Aluminum--The Age of Ships

By Chester H. Holtyn, 1 Member

Although aluminum's marine history can be traced back to 1 890, its acceptance as a basic
hull material has been relatively slow. During the past decade and to a greater degree
the past two years the number, type, and size of aluminum hulls has increased signif-
icantly. Aluminum, long popular for car-top boats, has matured into a first-rate material
of construction. It has dropped the mantle of secondary applications and has entered
the Age of Ships. Aluminum is a versatile material. It offers high strength, lightweight,
and corrosion resistance of the first order. It is a material that can readily be welded,
handled, and fabricated. It offers the designer, owner, and operator advantages of
sound economic importance. It can improve stability, increase deadweight and cubic
capacity, reduce draft, minimize maintenance, increase speed, and provides other signif-
icant gains in other areas. How can these benefits be exploited? Some shipyards and
boatyards look at aluminum apprehensively. It is different, and requires different
fabricating techniques. However, yards with a steady flow of aluminum work find that
it can be worked competitively. There are seventeen 165-ft-long aluminum Navy gun-
boats being built or under contract. The largest ocean-going aluminum ship, 226 ft long,
is under construction. A 212-ft hydrofoil ship is undergoing sea trials. Three barges of up
to 2400 tons deadweight now have over eleven barge years of successful service on the
Mississippi River. Other hulls between 100 ft and 170 ft are being fabricated. The
operation of these ships will answer many questions and will provide the information
necessary to refine today's technology.

Introduction launched in 1931. Its hull and deckhouse are of

riveted construction because suitable welding
History of Aluminum Marine Applications processes were not available at the time of her
THE history of aluminum boats can be traced building. Diana I I was in the British Naval
back to the early 1890's. Several aluminum Service throughout World War II. Despite the
hulls were built including sailing yachts, powered lack of maintenance and arduous wartime ser-
launches, torpedo boats, and gunboats. The vice, she is still in excellent condition and in use
first inexpensive production method for manu- 35 years after her launching.
facturing aluminum was discovered in 1886. The Morag Mhor, built in England in 1958,
I t is easy, therefore, to understand why alloy was one of the first all-welded hulls. She is a
development and fabrication techniques were not twin-screw auxiliary motor yacht, ketch rigged.
entirely satisfactory. Nonetheless, it is remark- I t is 72 ft 8 in. overall, with a beam of 16 ft 0 in.,
able that the advantages of aluminum were rec- a 7-ft draft, and displaces 45 tons. A personal
ognized and utilized at such an early date. inspection in 1961 showed the hull to be in ex-
The 55-ft Diana I1 was one of the first vessels cellent shape with no visible signs of corrosion or
designed and built from a true marine aluminum structural failure.
alloy. This twin-screw motor cruiser was During the past decade much progress has been
made, yet when aluminum is mentioned in some
1Marine Project Director, Reynolds Metals Company, marine circles secondary ship applications and
Richmond, Va. small boat hulls come to mind. One cannot
Presented at the Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
November 10-11, 1966, of TI~E SOCIETY OF NAVAL question the value of these projects as stepping
ARCHITI~CTS AND MARINI~ ENGINEERS. stones to larger aluminum structures. Within
356
 Fig. 1 The 165-ft aluminum gunboat USS Asbeville on sea trials

