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INTRODUCTION
PAVEMENT
Highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and
processed materials whose primary function is to transmit loads to the sub-base and
underlying soil. It is a structure which separates the tires of vehicles from the under lying
foundation.
TYPES OF PAVEMENT
1. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Flexible pavement consists of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous material and
aggregates placed on compacted granular material in layers over the sub-grade. A flexible
pavement distributes load to the sub-grade and depends on aggregate interlocking, particle
friction and cohesion.
STRUCTURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
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iv. SUB-GRADE
The sub-grade is the material upon which the pavement structure is placed. It
provides support to the overlying structure. If it is of good quality then base course can be
laid after its compaction without providing sub-base otherwise if it is poor then a sub-base
layer should be included.
2. RIGID PAVEMENT
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs.
Rigid pavements are those, which reduces the stress concentration and distributes the
reduced stresses uniformly to the area under the slab. Rigid pavements contain sufficient
strength to be able for sub-grade failures and areas of insufficient support.
STRUCTURE OF RIGID PAVEMENT
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STRESS CONSIDERATIONS
Different types of stresses tend to result in deformation of the concrete slab which
causes tensile, compressive and flexural stresses of varying magnitude. The main stresses
in rigid pavements are:
i. WHEEL LOAD STRESSES
Stresses in concrete pavements vary with position of the wheels at any given time.
Therefore, each slab should be analyzed at all points and most severe stresses evaluated
are used for design purpose. Westergaard examined three critical conditions of loading i.e.:
Corners (Tension at the top)
Edges (Tension at the bottom)
Interior of the Slab (Tension at the bottom)
ii. TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE STRESSES
If a pavement slab is subjected to temperature gradient through its depth, its surface
will tend to deform. The tendency to deform is restrained by the weight of slab itself. These
stresses develop due to differential changes in the top and bottom surfaces of the slab.
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2. SECONDARY PARAMETERS
Following are the secondary parameters of pavement design.
i. Soil Classification
Soil horizons
Parent materials
Moisture-solid relationship
ii. Material Characterization
iii. Materials Considerations
iv. Surfaces
Functions
Types of materials
Skid qualities
Cracking
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DESIGN APPROACHES
For flexible pavements, design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate
layer thickness and composition. The main design factors are stresses due to traffic load
and temperature variations. Two approaches of flexible pavement structural design are
common today:
1. EMPIRICAL APPROACH OF PAVEMENT DESIGN
An empirical approach is based on results of experiments or experience. Generally,
it requires a number of observations to be made to determine the relationships between
input variables and outcomes.
Many pavement design procedures use an empirical approach. Empirical design
methods can range from simple to complex pavements. The simplest approaches specify
pavement structural designs based on what has worked in the past. More complex
approaches are usually based on empirical equations derived from experimentation.
AXLE LOADS
One of the primary functions of a pavement is its load distribution. Therefore, in order
to adequately design a pavement something must be known about the expected loads it
will carry during its design life. Loads, the vehicle forces exerted on the pavement can be
characterized by the following parameters:
Tire loads
Axle and tire configurations
Repetition of loads
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In G.I. method for designing of pavement, the thickness of pavement depends upon
the G.I. and the type of traffic.
Type of Traffic Commercial Vehicles per day
Light traffic volume <50
Medium traffic volume 50 to 300
Heavy traffic volume >300
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ii. Evaluate existing pavement to confirm the scope of work and determine preliminary
design and appropriate construction strategy.
Research roadway history and traffic data
Perform field trips to make site inspections
iii. Evaluate sub-base and sub-grade for drainage characteristics and bearing capacity.
iv. Make structural calculations like the traffic, soils and existing pavement data.
v. Set specifications such as pavement materials, construction methods and finished
project requirements.
vi. The Designer must ensure that plans, specifications and estimate are clearly defined.
FOUNDATION
The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmit the load of the
structure to the soil lying under it, is called foundation. It includes the portion of the
structure below ground level and other artificial arrangements in the form of concrete
blocks, raft, piles etc. The purpose of foundation is:
To distribute the load over a large bearing area
To prevent lateral movement of supporting material
To secure a level and bed for building operations
To increase the stability of structure
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Foundation engineering applies knowledge of soil mechanics, rock mechanics,
geology and structural engineering to design and construction of foundations for buildings
and other structures.
The most basic aspect of foundation engineering deals with the selection of the type
of foundation, such as using a shallow or deep foundation system. Another important
aspect of foundation engineering involves development of design parameters, such as the
bearing capacity of foundation.
CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS
There are two main types of foundations:
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
The foundation provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure near
to the ground level is known as shallow foundation. Such foundations are mostly placed on
the first hard strata available below the ground level. The depth is generally D/B < 1 but
may be more.
TYPES
i. Stepped Footing
The foundation having its bed in the form of steps of concrete is known as stepped
foundation. For this, excavation is done into steps having short length and uniform height.
If there is any possibility of slipping of structure, then RCC piles can be driven along its base
concrete on the slopping side.
Advantages
Simplicity of design
Cheap familiar technology
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2. DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Foundation constructed sufficiently below ground level with some arrangements
such as piles, wells etc at their base, is called deep foundation. In deep foundation depth to
width ratio is usually greater than 4 to 5. This is usually at depths >3 m below ground level.
TYPES
i. Pile Foundation
A foundation consisting of spread or grillage supported on piles is called pile
foundation. Piles distributes the load of structure to the hard stratum by friction alone or
with bearing at their ends. Two main components of pile foundation are:
Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of
high bearing capacity.
Pile caps are thick slabs used to tie a group of piles together to support and transmit
column loads to the piles.
Advantages
Piles can be precast to the required specifications.
Piles of any size, length and shape can be made.
As soil compacts the adjacent soil, the bearing capacity of pile is increased.
Disadvantages
Must be properly reinforced to withstand stresses during transportation & driving.
Advance planning is required for handling and driving.
Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.
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Very economical
Reduce vibrations
Disadvantages
Lack of expertise
Cannot be placed on contaminated sites because of risk of further contamination
throughout the site
Construction procedures is very sensitive
TYPES OF PILES
1. BASED ON THEIR FUNCTION
i. Bearing Piles
The piles which rest on hard strata and act as columns to bear the load of the
structure i.e. they acts as a medium to transmit the load from the foundation to the stratum
are known as bearing piles. These piles are used to bear the vertical loads.
ii. Friction Piles
The piles which do not rest on hard strata and bear the loads on account of frictional
resistance between their outer surface and the soil in contact, are called friction piles. In
friction piles, load is carried by friction developed between the sides of pile and
surrounding ground.
iii. Friction-Cum-Bearing Piles
The piles which rest on hard strata and resist the structural load partly by bearing
and partly by their skin friction are known as friction-cum-bearing pile. These piles are
used when bearing capacity of soil strata lying under them is not sufficient to resist the
load of structure.
2. BASED ON MATERIAL
i. Steel piles
The pile consisting of steel section are called steel piles. These pile may be made in
the form of I or H section beams. H section beams are mostly used for steel piles these days.
The size of H section varies from 240 to 400 mm depth with thickness of usually 12 mm.
These piles are available in the form of sheet pin piles, sheet piles, disc piles and screw
piles.
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3. BORING METHOD
Sometimes piling is done by boring holes of suitable diameter to the required depth
and then dropping piles in them. Generally cat-in-situ piles are laid by this method. Boring
can be done by:
i. Continuous Flight Auger (CFA)
CFA consists of a carrier fitted with a flight auger which is rotated into the ground to
required depth by hydraulic motor. On reaching the required depth, highly workable
concrete is pumped and under the pressure of concrete the protective cap is detached.
ii. Under Reaming
Under reaming tool is fitted inside pile shaft and then expanded at bottom of pile to
produce under ream. Normally, after installation and before concreting, man carrying cage
is lowered and shaft and the under ream of pile is inspected.
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USES OF PILES
i. To carry vertical compression load
ii. To resist tension or uplift load
iii. To transmit buildings loads to the foundations and the ground soil layers
iv. To install loose cohesion less soil through displacement and vibration
v. To control settlements
vi. To build a structure within the water and on water river or canal bed
vii. To increase the bearing capacity of soil by compaction piles
PILE SPACING
Pile spacing is based on the heat necessary to convert water to ice at no change in
temperature. If the spacing between piles is too close, the zones of stress around pile will
overlap and the ultimate load of pile group is less than the sum of individual capacities of
pile. Generally center to center spacing between piles is kept between 2.5d and 3.5d, where
d is the diameter of the pile.
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4. Types of Foundation
Types of foundation such as isolated foundations, combined footings, pile
foundations and raft or mat foundations etc. based on the type of soils and loads can be
selected based on suitability and requirement.
