOs and their degree of control.
4. Be familiar with what business value is and how it is derived in an organization, especially
with how projects align with the business strategies, objectives, and direction.
5. Understand the responsibilities and competencies of the project manager and the skills
needed to effectively manage a project. Although not detailed in this section, be familiar
with Appendix X3 and the Interpersonal Skills of a Project Manager. Take particular
notice of the sections on Trust Building, Conflict Management, and Coaching.
Focus Areas
The following is a list of key concepts that you should understand for the PMP Exam. Refer
back to this list as you highlight key facts, terms, and concepts as you read through the PMBOK
Guide Edition.
Know the difference between project management and life cycle frameworks
Know the difference between projects and operations
Understand how the different cultures and styles in the organizations environment influence
the project
Understand who stakeholders are, and some of the common ones that are associated with a
project
Understand the three basic organization structures and how they impact project execution.
Be familiar with the different project life cycles and when they can be applied
This traditional structure groups people by specialization (for example, marketing, contracting,
accounting, and so on). The project manager has no formal authority over project resources and
must rely on the informal power structure and his or her own interpersonal skills to obtain
resource commitments from functional managers. Conflicts tend to develop over the relative
priorities of various projects competing for limited resources.
There are three versions of the matrix organization depending on the relative power between the
functional managers and the project manager.
Weak Matrix
In a weak matrix, the balance of power leans toward the functional manager rather than the
project manager. That is workers administrative relationships, physical proximity, and relative
time expenditures favor the functional manager. It is harder for a project manager to work in this
structure since he has less formal power. The project manager in this structure is generally more
of a project coordinator.
For example, if a functional organization initiates a project that would be executed more efficiently
if the project organization was more matrix-based or projectized then the solution would be to
staff it accordingly. The project manager would then interact at all levels of the organization (i.e.
strategic, middle and operational) to execute the project work.
This structure can also be characterized in an organization where there is a strong PMO
(Directive). Ultimately the project characteristics demand interaction across many levels. Some of
these characteristics are, but not limited to:
Project manager level of authority
Life cycles are usually divided into project phases. Phases improve control and link the project
with the ongoing operations. Each project phase completion is marked by one or more
deliverables and their review. A project may consist of one phase although typically a project
consists of all of the phases required to start and complete the project. At the end of each phase
is an end-of-phase review to validate:
Acceptance of the work previously completed
Determination if there is any extra work required to close the prior phase
A validation to either move to the next project phase or to cancel the project.
Usually, deliverables of a phase (outputs) are used as inputs to the next phase.
Cost of staffing a project generally reaches the peak of the way to completion.
Focus Areas
The following is a list of key concepts that you should understand for the PMP Exam. Refer back
to this list as you highlight key facts, terms and concepts as you read through the PMBOK
Guide.
You should be able to look at each process group and identify the processes used in each
group. Many people think it is important to memorize this relationship (as well as the process
Knowledge Area relationship). The question is one of priority. There will probably be some
questions where it is important to know the relationships between processes/process
groups/Knowledge Areas. If you do not memorize the relationships you will probably still get
many of these right. If you can memorize the relationship you have a better chance to get
more of them right.
The process groups are not project phases. Process groups are a way to categorize the
project management processes. Phases are ways to decompose the work in the project life
cycle.
The process groups do not occur sequentially, although generally initiation comes first,
followed by planning, with closing comes at the end. However, the Planning process group,
The Initiating Process Group includes those processes necessary for formally authorizing the
beginning of a new project, or to start a new phase of an existing project. The processes for
developing the Project Charter and initial project scope statement occur in the Initiating Process
Group.
As you study the Initiate Process Group, you will notice that the subject matter is specific in what
occurs and what is not included:
The business case assessment, approval and funding are handled external to the project
boundaries. Project boundaries are the point in time that a project or project phase has
been authorized to complete.
Initial scope is defined and initial financial resources are committed.
The project manager is selected and the project management team can help write the
project charter.
Stakeholders are identified and their expectations are aligned to the purpose of the
project and give them visibility of the scope and objectives. They should also be involved
to create this shared understanding.
The Initiating process can occur at both the beginning of a project or the beginning of a
phase.
Initiating processes can be performed at any level (i.e. organization, program, or portfolio)
and would be outside of the projects control.
The major project document from the Initiating process group is the project charter. The charter
is the initial document that describes the project at a high level and formally authorizes the
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project. PMI requires that a Project Charter be created and accepted before a project is
considered official. It is important to know that the project manager is assigned or selected in
Initiating. and can actually create the project charter.