Table 1 Specified Mechanical Properties [1 ] sistant weldable aluminum alloy was a prime
~Elonga- requisite for the advancement of aluminum tech-
~Strength-KSId---~ tion in 2 in. nology.
Ultimate Yield, percent The 5000 series of alloys and the development of
Alloy Temper Min Max Min Min
5456a H321 46 59 33 12 the metal inert-gas method of welding opened new
5083a H321 44 56 31 12 vistas. These cold-rolled alloys possessed ex-
5086b H32 40 47 28 12 cellent corrosion resistance and offered high
5154 H32 36 43 26 12
5052 H32 31 38 23 11 welded strength. Various types of alloys within
6061~ T6 42 -- 35 10 the 5000 series have been u s e d . Alloys 5456,
6061~ T651 42 -- 35 10 5083, 5086, 5154, and 5052 have been the ones
, Conforms to SNAME Grade B non-heat-treatable
alloy. most extensively employed. Minimum mechani-
Conforms to SNAME Grade A non-heat-treatable cal properties of l~-in, plate for select tempers are
alloy. listed in Table 1.
" Conforms to SNAME heat-treatable alloy.
Properties for ~-in. plate and tempers indicated. The production of new, improved aluminum
At 0.2 percent offset. alloys, however, was not without its complications.
As the family of good alloys grew, so did the con-
fusion as to choice. The N a v y and S N A M E ,
the past few years, however, progress has leaped
recognizing the need for some standardization,
forward. Aluminum is no longer relegated only
undertook programs of evaluating the alloys and
to miscellaneous construction and little boats;
recommending the best available for marine use
on the contrary, today it is entering the age of
[2,3]. 2
ships. In this period of supertankers, aluminum's
Before codes and specifications could be es-
advancements m a y seem minor to some. The
tablished, the metallurgy and the intricacies of
present length plateau is in the 200-ft range,
each alloy were carefully studied. One factor
although a few vessels have been considered up to
which caused some concern was susceptibility to
400 ft in length. This paper will a t t e m p t to hit
stress corrosion. This undesirable effect is the
some of the technological highlights, discuss basic
result of a combination of factors; the magnesium
design, and review some of the more interesting
content of the alloy, the service temperature, the
current ship projects.
level of locked-in stress, and a marine environ-
Alloys ment [4]. I t is infrequent that all four conditions
are found in the proper relation in an actual ap-
The metallurgy of marine aluminum alloys has
plication. However, structural failures have oc-
advanced significantly during the past 20 years.
curred. Stress corrosion can be induced in field
I t was not too long ago when 6061 was the pre-
and laboratory samples of susceptible alloys.
dominant marine alloy. I t had good corrosion
Accordingly, the recommendations for marine
resistance, but its ductility in the welded condition
alloys were tempered by the information available.
was low. As a result, it was generally used in
Of the four requirements for stress corrosion of
riveted fabrication.
Since modern vessels are welded, the use of 6061
2 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of
was restricted. A high-strength, corrosion-re- paper.