5. Water Table fluctuation
A lowered water table increases the effective pressure and may cause additional
settlements. A raised water table may create problems like floating the structure by making
it unstable or tilting it and reducing the effective pressure by causing excessive settlement.
6. Factors of Safety
Factors of safety represent capacity which a foundation has against collapse for a
given set of loads. Therefore in choosing design approach, designer should consider
significance of project, degree of uncertainty in the design parameters and the probability
of failure due to both collapse and functional errors.
7. Foundations on Permafrost
Permafrost is a condition of permanently frozen ground, where the ground
temperatures are never higher than 0oC. Construction in these areas requires that the
foundations be placed below this material.
BEARING CAPACITY
The maximum load which the soil can take per unit area without yielding or
displacement is called bearing capacity of ultimate bearing capacity. The stability of
structure depends upon the strength of soil, which is expressed as bearing capacity usually
in terms of tone per square meter. While the workable bearing capacity of soil, which is
considered for design is known as safe bearing capacity.
If values of Nq , Nc , Nr , and Kp are not given than use formulas or take values from table 4-
2 on Pg#222:
2
Nq =
cos2 (45 + 2)
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Nc = (Nq 1)cot
tan Kp
Nr = ( 1)
2 cos2
Kp = See table
= e(0.75 2 )tan
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extensions from earlier proposals. The extensions include base factors in which footing is
tilted and for possibility of a slope to give ground factors. The equation allows any D/B and
thus can be used for both shallow and deep foundations. Hansen used:
i. For Shallow Foundations
D
dc = 1 + 0.4
B
D
dq = 1 + 2tan(1 sin)2
B
Given Data:
= 36o
C=0
= 1.8 g/cc = 1.8 T/m2
Df= 1 m (Assumed)
Required:
CASE-I: 1.0 m wide strip
qu =
qs =
qnet =
When, = 36o
Nq =49.5
N =55.9
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Sc = 1
S = 1
1
= + +
2
qu 1.8(1.0) (49.5) + (1.8) (1) (55.90) (1)
qu 139.41 T/m2
qs qu / F .O.S
qs 139.41/3
qs = 46.47 T/m2
qnet qs q
qnet 46.47 (1.8) (1)
qnet = 44.67 T/m2
qnet qs q
qnet 43.116 (1.8) (1)
qnet = 41.316 T/m2
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qnet qs q
qnet 39.762 (1.8) (1)
qnet = 37.962 T/m2
EXAMPLE 2
What will be ultimate Bearing capacity of a soft sensitive clay, in which, when
a vane shear test was conducted (vanes of 10 cm height & 8 cm diameter), the soil
failed at a maximum Torque of 500 kg / cm. consider a footing of square shape and
density of soil as 1.7 gm/cm3. Use Terzaghis Theory.
Given Data:
500 1
= 500 kg / cm = 1000 100 = 0.005
= = 2.762
2 ( + )
2 6
= 0 (Soft clay)
N = 0
Nc = 5.7
Nq = 1.0
1
= + +
2
= (1.3x1.84x5.7) + (1.7x1x1.0)
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= 15.33 T/m2
qs = qult/F.O.S.
qs = 15.33/3
qs = 5.11 T/m2
EXAMPLE 3
What will be the maximum safe load for is 1.6 T/m3 , is 27 , footing size is
2.5 x 2.5 m , Df is 1.5 m and the soil is loose sand?
Solution:
EXAMPLE 4
A strip fisting 1m wide at its base, at a depth of 0.8m, r=18t/m, c = t/m, angle =
20 degree. If n/T is 1.5m below the ground surface find out bearing capacity of soil.
Solution:
C = 2/3C=2/3*3 = 2T/m
So,
qu = (2)(0.86)+(1.8)(2.30)+(0.5)(1)(0.75)*1/1[(1.6\8*0.7)+(1/2.31)(1-0.7)
qu = 21.644T/m
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EXAMPLE 5
A strip footing of width 3m is founded at a depth of 2m below the ground
surface in a (C-) soil having = 18 KN/m3, C= 30 KPa, = 36. Determine the
ultimate bearing capacity of soil by Rankine method.
Solution:
According to Rankine method;
= (2 1) + 2 ( + 1) + 2
Where,
N = tan2 (45 + /2)
N = tan2 (45 + 36/2)
= 3.85o
EXAMPLE 6
A square footing of size 3 x 3 m rests at a depth of 2 m in medium dense sand.
The water table is at the base level of the footing. The corrected average SPT value is
30 for the soil below the base for a depth equal to the width of foundation. Compute
the net ultimate bearing capacity of soil by Tengs Method.