The Planning Process Group includes those processes that establish the total scope of effort,
define and refine project objectives, and develop the course of action to attain them. All
Knowledge Areas have processes to create individual plans that are included in the Project
Management Plan, and identify and schedule the project activities.
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As you study the Planning Process Group, you will notice that the subject matter is specific in
helping you reach these determinations:
The Executing Process Group consists of those processes necessary for completing the work
outlined in the Project Management Plan to satisfy the project specifications. The process for
directing and managing project work, which ensures that the Project Management Plan is
implemented properly, occurs in the Executing Process Group.
As you study the Executing Process Group, you will notice that the subject matter is specific in
helping you reach these determinations:
The Executing Process Groups function is to coordinate people and resources to complete
project work as outlined in the Project Management Plan and to meet project objectives.
According to the PMBOK, the executing process group contains processes performed to
complete the work defined in the Project Management Plan to accomplish the projects objectives
in the Project Scope Statement.
The Monitoring and Controlling Process Group includes the processes for tracking and reviewing
progress and coordinating the progress and performance of the project. In essence, it monitors
the project work and controls changes along with recommending corrective or preventive action
to either bring the project back into compliance with the project plan or to circumvent problems
These processes provide a means to monitor project health and also point out areas that require
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more investigation. The processes for monitoring and controlling project work and implementing
integrated change control occur in the Monitor and Control Process Group.
As you study the Monitor and Control Process Group, you will notice that the subject matter is
specific in helping you reach these determinations:
Project control refers to all the activities and processes available to successfully manage project
risks. In essence, project control is all the effective activities that the project manager performs to
keep project performance and resource utilization at optimal levels. The magnitude and frequency
of these activities are dictated by the size and organizational impact of the project.
The Closing Process group consists of those processes necessary for officially ending project
activities and handing off the completed product to others. This also includes closing a project
that has been canceled. In the PMBOK Guide, this closing process also covers end of phase
activities as well.
As you study the Closing Process Group, you will notice that the subject matter is specific in
helping you reach these determinations:
Project closing is where you officially end a project phase or the project itself; release all the
resources that were assigned to your project, and build reference material for new projects.
Project Information
This section focuses on how project data and information changes throughout the lifecycle of the
project and terms and definitions. This aligns with the DIKW (Data, Information, Knowledge and
Wisdom) model used in the field of Knowledge Management. You will notice that there are three
distinct inputs and outputs used in the processes. They each serve a different purpose depending
on the Process Group in which they are collected:
Work performance data: This is the raw data identified when project activities are
performed. This data has not undergone any changes and is collected in the Execution
processes. For example: percent of work completed, performance measures, change
requests.
Work performance information: This includes any performance information collected
and analyzed in the Controlling processes. Some of this information is used to provide
awareness of project work. For example: status of deliverables,change requests and,
forecasts.
Work performance reports: This includes any representation of how work is being
performed. It can take the form of physical reports or electronic representation of reports.
This information is used to make decisions, raise issues or take actions For example:
status reports, memos or, dashboards.
It is important to know how project information flows across the various processes within the
process groups. Figure 3-5 depicts the flow of information and how it aligns in the DIKW model:
Exam Note: Know the components of the Project Charter noted above. Additionally, know the
following key points:
It is the document that formally authorizes a project
Provides authority to the project manager
It is created and signed by a sponsor or initiator with the authority to authorize and fund
the project
Prior to the Project Manager being assigned to a project, the sponsor or initiator justifies the
project by creating a business case which includes business need (e.g. market demand,
customer request, legal requirement) and project selection method(s). The project selection
method(s) could be in some form of a cost-benefit analysis. It should also align with the
organizations strategy.
Once the project manager is assigned to the project, one of the first things that should be done is
to perform an assessment on current environment with the sponsor, customer and other subject
matter experts. This review is intended to validate the business case along with identifying and
documenting high-level risks, assumptions, and constraints. This will help in the evaluation of the
feasibility of products, services or results within these aspects of the project. It will also provide
the project manager with the ability to identify limitations of the project and propose an
implementation approach.
The project manager can also be assigned to actually create the Project Charter if the sponsor or
initiator delegates this work to them.
The major deliverable of this process is, of course, Project Charter and it is a cornerstone of the
project. It identifies the product, service or result, documents the business need and contains
some high level measurements (e.g. objectives, success criteria).
The approval of the Project Charter, signified by the Initiators signature, formally authorizes the
project and, most importantly, assigns authority to the project manager. This provides the project
manager with the ability to begin utilizing resources on the project to create the product, service
or result.