Aluminum--The Age of Ships 357

 - - 45000 I)--x
o
~
".~
40000, 2~-~\
"~ ~ 35000 !
~! ~oooo
2sooo N \
. 20000
'~ ,~oo'
I'~ I0000
5000
Base Material 5052 5154 5454
Welding Rod 5154 5154
2rid Choice 5254 5254 5356
(I) AVERAGE TENSILE STRENGTH ACROSS WELD
(?_3 MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH OF ANNEALED PLATE
(3) AVERAGE WELDED YIELD STRENGTH
(4) 5554 MAY ALSO BE USED
{5) 5185, 5556 MAY ALSO BE USED
(o) AVERAGE FREE BEND ELONGATION
Fig. 2 Strength and ductility of butt welds in aluminum alloys (MIG process)
marine alloys the only one t h a t can be adequately
controlled b y specification is the magnesium
content of the alloy. I t was, therefore, carefully
considered before recommendations were made.
Alloy 5086 has 3.5 to 4.5 percent magnesium
content and is generally considered to be within
safe limits. I t is recommended, therefore, for
hulls and other critical ship components.
Alloy 5456 has 4.7 to 5.5 percent magnesium.
BuShips Instruction 9110.37A limits the use of
5456 to "applications where a single failure will
not result in hazard to personnel or critical ship
components such as deckhouses." The author
assumes t h a t some consideration was given to the
question of stress corrosion b y the N a v y before
this limitation was set.
The most extensive use of Alloy 5456 to date
has been for the deckhouses of naval vessels.
I t has also been used for hydrofoil hulls. The
extreme importance of lightweight for these craft
and the excellent strength-to-weight ratio of
5456 probably dictated the choice.
Several years ago, Alloys 5052 and 5154 were
being used for various applications. The availa-
bility in t o d a y ' s m a r k e t of higher strength alloys
at a b o u t the same basic price has curtailed their
use.
To a certain extent the same is true of the once
popular 6061. This alloy still finds a host of uses
primarily because it is a b u n d a n t l y available
through local distributors. In general, however,
mill sized marine orders are for the 5000 series
aluminum alloys.
358 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
~
~ '
- ! *
l~ i .o
- 60
-o
40 e
i [] I 20 :
5~)86 5083 5456 6061 6061
-T6 -T6
5154 5356 5556 5356 4043 5154
5556
14) (5) (5) (5)
Welding
Successful high-speed production welding of
aluminum was made possible with the advent of
the Inert-Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc ( M I G ) weld-
ing process. This system utilizes an envelope
of an inert gas such as argon or helium or a mix-
ture thereof to exclude oxygen from the weld
area during the welding process. Oxygen com-
bines with aluminum to form an oxide coat which
m u s t be removed before quality welding can take
place. This oxide coat, which is aluminum's
corrosion armor, is tenacious. Stainless steel
wire brushing will abrade the surface, removing
the major portion of the oxide coat. The reverse
polarity cycle of the electric arc displaces the
remaining oxide and the inert-gas envelope pre-
vents its reformation. With this method, sound
welds almost the strength of the parent material
can be obtained. Fig. 2 [5] shows the average
tensile strength across the weld of 5086 at 38,000
psi. The minimum tensile strength of 5086-H32
is 40,000 psi.
The joint should be cleaned and wire brushed
before welding. Degreasing by swabbing the
area to be welded with solvent-soaked rags is
required. Most aluminum, even "clean" alu-
minum, has a greasy film on its surface from the
rolling operation. Naphtha, butyl alcohol, and
acetone are suitable solvents.
Argon is normally used for the shielding gas.
In some instances a mixture of argon and helium
is used to improve penetration. Normal gas
consumption for structural work is about 60 cu
ft per hr. However, this consumption is often
increased to 80 and in some instances 100 eu ft
per hr for out-of-door work. These gases are
easily displaced b y gusts of wind. There is a
practical limit to the amount the gas flow can be
increased. High flows cause turbulence adjacent
to the weld puddle and will draw oxygen into this
critical area resulting in porosity.
I t is desirable, therefore, for all quality welding
and for m a x i m u m economy t h a t the work area
be shielded. Canvassed wind breaks, movable
partitions, or closed building areas should be
utilized.
The M I G welding process is one of the simplest
of all metal arc welding methods. Bare filler wire,
fed from a spool, is melted in an inert atmosphere
and is efficiently transferred to the joint where
the arc provides sufficient heat to make an effec-
tive junction. Because the process is simple, it
does not m a k e it foolproof. Aluminum welding
is different but not difficult. I t does, naturally,
require an understanding of the metal, the process,
and the equipment.
The welding equipment available t o d a y can
do an effective job despite some limitations.
Compared to steel stick electrode welding, alu-
m i n u m machines have relatively short cable leads,
are bulky, the gun is more cumbersome, and the
entire package is more finicky. Shipyards do not
coddle equipment and some of the early welding
machines were not built to take the punishment.
Equipment manufacturers quickly recognized their
deficiencies and have made some significant im-
provements in durability and portability. More
modifications however, are desirable.
Several years ago S N A M E ' s HS-6-1 task group
undertook a program to develop data on the
strength of welded aluminum alloy joints pro-
duced by representative shipyards in the country.
Although values for welded aluminmn joints had
been published b y the aluminum companies and
other agencies, it was felt t h a t those standards
were not necessarily applicable to marine con-
struction. T h e results of this program were pub-
lished in J a n u a r y of 1965, as the Technical and
Research Bulletin No. 2-13 [6 ].
A total of 684 welded and 51 parent plate speci-
mens were prepared. The alloys tested were those
listed in T & R Bulletin No. 2-5 [2 ]. Alloys 5086,
-H32, -H34, and - H l 1 2 and 5456, -H321, and
-H24 were selected in 1/~, 1/"2, 3~, and 1-in. thick-
nesses. Metal was supplied b y Alcoa, Kaiser, and
Reynolds in order to eliminate any alloy variable.
Weld samples were prepared in accordance to
specifications by Newport News Shipbuilding and
Drydock Company, Bath Iron Works, Bethlehem
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Steel Company, and the Todd Slfipyards Cor-
poration. Samples were tested by ABS.
T h e results of the test program showed the
statistical averages; for welded tensile and yield
strengths to be slightly below published industry
minimum. T h e w o g r a m was so broad and had
so m a n y variables, however, that it is impossible
to generalize on the results 'without giving mis-
leading information. I t is :suggested ttlat this
report be read by those interested in this field.
Fabrication
Ahiminmn is, perhaps, one of the easiest con-
struction metals to handle and can be formed and
fabricated b y a wide variety of processes [7].
Its lightness facilitates handling. I t is cleaner,