Solution:
N = 30 , B=3m , D=2m
Rw = 1.0 , Rw = 0.5
EXAMPLE 7
At what depth should a raft of size 6 * 9 m be founded to provide a factor of
safety 3, if the soil is stiff clay having an unconfined compressive strength of 120
KN/m2. The unit weight of the soil is 18 KN/m3. The pressure transferred by the raft
to its base is 150 KN/m2.
Given Data:
rectangular footing = 6 * 9 m
F.O.S. = 3
qu = 120 KN/m2
= 18 KN/m3
qs = 150 KN/m2
= 0 (for stiff clay)
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Df =?
Solution:
tan' = (tan) = 0 ' = 0
for ' = 0; Nc' = 5.7, Nq' = 1, N = 0
For rectangular footing,
Sc = 1 + .2 (B/L) = 1 + .2 (6/9) = 1.13
= . . . = 150 3 = 450 /2
1 + .3 (B/L) = 1 + .3 (6/9) = 1.2
EXAMPLE 8
A strip footing, 1m wide at its base, at a depth of 0.8m, =1.8 T / m2, C =3
T/m2, = 20, if W/T is 1.5m below the ground surface, find out baering capacity of
soil.
Given data:
B = 1m,
Df =0.8m
=1.8 T/m
C = 3 T/m2
= 20
Solution:
Nc = 17.5 , Nq = 7.4 , N = 5
Sc = 1 , S = 1
qult = ScCNc + DfNq + 0.5BNS
= 1(3)(17.5) + (1.8)(0.8)(7.4) + (0.5)(1.8)(1)(5)(1)
qult = 67.656 T/m2
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PAST PAPERS
SP-13
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHALLOW AND DEEP
SHALLOW
Light, flexible structure: older residential construction which include a basement,
and in many commercial structures etc
Nice soil condition: hard, uniform soil
Cheaper than deep foundation
Easier construction
DEEP
Heavy, rigid structure such as large bridge, tower etc
Poor soil condition: liquefaction, soft clay and sands
Typically more expansive
More complex to construct and more time than shallow foundation
SEAL COAT
Sealcoat is a liquid that is applied to asphalt to protect it from oxidation and the damage
caused by winter cracking, as well as UV rays and traffic. It provides:
A waterproof layer to protect the underlying pavement.
Increased skid resistance.
A filler for existing cracks or raveled surfaces.
An increased reflective surface for night driving.
TACK COAT
A tack coat is sprayed on the surface of an existing asphalt or concrete pavement.
The goal is to achieve uniform coverage over the entire surface. It is also used to seal
together layers of precast concrete (PCC). Tack coats should be applied uniformly across
the entire pavement surface.
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PRIME COAT
A prime coat is an application of a low viscosity asphalt to a granular base in
preparation for an initial layer of asphalt. The principal function of prime coat is to protect
the sub-grade from moisture and weathering. The purpose of the prime coat is:
to coat and bond loose material particles on surface of base
to harden base surface to provide work platform for construction equipment
to avoid voids in base course surface to prevent migration of moisture
to provide adhesion between base course and succeeding asphalt course
DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
Differential settlement occurs when the soil beneath structure expands, contracts or
shifts away and foundation settles unequally. This can be caused by drought conditions, the
root systems of maturing trees, flooding, poor drainage, frost, vibrations from nearby
construction or poorly compacted soil. Differential settlement can cause:
cracks in a structures foundation and interior walls
bulging walls
leaking through openings and sunken slabs
Bending and deflection of structure supported by foundation
SP-11
TOTAL SETTLEMENT
When foundation settlement occurs at the same rate throughout all portions of a
building, it is termed total settlement. If the settlement is total, the structural failure will
not take place. However, if total settlement is very excessive than its function is impaired.
For example, utility services such as water supply and sewage lines, electric and telephone
poles etc. may not function properly even the structure remain sound structurally.
STRAP FOOTING
When the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called
a strap footing. It is used when the distance between columns is so great that a combined
footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments. In this case the column is
provided with its independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings.
PILE GROUP
Group of piles means when we have more than 1 pile in a row. Many factors
influence the pile group stability. The major factors are Geometry of group, soil conditions
and direction of loads.
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Traffic control devices are markers, signs and signal devices used to inform, guide
and control traffic, including pedestrians, motor vehicle drivers and bicyclists. These
devices are usually placed adjacent, over or along the highways, roads, traffic facilities and
other public areas that require traffic control.