These smallest tasks, called work packages, must be identified as manageable units that can be
planned, budgeted, scheduled, and controlled. The WBS indicates the relationship of the
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organizational structure to the project objectives and tasks, and so provides a firm basis for
planning and controlling the project.
WBS should not be confused with:
Organizational breakdown structure
Bill of Materials
Risk breakdown structure
Resource breakdown structure
Decomposition
Decomposition is the process of breaking the deliverables into smaller, more manageable
components, or work packages.
Expert Judgment
It is likely that the project team does not fully understand the nature of all deliverables that are
built far in the future. In that case it is not possible to identify the work packages. These
deliverables and work packages need to be defined further as the project progresses. This
technique of building some deliverables while continuing to plan for others in the future is called
rolling wave planning.
WBS Dictionary
The WBS Dictionary is a document generated as part of creating a WBS. The dictionary includes
the account identifier, statement of work, responsible organization and a list of scheduled
milestones along with other pertinent information. As the WBS is a hierarchical diagram of the
project work packages, the dictionary provides additional detail information to help everyone
better understand each component in the WBS.
Exam Notes:
You should know all the benefits and uses of the WBS. Most importantly, you should
know that a work breakdown structure is a decomposition of the project work that has to
be done.
Remember that the WBS contributes to customer communication.
Collect Requirements
Create WBS
Validate Scope
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Sequence Activities
Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM)
PDM is also referred to as Activity-on-Node (AON). The PDM puts the activities in boxes, called
nodes, and connects the boxes with arrows. The arrows represent the relationship and the
dependencies of the work packages.
Example:
Exam Note: You will be asked to evaluate the scheduling impact to changes in start or end
dates. The overall impact to the project depends on the type of relationship between activities.
Take the time to really understand the question being asked, before you draw any diagrams.
Dependencies - (PMBOK Guide Section 6.3.2.2)
Mandatory dependencies: Often involve physical or technological limitations of the
work; for example, a prototype must be built before it can be tested
Discretionary dependencies: Also referred to as preferred logic, preferential logic
or soft logic and are based on knowledge of best practices within a particular
application area.
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External dependencies: Any input that is needed from another project or source
outside the project team. The project team usually has no control over these
dependencies.
Internal dependencies: This type of dependency involves a relationship between
activities within the project that the team has some level of control.
Leads & Lags - Refer to PMBOK Guide pp. 158 - 159
Lead - allows an acceleration of the successor activity
Lag - directs a delay in the successor activity
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Estimate Activity Resources
This is the process for estimating how many and what kind of resources are needed to perform
the schedule activity and takes place before the Estimate Activity Durations and Develop
Schedule processes. The project manager must have a good idea of the quantity and type of
resources needed for each activity and should consider some important questions when thinking
through these resource needs:
How difficult will it be to complete specific activities on this project?
What is the organizations history in doing similar activities?
Are the required resources available?
Once these questions are thought through, the project manager can then determine the types of
resources (people, equipment, materials) needed in order to create:
Detailed description of each resource:
o People - qualifications, expertise, etc.
o Equipment and material - technical specs, quantities
Information for HR and Procurement
Indication on how to acquire resources (e.g. make-or-buy, in-house or outsourcing)
This is especially important for complex projects, requiring multidisciplinary teams and various
technical processes and resources (e.g. System Integration projects). It is a first step in saving
costs since it helps verify the WBS and Activity List and provides the big picture of ALL
resources, not only human resources (these are addressed in the Staffing Management Plan).
The Activity Resource Requirements also are important to other Planning processes like Human
Resource Planning.
There are several tools and techniques used in estimating resource needs to complete the project
work. Be familiar with them and understand that one or more of these can be utilized:
Expert Judgment: Used when specialized knowledge is required
Alternative Analysis: Used when there are different options can be employed. For
example a make, rent, or buy option could yield utilization of Procurement processes
Published Estimating Data: Used when industry based knowledge is available
Bottom-Up Estimating: Used when a more confident estimate is required. This
technique decomposes activities to a reasonable degree of confidence and then is
aggregated to a higher level. The WBS can serve as a means to perform the estimates
Project Management Software: Used when project management software is available
that contains some basic elements for the estimates (e.g. resource breakdown
structures, resource availability and rates, resource calendars)
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Estimate Activity Durations
This process utilizes many tools and techniques to create estimates that are as accurate as
possible for the defined project activities. It takes the activities and resources and determines the
number of work periods for each individual activity to be completed. The project manager can rely
on a number of estimating methods to come to a predicted duration for activities. This process
creates the major inputs needed in the Develop Schedule process (Activity Resource
Requirements and Resource Breakdown Structure).