upgrading working conditions. I t is weldable.
I t can be flanged, bent, rolled, drawn, pressed,
stretched, spun, and expanded. I t can be worked
by all of the practices common to steel and by
some that cannot be done o.n steel. Generally,
all of the work can be done with less effort and
greater speed. Yet, some yards approach alu-
m i n u m fabrication apprehensively.
Aluminum shapes and plates can be formed with
the same equipment used for steel. There are
areas, however, t h a t require some specific knowl-
edge of aluminum's characteristics. I t has greater
spring-back than steel. Thus, it is generally
necessary to overform the part. When the form-
ing pressure is re?,eased, the metal will spring
back to the desired dimension. I t is obviously
necessary to determine the degree of overform.
This is generally done b y trial and error on the
first parts. As workmen get the "feel" of work-
ing the metal they can handle it without any
problems. There is no substitute for experience
in the "metal-knocking" trade;.
Dies used for forming steel normally have radii
unsuitable for ahiminum. Adjustments can be
made to suit ahinfinum without destroying its
usefulness for steel parts. Each alloy temper
and thickness has a minimum bend radius. T h e y
should be followed carefully; otherwise, cracking
will occur.
Steel rolls and brakes sho~ald be cleaned. A
simple precaution to prevent steel particles from
being rolled into the aluminum plate is to slip
template paper between the aluminum and the
rolls.
T h e thermal expansion of aluminum should be
taken into account in all welding procedures and
in fitting out various subassemblies. Aluminum
has approximately three times the conductivity
of steel and expands approximately twice t h a t of
steel. If these properties of aluminum are ig-
nored, there will be a considerable amouut of dis-
359
 tortion, buckling, and weld cracking. If sub-
assemblies are constructed in a shop and then
m o v e d to the out-of-doors for final erection, some
thought should be given to the temperature range
between indoors and outdoors. In southern
climates the sun can also have an effect on uneven
thermal expansion. This is particularly true of
large flat surfaces which receive all of the sun's
heat on their upper surfaces and are generally
cool and shaded on the bottom.
In steel fabrication, misaligned parts are
straightened b y flame heating and quenching.
This practice does not work on aluminum. Come-
alongs, jacks, and other methods of cold-working
the sections can be used to reposition sections.
Plate buckling can be "drawn in" b y welding
stringer passes on the plate in key locations.
Distortion can also be removed b y cutting the
plate and welding it back together. The shrink-
ing effect of welding tends to pull the buckles out.
Aluminum can be cut by ordinary woodworking
and metalworking tools. Its machining and cut-
ting rate is high. O p t i m u m cutting tools should be
used to take advantage of the higher speed when
practical. The plasma-arc "flame" cutting pro-
cess is extremely fast, well adapted to production
work, and particularly suited for contour cutting
of h e a v y plates.
Plate joints can be prepared several ways.
Electric planers, saws, routers, sanders, or mill-
ing machines can produce the desired bevel or
groove. H a n d routers are useful tools for pre-
paring the butts of structurals.
Fit-up of large subassemblies should be accurate.
Consistent aluminum welding requires uniform
joints. Bridging large root gap openings is un-
desirable. Cuts, therefore, should follow scribed
lines. Tools such as all-purpose, rotary, and
saber saws can be used to good advantage. I t is
helpful if one edge of the section is controlled and
prepared during subassembly. The joining cut
of the second assembly is m a t e d to it. This pro-
cedure also reduces the amount of joint prep-
aration required on the ship ways.
One shipyard trade which is somewhat of a
lost art is chipping. Generally all aluminum
welds are back chipped and welded on the op-
posite side of the first pass. The exception to
this rule is when backing straps are employed.
Since a great deal of chipping is required, it is
essential t h a t good guns and properly contoured
and sized tools are used. Portable milling ma-
chines can also be used. Common mistakes are:
(a) failure to follow the weld seam; (b) using a
tool t h a t is too narrow in relation to the depth of
cut; (c) failure to chip to sound metal. Al-
though these errors are elementary, they are fre-
360 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
quently committed in yards witll mininmnl alu-
minum experience. Tools available, if any, a r e
usually underpowered and grossly inadequate.
A chipper given a job to do with poor equipment
will produce poor work. If X rays are taken of
critical areas, they can result in more rework
than originally intended.
Painting of an aluminum hull is not necessary
except for aesthetics and for antifouling protec-
tion. If recommended painting specifications are
followed, a tight coating can be obtained. Clean-
ing and etching the surface before applying the
paint system are essential.
T B T O o r - T B T S antifouling paints should be
used. These tin-bearing paints do not require
the extensive barrier coats t h a t copper-bearing
paints do. Mercury antifouling paints should
never be used on an aluminum hull.
Design Considerations
Dissimilar Metals
The marine aluminum alloys are virtually in-
destructible in salt water or in a marine environ-
ment. However, when it is combined with other
metals in the presence of an electrolyte, galvanic
corrosion can result. Aluminum is subject to
some attack when combined with most shipbuild-
ing metals unless the joint is effectively protected
[8]. Copper, brass, and bronze are the most de-
structive. When they are in contact with alu-
minum, a high current will flow from the alu-
m i n u m through the electrolyte to these nletals.
Thus, the aluminum is attacked and they are pro-
tected. Mild steel, although not so critical,
still requires careful attention. The degree of
attention is proportional to the location of the
joint and the metal combination. Underwater
connections, joints exposed to salt spray, wet
interior spaces, and dry interior spaces should
be given design attention in the order listed.
The most common joint in shipbuilding is the
connection between steel boundary bars and alu-
m i n u m deckhouses. Insulation systems are var-
ied. Theoretically, all t h a t is required is to
separate the steel and the aluminum b y a non-
absorbent material such as a butyl rubber tape,
strip neoprene, or a mastic compound. The
fasteners m u s t also be insulated. From tile prac-
tical standpoint, however, no joint design is any
better than the workmanship applied and the
degree of inspection. There are some basic rules,
however, t h a t can help minimize the problem.
T h e y are :
1 Keep the aluminum on the weather side
of the boundary bar so t h a t it acts as a flashing.
2 The lower edge of the aluminmn section
 WEATHER SIDE