TRAFFIC SIGN
Traffic signs are signs which use words and/or symbols to convey information to
road users. These devices are made with materials that reflect light from headlights back
towards driver's eyes to achieve maximum visibility especially at night. Traffic signs can be:
Regulatory signs are traffic signs used to convey traffic rules and regulations such as
intersection controls, weight limit, speed limit, one way, no parking and others.
These signs are generally rectangular in shape and uses white, black and/or red as
primary colors.
Warning signs are traffic signs that are used to warn road users about a potential
danger. These signs are usually diamond in shape and have black legends and
borders on a yellow background.
Guide signs help road users navigate to their destination. These signs are generally
rectangular in shape and have white text on green backgrounds.
TRAFFIC SIGNAL
Traffic control signals are used to assign right-of-way to traffic moving in conflicting
directions at an intersection. Traffic lights feature three different lights that conveys
different meanings. The red light means the vehicle must come to a complete stop. A green
light means the vehicle may proceed when it is safe to do so. A yellow light indicates that a
red light will follow and vehicle drivers must stop if it is safe to do so.
PAVEMENT MARKING
Road surface markings are traffic control devices that are applied directly to the
road surfaces. They are used to guide and channel traffic by assigning lanes and indicating
stopping points at intersections. Pavement markings may be permanent or removable.
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
It includes collecting, transporting and disposing off surface/subsurface water
originating on or near the highway right of way or flowing in streams crossing bordering
right of way. Drainage of highway is important because water damage highway structure in
many ways. The water which are dangerous for highways are:
Rainwater
Groundwater
Water body
Merits
It prevents erosion by runoff from the hill.
It stop water, not allowing it to enter side drain which may cause greater discharge
in side drains.
It remove water from the road surface.
Prevent scour and/or washout of pavement, shoulder, better slopes, water courses
and drainage structures.
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DRAINAGE METHODS
1. SURFACE DRAINAGE
Surface drainage is concerned with removing all water that is present on the
pavement surface from which it may flow into the pavement. If not removed, this water can
accumulate underneath and weaken the pavement structure. There are three primary
means used to prevent water infiltration and accumulation:
i. Impermeable pavement surface
An impermeable surface will protect the underlying sub-grade from water sources
above. Permeability surfaces are different for flexible and rigid pavements.
ii. Slope
The pavement section should be sloped to allow rainwater to sheet flow quickly to
the edge where it is typically collected in a curb and gutter system or a roadside
ditch. A generally accepted standard is a 2 percent cross slope.
iii. Grade
The curb and gutter or roadside ditch must be properly graded to allow flow to
central collection points such as catch basins or detention ponds. A generally
accepted standard is a grade of 0.5 percent or more.
2. SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
Subsurface drainage is concerned with removing water that percolates through or is
contained in underlying sub-grade. This water, typically result of high water table or
specially wet weather, can accumulate under the pavement structure by two chief means:
Gravity flow
Water from surrounding areas can be absorbed by soil then flow by gravity to areas
underneath the pavement structure. In pavement with high air voids, water can percolate
down through the pavement structure itself.
Capillary rise
Capillary rise is the rise in a liquid due to a upward force produced by attraction of
water molecules to soil. Capillary rise can be up to 6m or more. In general, smaller the soil
grain size, greater the chance for capillary rise.
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AASHTO LOADINGS
The American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
has a series of specifications for loadings. In general, loading depends on the type of bridge,
its location and type of traffic anticipated. AASHTO specifications also allow to represent
the truck as a single concentrated load and an uniform load.
There are two basic types of standard truck loadings described in the current
AASHTO Specifications:
Hypothetical trucks, called the H (with two axles)
HS (with three-axles)
The first type is a single unit vehicle with two axles spaced at 14 feet and elected as
a highway truck or H truck. The weight of the front axle is 20% of the gross vehicle weight,
while the weight of rear axle is 80% of gross vehicle weight. The second type that is HS
loading, consists of truck with semi-trailer i.e. that pull trailers are chosen as HS.
In many cases, vehicles may bounce or sway as they move over a bridge. This
motion produces an impact load on the bridge. AASHTO has develop an impact factor to
increase the live load to account for bounce and sway of vehicles:
50
I= 0.3
L + 125
Where,
L is the span in feet.
Impact loading is intended to transfer loads from superstructure to substructure.
Impact shall not be included in loads transferred to footings or to those parts of piles or
columns that are below ground.
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