Expert Judgment
This method is used when the project manager does not have the expertise or prior knowledge to
accurately estimate an activity. An expert, a person who has specialized knowledge or has
performed this type of work many times, is asked to provide estimates. This method will improve
the accuracy of the activity estimate.
Analogous Estimates
Analogous estimating means that you use the actual time frame from a pervious, similar project
as the basis for estimating the time frame for the current project. The underlying premise is that
this project is analogous to that project. Because we know how long that project took, we can
estimate how long this project will take. Analogous estimating is used when little information is
known about the current project or when two projects appear similar. Of course, if they appear
similar but, in fact, are not, the estimate is inaccurate. Analogous estimation is good for ball-park
figures but not for precise estimations of a project or timeline development
Parametric Estimating
Parametric modeling involves using variables from the project description in a mathematical
formula to develop an estimate. For example, if you know the number of units that will be involved
and how long it takes to create one unit, you can estimate the amount of time it takes to create
1000 units. If it takes your team 10 minutes a unit and you need 1000 units then it will take 10,000
minutes, which is 167 hours or a little over four weeks for development. The formula is simple: the
number of units multiplied by the amount of time each unit takes to create equals the total amount
of effort needed for development.
Three Points estimating
It makes sense in the real world that you do not really know how long a particular activity will take,
especially with certain activities such as research and development. In this case, we can look at
the project completion time in a probabilistic fashion and for each activity we can define:
1. Optimistic time estimate: an estimate of the minimum time an activity will require.
2. Most likely time estimate: an estimate of the normal time an activity will require.
3. Pessimistic time estimate: an estimate of the maximum time an activity will require.
Project managers can use three-point estimating to gain a greater degree of control over how the
end value is calculated
There are two types of three-point estimating:
Triangular Distribution: Yields an average of the three points: (O+M+P) / 3
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Beta Distribution (traditional PERT); Yields an average weighted towards the Most Likely
Estimate: (O + 4M + P) / 6
Group Decision Making Techniques
There are several techniques that are included in this category and they are based upon team-
based approaches. There are several reasons for employing this method, one of which provides
team building efforts to getting more commitment to the estimates and the project work:
Delphi: Utilizes a group of experts to reach a consensus. The key to this technique is that
the information is gathered anonymously from these experts to prevent the estimate from
being influenced
Brainstorming: Bringing the project team together to explore all available options. There
is no judgment of the contributions and is a forum for creativity
Nominal Group: Brainstorming (sometimes performed anonymously within the group) that
also ranks options through a voting process for additional brainstorming.
Reserve Analysis
This is used by the project manager as a buffer for schedule risk. It is also referred to as
contingency. This can be calculated as a percentage of schedule activity or a fixed lump sum. It
can also be calculated through quantitative risk analysis if it is intended to address specific risk
concerns.
Effort is the number of workdays or work hours required to complete a task. Effort does not
normally equal duration. People doing the work should help create estimates, and the PM should
review them. Duration estimating is assessing the number of work periods (hours, days, weeks,)
likely to be needed to complete each activity. Duration estimates always include some indication
of the range of possible results, for example, 2 weeks + or 2 days or 85% probability that the
activity will take less than 3 weeks. Estimate Activity Durations:
Perform reality checks on schedules.
Allow for contingencies.
Dont plan for everyone to work at 100 percent capacity all the time.
Hold progress meetings with stakeholders and be clear and honest in communicating
schedule issues.
Goals are to know the status of the schedule, influence factors that cause schedule
changes, determine that the schedule has changed, and manage changes when they
occur.
Exam Note: On the exam, anticipate a number of questions that are going to come up in terms of
durations, resources, and their level of productivity. Some questions may even ask about how
well people work on a given activity. For example, if you have a 10-hour activity and you have two
resources assigned to that activity, what is the elapsed time assuming 100% productivity of each
of the resources? The answer to this type of question is very dependent on the context of the
question (the way it is written). For this question, the answer is two resources, 10 hours, 100%
productivity. You can say it is going to take 5 elapsed hours to get that task accomplished
because it is going to have two people working on it, 5 hours apiece, to accomplish 10 hours
worth of effort for that given activity.