~ALUMINUM DECK HOUSE

T {~AINLESS STEEL HUCK BOLT

TO SUIT FRAMING
REQUIREMENTS

SEE NOTE NO, 6 ~ i, N "- SEALANT FILLET/

r;t

NOTES
(I) PRIME BOTH SURFACESWITH ZING CHROMATE
(2) APPLY BUTYL RUBBER ON SURFACES- LET DRY
(3) APPLY SECOND GOATBUTYL RUBBER BEFOREMAKE UP
(4) SET HUGKBOLTS,EXCESS SEALANT SHOULDFILL HOLE
(5) FORMFILLET FROMEXCESSSEALANT
(6) WHERE DESIGNREQUIRES,STEEL FRAMINGCAN LAP
ALUMINUM FRAMING, FAYINGSURFACES SHOULD BE
TREATED AS I AND :5
Fig. 3 Aluminum deckhouse joint detail

should be a minimum of 6 in. from the deck.
This prevents water from pooling below the joint
and seeping up into it, causing corrosion problems.
3 The sealant a n d / o r tape should be uniformly
applied so t h a t all areas of the joint are sealed.
4 A sealant fillet should be applied to the
joint on the weather side and preferably on both
sides of the joint.
5 When the fasteners are set, some caulking
material should be available in the hole in order to
completely fill up the hole after the fastener is in
position.
6 Stainless fasteners are recommended. If
other materials are used, attention should be paid
to the dissimilar metal combinations.
Fig. 3 shows a typical application of this type.
Underwater connections such as propellers,
shafts, rudders, seacocks, keel coolers, and so on,
m u s t be treated differently. These items re-
quire top priority since any corrosive attack will
not be detected until drydocking.
The propulsion system should be isolated.
Corlett and Fryer reviewed the procedures for
minimizing dissimilar metal attack due to an
almninum ship's outfit in their paper, "An Alu-
minum River T a n k e r Design" [9]. Their recom-
mendations are similar to those listed in the fol-
lowing.
T h e first opportunity for insulation is at the
strut bearing. Cutless rubber bearings will
break the electrical flow at this point. However,
the bearing casing itself must. be considered. Al-
though some installations, such as the N a v y ' s
P T boats, have used bronze housings press fit
into the aluminum bossing, with success, the use of
a synthetic casing would be preferred.
The tail shaft penetrates the hull at the stuffing
box. T h e packing breaks metal-to-metal con-
tact unless it contains graphite or some other elec-
trical conductor. An isolation flange should
be used at the coupling of the tail shaft to the main
shaft. In some instances nomnetallic shims can be
used to insulate the engine from the foundation.
Generally, though, machinery alignment require-
ments limit insulation to protective coatings on
the laying surfaces of the connection.
T h e rudder assembly is usually fabricated from
other than aluminum materials and requires in-
sulation from the aluminum rudder tube.
Piping systems can contain a great deal of
dissimilar metals. Salt-water lines and engine
cooling systems need to be isolated at the hull
penetration. Dissimilar metal lines should be con-
nected to the hull with insulated pipe hangars. If
they penetrate a watertight bulkhead, a stuffing
box arrangement or an acceptable proprietary
bulkhead penetration fitting must be used.
Even though solid engineering design and imag-
ination are used, it is difficult to build a ship that
is "sailor proof." To guard against the possibility
of corrosion due to a breakdown in the system,
modifications, repairs, new equipment, and so

Aluminum--The Age of Ships 361

 I ~~BOLT

SEE NOTE !;~JER

(I) BOLT AND WASHERMATERIAL MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH FITTING.

{2) ALUMINUM a STEEL FAYING SURFACES TO BE PRIMED WITH LEAD--FREE ZINC
CHROMATE PRIMER.
(3) TWO COATS BUTYL RUBBER SEALANT TO BE APPLIED. FIRST cOAT TO SET BEFORE
SECOND COAT IS APPLIED.
(4) EXCESS SEALANT TO BE FORMEDINTO FILLET AROUND PERIPHERYOF FITTING.
Fig. 4 Typical installation detail of dissimilar metal fittings

forth, the use of sacrificial anodes is recommended.
The installation is similar to the zinc plates re-
quired on steel vessels. One noticeable difference
is that the aluminum anode can be welded directly
to the hull, reducing the drag for tfigh-speed craft.
The anode alloy recommended is 7-12. I t can be
cast into standard hull anodes or extruded into any
desired cross section.
I m p r o p e r l y installed electrical equipment can
cause serious deterioration in a hull, besides being
dangerous to personnel. F r o m the theoretical
standpoint, an aluminum hull might withstand
the attack for a slightly longer period than a steel
hull. It, however, would be small consolation to
the owner since damage would probably be ex-
tensive in either case.
Fortunately, most builders are familiar with
the necessity of proper wiring systems and
grounding. To protect against electrical stray
currents, a two-wire system should be used.
Shore power of 220 volts is normally brought
aboard by a three-wire system and the neutral
is grounded to the hull. This method is unde-
sirable since it ties the aluminum hull into the
same system as all the other boats in the area,
machinery and equipment. T h e aluminum would
be anodic and would protect adjacent steel.
The galvanic system can be broken b y bringing
the shore power aboard through a one-to-one
isolation transformer. The dc metallic p a t h will
then be broken.
To prevent shorts, the isolation transformer
should be completely insulated or grounded to a
separate shore ground.
M u c h of the equipment installed aboard a ship
is standard as to t y p e and materials of construc-
tion. I t is not economically feasible to convert
all of these to aluminum, nor is it necessary.
Insulation is fairly straightforward.
Fig. 4 shows a typical bolted installation. The
method is very simple and has been used with suc-
cess. The method applies to all nonsubmerged
applications.
The laying surfaces are primed with zinc chro-
mate. Polysulfide or butyl rubber is applied
to the fitting and allowed to dry. When the
fitting is installed, a second coat is applied. When
tightened, a quantity of the material will be
squeezed out around the periphery. This mate-
rial is then wiped into a fillet, completing the
joint.
Some attention should be given to the bolting
arrangement. In some instances the use of
stainless steel bolts is warranted. Passivated
stainless steel 18-8 type 304 or 316 has little
attack on aluminum [8]. Aluminized, galvan-
ized, or cadmium plated bolts are acceptable for
m a n y installations. Mild steel bolts in conjunc-
tion with plastic ferrules and washers can also be
employed. Engineering and economics judgment
will dictate the choice.
Structural Design
Aluminum has different mechanical and physical