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However, lets look at it from a different perspective. Suppose they are only available 50% of their
time. If they are only available 50% of their time on a given day, then it is going to take you a
grand total of 10 elapsed hours. Why? They are each only giving 50% of their time. Thus, it is
going to take a full 10 hours to get that same activity accomplished. What if their productivity is
lower? Suppose they are only 50% productive and they only afford you 50% of their availability.
Well, if they are only 50% productive, that means they are half as productive as the people who
normally do this work, and it also means that you are only getting half of their time to begin with,
so instead, your elapsed time is going to creep out to 20 hours. You need to be prepared to take
all those parameters into account when it comes to estimating durations. You need to be thinking
through them.
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Develop Schedule
Developing project schedules is an iterative process that uses many tools and techniques to
determine start and finish dates for project activities, milestones and the overall project schedule.
Once the activities are defined (Define Activities), sequenced (Sequence Activities), and
resourced (Estimate Activity Resources), the activity durations can be estimated (Estimate
Activity Durations) and then the schedule can be developed. The concept of Critical Path and
how to derive it becomes an important topic to understand. The Precedence Diagramming
Method (PDM) diagramming technique introduced in the Sequence Activities process will be used
to determine Critical Path. Critical Path and how to manage your schedule using it is the most
important concept in this process.
Develop Schedule occurs throughout the project. As the project changes over time, the
techniques and tools that are used to create the schedule will also be used to revise it. For
example, if there is a change in scope (with the sponsor approving the change, of course!) the
new activit(ies) must go through the same processes: definition, sequencing and estimating
(resource and duration). Once these processes have been utilized, these activities must be
added into the current schedule. This is accomplished by adjusting the schedule using the same
tools and techniques when it was first created.
Review the Critical Path module and practice the exercises several times so that you are very
familiar with how to determine critical path and float. Any questions on the exam that address
critical path will require you to first build a network diagram or refer to a network diagram
to determine float and identify the critical path. If you draw an incorrect network diagram or make
a mistake determining float you could get several answers wrong.
Critical Path
The critical path is the longest path to completion in the network diagram. Activities on the critical
path have no Slack or Float. The Project Time Management questions on the exam focus
heavily on critical path method (CPM), and PDM diagramming method.
Critical path refers to the sequence of activities that must be completed on schedule for the entire
project to be completed on schedule. In other words, if the end date for the project has slipped, it
is because at least one activity on the critical path did not complete on time. It is important to
understand the critical path sequence to know where you have schedule flexibility and where you
do not. For instance, you may have a whole series of activities that end up running late, yet the
overall project will still complete on time, because this series is on a non-critical path. On the
other hand, all of your activities may be proceeding on schedule - except one. If that one activity
is on the critical path, the entire project will start to fall behind schedule. If your project is falling
behind, placing additional resources on non-critical activities will not result in the overall project
completing earlier.
Critical Path Method - (Refer to Section 6.6.2.2 in the PMBOK Guide, pp. 176 - 177)
This is the most common approach to calculating when a project may finish. It uses a forward
and backward pass to reveal which activities are considered critical. The critical path is used to
determine which activities have no Float (Slack). Activities on the critical path may not be
delayed; otherwise, the project end date will be pushed out.
Calculating the Critical Path
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There is a manual method for calculating the critical path by looking at the earliest start and end
dates for every activity starting at the beginning of a project. This is followed by starting at the end
of the project and going backward, looking at the latest possible start and end dates for each
activity that will allow the project to still complete on time. The difference between the earliest day
an activity can start and the latest day it can start (and still finish on schedule) is the activity float.
Once you have done this for all activities, look for the sequence of activities from start to end that
have zero float. This is the critical path.
Determining the Critical Path
When determining critical path, first identify all of the network paths in a network diagram.
Remember the definition for a network path:
Any continuous series of schedule activities connected with logical relationships in a project
schedule network diagram.
Once you have identified all of the network paths, use the Forward Pass and Backward Pass
techniques to determine the Early Start, Early Finish, Late Start and Late Finish dates of the
activities in each network path.
Forward Pass
This is done by taking the early finish of the previous activity as the start date in the activity you
are working with. Add the duration to this date to determine the early finish: Early Finish (EF) =
Early Start (ES) + Duration. Look at the following example:
1 5 5 8 ___ ___
___ ___
0 1
2 days
1 day
1 6 ___ ___
5 days 6 days
Take a look at the top network path. The second task starts on Day 1 and finishes on Day 5. The
successor task would then start on Day 5 and finish on Day 8. Complete the Early Start and
Finish Dates up until the last task.
When you have a task that has multiple predecessors (also known as path convergence),
always take the latest Early Finish from the predecessors as its Early Start. This makes
sense if you have a Finish to Start relationship. You cannot start the succeeding task until all the
work is completed from the predecessor tasks. See the solution
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below: 1 5 5 8 8 9
12 14
0 1
1 day 2 days
1 6 6 12
5 days 6 days
Backward Pass
This technique is simply the reverse of the Forward Pass. Start with the last activity and record
them at the bottom of the activity node. These now become the Late Start and Late Finish days.
Then move backwards along each network path subtracting the duration from the Late Finish to
calculate the Late Start days. Late Start (LS) = Late Finish (LF) Duration. See the example
below: 1 5 5 8 8 9
1 day 2 days
12 14
1 6 6 12
5 days 6 days
1 6 6 12
When you get to an activity that has multiple successors (also known as path divergence), you
will need to take the earliest late start from the successors as the late finish of the
predecessor task. So in this example the Late Finish of the first activity would be Day 1 and the
Late Start would be Day 0.
Fortunately, all project management software packages will calculate the critical path for you. All
medium to large projects need to use a tool to manage the work plan. Take advantage of this
automatic feature. For a small project, there may only be one major sequence of activities, and it
should be easy to identify.
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Determining Total Float
This is simply subtracting the Early Finish from the Late Finish for each activity or the Early Start
from the Late Start. In the case of the example above, the activities on the bottom network path
have no float. The activities on the top network path have a float of 3 days each. What this means
is that if any of the activities on the top network path are delayed more than 3 days, it will delay
the successor activities. Since the bottom network path has no float it is considered a critical path.
Total Float vs. Free Float
There are two terms pertaining to float you should be familiar with: total float and free float.
Basically, total float belongs to the path and free float belongs to the activity.
Total float refers to the amount of time that a schedule activity on a network path can be delayed
without delaying the project finish date. Total float is calculated along each network path without
taking into account project divergence (multiple successors) or project convergence (multiple
predecessors). In fact, as the float is determined for each activity on a network path you will
notice they all have the same amount of float. If an activity is delayed on a network path, it will
reduce the total float for the remainder of the activities on that network path. The exception to
this, of course, is the critical path which has no float.
For example, take a look at the network paths above. If the first activity takes 5 days rather than
the estimated 4 days, the next activity cannot start until day 6 which reduces the total float to 2
days rather than 3. The same holds true for the next activity. It cant start until day 9 which
reduces the total float for that activity to 2 days. Although it will not affect the overall schedule, it
does affect the amount of schedule flexibility for that particular path.
Free float is a term that is applied to individual activities in respect to successor activities. It refers
to the amount of float in an activity before it delays the early start date of the next activity. Take a
look at the following example:
Activity B has two successors: D and E. If activity B is delayed by one day this will not affect the
early start date of activity E which is 15. However, this will affect the early start date of activity D
which is 12. In this example, activity B has zero free float although it may belong to a path that
has total float of greater than zero.
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For each network path identified, calculate the length of the network path by totaling the durations
for each activity in the network path.
Network paths
Start A B D Finish = 7+5+4 = 16
Start A B E Finish = 7+5+10 = 22
Start B D Finish = 5+4 = 9
Start B E Finish = 5+10 = 15
Start C F E Finish = 11+4+10 = 25
The longest network path is the critical path. In this example, the critical path is Start C F
E Finish and the project duration is 25 days.
Now you can answer the question of total float. This could be determined with the forward and
backward pass, and then subtracting early finish from late finish or early start from late start.
Or you can use the shortcut method by subtracting the longest network path lengths from the
length of the critical path.
For example, lets take activity A which is in two network paths; one for a length of 16 and the
other a length of 22. The longest network path, of course, is length of 22. We have already
determined that the critical path has a length of 25. The float for A is calculated by subtracting the
length of its longest network path (22) from the critical path (25). Activity A has a float of 3 (25
22) not 9 (25 16). This method will save you a lot of time on the exam.
Using this method for all activities, total float is:
A=3
B = 3 (not 9 or 16)
C = 0 (it is on the critical path)
D = 9 (not 16)
E=0
F=0
For comparison, try the previous example with the forward/backward pass method and compare
the results.
However, this network diagram has activities with multiple predecessor and successor activities.