362 Aluminum--The Age of Ships

properties than other shipbuilding materials.
These properties must be taken into consideration
in order to achieve the most efficient and economi-
cal design. An aluminum design can be guided,
but should not be misled, by similar steel struc-
tures. This is especially true when the steel
designs have been based on empirical rules.
Ultimate tensile strengths and yield strengths
of aluminum alloys are comparable to A-7 struc-
tural steel. However, the modulus of elasticity,
10.3 X 106 psi, and the density, 0.096 pci, are
about one-third t h a t of steel. The coefficient of
thermal expansion is 0.0000132, or twice t h a t of
steel.
Aluminum alloys do not have a clearly defined
yield point. The stress at which aluminum alloys
exhibit a p e r m a n e n t set of 0.2 percent is specified
as the yield strength.
On nonmarine applications, a general rule of
t h u m b is t h a t an aluminum structure with equal
strength and deflection will weigh 50 percent of
its steel counterpart. However, an aluminum
hull designed to Class will weigh about 43 percent
of a comparable steel hull. Some aluminum
deckhouses have been designed t h a t have weighed
only 30 percent of the steel version.
Savings of this magnitude are obtained b y
taking a d v a n t a g e of the corrosion allowance built
into most steel rules and the allowance which per-
mits a 50 percent increase in hull girder deflec-
tion [10].
Under identical loading conditions, aluminum
structures, equal in dimensions to steel structures,
are subjected to elastic deformation three times
larger than those of steel.
M a n y designs will not accept a deflection of this
magnitude. Frequently the limiting deflection
is established b y operating conditions and the
structural member, regardless of the material,
m u s t meet it. For some structures, however,
aluminum could deflect freely and still be struc-
turally adequate. For example, an aluminum
hatch cover is required to meet the L/360 ABS
requirement. On an ore carrier, the loading nec-
essary to produce this deflection is seldom, if
ever, imposed. Yet, the deflection requirement
normally controls the design.
Hull girder deflection is another matter. How
far do you permit an aluminum hull to deflect?
In reference [10] R. S. Little, Principal Surveyor
of the American Bureau of Shipping, discusses
some of the Bureau's preliminary thinking on the
subject. The following excerpt was taken from
the article: "After carefully considering the prob-
lem, it was then considered t h a t some allowance
should be made for a greater deflection owing to the
material, but t h a t sufficient material (and thereby
Alumlnum--The Age of Ships
inertia) should be added to the hull girder so as to
limit the increase in deflection to not more than
500-/o." This is the Bureau's present position.
As experience is gained from aluminum hulls with
larger L / D ratios, the present limitation can be
adjusted accordingly.
I t is frequently desirable to use simple conver-
sion factors in order to design an aluminum struc-
ture from an existing steel design or to make a
quick weight estimate.
Deflection is usually the restraining factor in
aluminum design. Once the deflection require-
ments are met, the section modulus is normally
ample. If equal deflection is required, and there
are no corrosion allowances, aluminum will re-
quire a m o m e n t of inertia three times t h a t of steel.
This, of course, assumes the same span and load-
ing.
I~L - IsEs ill. 4 [11]
EA
where
= m o m e n t o:[ inertia, aluminum, in. 4
Is = m o m e n t of inertia, steel, in. 4
Es = modulus of elasticity, steel, psi
EA = modulus of elasticity, aluminum, psi
For estimating purposes, this ratio can be taken
as three. If an exact analysis is required, the
modulus of elasticity for the alloy under considera-
tion can be used.
In order to increase the :moment of inertia,
the depth of the aluminum ,;eetion m u s t . b e in-
creased a n d / o r area added to the flanges. Usually
a compromise has to be reached. Since overhead
height is at a premium for most ship structures,
the m a x i m u m depth of structural members is
usually known. If an excessive amount of metal
is required to obtain the needed inertia, then the
alternative is to reduce span of the member.
To provide equal strength, rhe section modulus
of an aluminum beam should be increased by the
ratio of the tensile yield strengths:
SA ~;s Tys cu in.
-
/'ya [11]
where
s~ = section modulus, aluminum, cu in.
Ss = section modulus, steel, cu in.
Tys = tensile yield strength, steel, psi
Tya = tensile y M d strength, aluminum, psi
Generally, b y increasing the height of the beam
b y approximately 45 percent and adding about
45 percent of the area at the proper locations,
an aluminum beam can be obtained with the same
rigidity and a 50 percent weight savings.
I t is not the intent of this paper to examine the
design aspects of aluminum in detail. Basic
363
design of aluminum has been covered in m a n y
publications such as the Aluminum Construction
Manual [12] and "Strength of Aluminum" [13].
Design of aluminum superstructures is covered in
Muckle's " T h e Design of Aluminum Alloy Ships'
Structures" [14].
I t is believed, however, t h a t reviewing the data
t h a t are presently available for the design of alu-
minum hulls and examining the need for more in-
formation can be of some benefit.
The conversion factors listed in the foregoing
were based on average designs and did not take
into account corrosion allowance, deflection
allowance, or marine practice. Rules for build-
ing aluminum vessels do not exist. I t is desirable,
from a design standpoint, to have some reference
framework. Existing ABS rules can be adjusted
to give an unofficial guide.
To determine the minimum I / Y for an alu-
m i n u m ship, the following procedure can be used.