This is where Free Float can be helpful. Remember that Free Float represents the amount of time
an activity can be delayed without delaying the early start date of any immediately following
activities. Lets take another look at this diagram with the early start and finish dates calculated:
Calculating Free Float for these activities yields these results:
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Based on these calculations, the only activity that has any Free Float is Activity D. On the surface
this looks to be in contradiction with the Total Float for the paths. Take a closer look at B, which is
on four of the network paths. For network path 4 (Start -> B -> E -> Finish) it could technically be
delayed by three days and not affect the early start date of activity E. However, that would affect
the early start date of D which is on network path 3 (Start -> B -> D -> Finish).
What this example demonstrates is that it is important to know how much Total Float there is on
each path but on a more discrete level (Free Float), understand how a delayed activity could
affect dependent activities.
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Critical Chain Method
This method is used when a project has limited or finite resources. If resources are always
available in unlimited quantities, then a project's critical chain is identical to its critical path.
Critical chain is used as an alternative to critical path analysis. The main difference between
critical chain and critical path is that the schedule is dependent on activity resources rather than
the activities themselves.
After the initial schedule is created and a critical path is determined, resources are entered.
If limited resources are utilized the critical path will change. The project manager can then include
non-work duration buffers to the schedule which allows the project manager to maintain focus on
planned durations.
There are several types of buffers that can be used in the schedule for this method, for example:
Project buffer
Feeding buffers
Resource buffers.
Resource Optimization Techniques
These techniques are used to take into account schedule demand according to resource supply.
Each of these techniques takes into consideration either a schedule or resource constraint.
Resource Leveling
This technique adjusts schedule start and finish dates because of resource constraints. The main
goal is to balance resource supply at a constant level to prevent over and under allocation. By
balancing the resource supply over the schedule the network path durations may change and the
critical path could be lengthened or a non-critical path could then become a critical path. The
schedule in this technique is not as important as balancing the resource supply.
For example, if as a result of resource assignments to activities there is a resource working more
than the amount of work hours in a day. Resource leveling would reallocate their assignments to
ensure they would only be working a regular work day.
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Resource Smoothing
This technique takes into account schedule constraints over resource constraints. Although
optimal resource allocation is important, this technique may allow for activities to run in parallel if
resources are available to perform the work. The critical path is not delayed when utilizing this
technique nor is the completion date compromised. Float (free or total) will be utilized if it is
available. In some cases, not all resources will be optimized, especially if they are working on
critical path activities.
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Schedule Compression
The exam also contains questions asking you to perform some scheduling exercises. Some
questions will focus on fast-tracking and crashing as methods to accelerate the project
schedule.
Schedule compression is applied to reduce the length of the project or to account for project
delays.
Crashing adds resources to project activities and usually increases cost.
Fast Tracking allows activities to happen in tandem and usually increases risk.
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Fast-tracking
Fast tracking involves analyzing the critical path to see which activities could be done in parallel
(as opposed to sequential execution). It also involves more aggressive use of such PDM activity
relationships such as start to start so that subsequent activities can begin before the prior activity
has been completed. This overlapping also reduces the length of the project schedule.
Exam Note: Fast Tracking can introduce risk for several reasons. One would be re-work if the
predecessor activity uncovers additional work for the successor activity. Another is the fact that it
will require greater coordination to monitor and control multiple, concurrent activities.
Exam Note: Time has the least amount of flexibility; it passes no matter what happens on a
project.
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Bar chart (Gantt Chart)
Weak planning tool but effective progress reporting tool
No logical relationships between or among activities
Milestone Chart
Shows significant events on the project
Good for communicating status with customers and upper management
Exam Note: milestones have zero duration. Milestone charts are good for the high-level
perspective. They show significant events.
Project schedule network diagrams
Representation of how project activities and events are related and are represented in PDM or
Activity on Node diagrams
Identifies critical path, project duration, and activity sequences
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Exam Note: These Schedule Development Outputs give you a sense of the relationships
between activities, which ones come first, how they interact and how they are related. Networks
also give you the critical path.
Exam Note: The Primary outputs of this process group are the Project Schedule and Schedule
Baseline
Project Time Calculations
A project is made up of a set of distinct activities, smaller tasks that, when all are completed, will
also mean the project is completed. Some activities cannot be started until other activities are
finished; this is called precedence.
The first step toward analyzing project time is to draw a network, a series of arrows and circles or
squares that provide a picture of the activities and the order in which they must be completed. A
circle or square is called a node and marks an event, such as the beginning of the project and the
initial activities, the end of the project with all final activities, or the end of one activity and the
immediate start of a subsequent activity. Two important points:
A network diagram always begins with a node (circle or square), and
A network diagram always ends with a single node (circle or square).
So, the first information you need about a project is the complete list of the activities that must be
completed and the precedence relationships, which tell you which activities must be done
before each activity can begin. For this activity, that information will be given to you:
Activity Duration Dependency
Start
A 7 Start
B 5 Start, A
C 11 Start
D 4 B
E 10 B, F
F 4 C
Finish D, E
Things to note about the precedence list: some activities have no predecessors, some
activities have more than one predecessor, and a single activity can precede more than one
activity.
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The first step in creating the project schedule network diagram is to draw the Start node on the
left:
Start
Next, follow down each activity in the chart, placing the activity in the chart and drawing in the
arrows to show its relationships to other activities already depicted in the chart. The next activity
is A, so we will add A into the project schedule network diagram. From the information for A, it is
dependent on Start, so A will be added with an arrow from Start to A.
Start
For B, we see that it is dependent on both Start and A, which means that there will be two arrows
into activity B, one arrow from Start to B and the other from A to B.
Start B
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A
Start B
A D
Start B
Activity E has two predecessors, B and F. Although we do not know the predecessor for Activity F
yet, we will add it into the project schedule network diagram to depict its relationship to Activity E.
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A D
Start B E
C F
Now we get to Activity F in our chart and we note that C is its predecessor.
A D
Start B E
C F
Finally, we are at the Finish, and we will depict Activities D and E as the predecessors to Finish.
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A D
Start B E Finish
C F
We have completed drawing the project schedule network diagram. Note that sometimes you will
need to draw this for this exam and sometimes it may be provided.
The next step is to determine the network paths in our project schedule network diagram, so
ultimately we can determine the critical path and the float. To determine the network paths, it is
best to start at the left and the top, and work your way through all network paths. The more
network paths and the more complexity to the network diagram, the easier it can be to overlook a
network path. This can cause you to answer questions incorrectly if you have not identified all of
the network paths in the network diagram.
Starting at the left (Start) and the top (Start A), we have the first network path of
Start A B D Finish
Continuing left and top, follow Start A B and we see a second network path from here with
Activity E:
Start A B E Finish
There are no additional network paths from Start A so look at Start B. The network path from
Start B are:
Start B D Finish
Start B E Finish
Lastly we have one network path from Start C:
Start C F E Finish
Therefore there are five total network paths in this project schedule network diagram.
To calculate the length of each network path and determine the critical path, you can perform a
forward and backward pass as described above, under Critical Path method. However, on the
exam, there will not be enough time and there is a short cut that will provide you with this
information.
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Control Schedule
From a time management point of view, time control or project control is about the schedule
baseline and any changes that might occur. The schedule baseline is the original, approved
project schedule and becomes the standard used to measure schedule performance. Schedule
control is concerned with:
Determining the current status of the project schedule
Influencing the factors that create schedule changes
Determining that the project schedule has changed
Managing the actual changes as they occur
Control schedule is a portion of the Integrated Change Control process
Control schedule control is primarily about measurement and reporting. Control is governed by
the baseline. You use a schedule baseline, you establish that baseline, and that is the original
approved project schedule. Any variance to that schedule is going to be reflected against that
schedule. Any change requests are going to be evaluated against that original baseline.
Exam Note: Heuristic Scheduling (Rule of Thumb) - Heuristics are rules of thumb or
guidelines that have been learned through experience and "trial and error." An example of a
heuristic is the PERT process, which has modified some statistical approaches to create a
simpler but useful scheduling process; for example, the PERT formula for standard deviation is a
heuristic (simple to use but yields good results).
Tools and techniques include:
Performance reviews, comparing and analyzing schedule performance against the
plan (SV, SPI).
Project management software, including schedule comparison charts, such as the
tracking Gantt chart.
Variance analyses, such as analyzing float or slack and understanding the cause and
degree of the variance.
Resource leveling, resource smoothing to optimize the distribution of resources
What-if analysis, to review various scenarios for how to bring the schedule in
alignment with the plan
Adjusting leads and lags to bring the schedule in alignment with the plan
Schedule compression to accelerate activities that are behind to bring the overall
schedule in alignment with the plan
Scheduling tool, enabling schedule network analysis to review an updated project
schedule (and updates to the critical path(s))
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Time Inputs, Tools/Techniques, Outputs
Plan Schedule Management
Define Activities
Sequence Activities
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Estimate Activity Resources
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Estimate Activity Durations
Develop Schedule
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Control Schedule
Recommendation: Also use both Mind Mapping and Memorization flashcards for each set of
Inputs, Tools/Techniques, Outputs.
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