Establish the Steel Rule I~ Y and I requirements
for a vessel at an LID of 14 for "full ocean,"
LID of 16 for "short coastwise" or L/D up to
30 for "River or G r e a t Lakes." Subtract 10
percent and multiply b y two. The aluminum
I / Y thus established has incorporated the 50
percent hull girder deflection increase and a 10
percent corrosion allowance.
Shell, bulkhead, and other plating must have a
thickness equal to the minimum steel thickness X
80 percent of the ratio of the ultimate tensile of
steel to the ultimate tensile of the aluminum
alloy plate. If 5086 H34 has been selected for the
hull, its minimum thickness would be
60,000
= X 0.S0
TA = 1.09 T=
Webs and stiffeners should have an I / Y equal
to the minimum steel I / Y X 80 percent of the
ratio of the ultimate tensile of steel to the ul-
timate tensile of the aluminum alloy. When ex-
trusions are used, the ratio is higher because ex-
truded properties of any given alloy are generally
lower. If 5086 H l 1 2 extrusions have been se-
lected, their m i n i m u m / / Y will be
I~ YA = I / g s 60,000 X 0.80
I/YA = 1.37 I / Y s
These guides will produce an overall design
t h a t will fall within the area t h a t ABS will "con-
sider." None of the foregoing criteria is official.
I t is, however, an approach t h a t can be used.
Service experience, test data, and like information
364 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
will permit the Bureau to draft an official set of
standards some day that can be used universally
by the designer.
I t is anticipated t h a t results from several
strain-gage programs conducted by the Reynolds
Metals C o m p a n y ' s Experimental Center will be
helpful in establishing more meaningful design
data. One "full hull" program has been com-
pleted; two others are being conducted at the
time of this writing.
T h e Reynolds 97, a 97 ft X 35 ft X 11 ft 6 in.
aluminum barge, was strain gaged and static
readings taken in several different supported con-
ditions as well as in several different loaded cargo
tank conditions. Dynamic stresses of 11 gages
were simultaneously recorded during a side launch-
ing of the barge.
During the launching period the m a x i m u m
recorded tension was -t-4655 psi, and m a x i m u m
compression was --17,963 psi at impact with
water. Both gages were oi1 the b o t t o m plating
approximately at the centerline and anfidships.
This location also recorded the highest stress
change from before launch to the floating condi-
tion of --4490 psi.
The greatest shear stress was recorded on the
centerline longitudinal innerbottom bulkhead.
A stress of approximately 11),500 psi was reached
while the barge was supported at the corners by
trucks.
Generally the stress readings obtained by un-
equal loadings of the six cargo tanks were low.
T h e average figures were under 2000 psi with a
few in the 5000 to 6000 psi range.
The tests confirmed the assumption t h a t nor-
mal loading and unloading operations will produce
relatively low stresses. I t also pointed out t h a t
relatively high stresses could be induced during
moving of a large structure and during launching
but t h a t in this instance no structural degradation
occurred.
The two programs in process arc on the 165-ft
aluminum gunboats and on the deep-diving alu-
m i n u m submarine A luminaut.
T h i r t y gages have been installed at 12 key
locations on the USS Asheville. Readings were
taken during builders' trials and are scheduled
to be taken during N a v y endurance trials. Pre-
liminary data transcribed from the Honeywell
tape recorder show stresses under 2000 psi with a
few vibration-induced stresses of 5000 psi.
These readings are of the hull under full gas-
turbine power in fairly sheltered water. The
endurance trials wilI be more rigorous and should
produce peak loadings.
The A h~minaut program has its own special
problems. I t is obviously desirable to have strain
data on the forged aluminum pressure rings at
various operating depths up to the design depth
of 15,000 ft. However, strain-gage equipment
does not operate as it should at these depths.
T h e internal strain gages have been working satis-
factorily, but difficulty is being encountered in
obtaining reliable d a t a from the external gages
due to the high hydrostatic pressure.
Regulations
T h e U.S. Coast Guard and ABS have volumes
of regulations governing steel construction. Some-
times they can be confusing and they are fre-
quently irksome. Most shipyards would be h a p p y
to do away with regulations and inspection. In
the case of aluminum, however, confusion exists
because there are not enough firm standards.
Steel designs can be checked against tables of
minimum scantlings. T h e inspectors and the
builder both know what type of workmanship
will be satisfactory. Qualifying welders and
interpretation of X rays is standard practice.
E q u i p m e n t installation follows methods t h a t have
been used successfully for years. To build in
aluminum without these guides has definite
drawbacks.
Neither the U.S. Coast Guard nor the American
Bureau of Shipping has a set of published regula-
tions for aluminum construction. When a yard
is awarded a contract for a major aluminum struc-
ture, the field offices and local inspectors are
initially apprehensive. I t is necessary to work
with them and reach an understanding on the
interpolation of existing steel regulations. Some-
times agreements can be reached quickly. I t is
safe to say, however, t h a t aluminum approvals
are always slower. Unfortunately, the time and
effort expended on one project frequently has to be
repeated for the next one. Naturally, yards that
work aluminum continually do not have this prob-
lem to the same degree. These yards have es-
tablished a "working relationship" which facili:
rates approvals and inspection.
One of the most needed regulations is for welder
qualification. The Bureau and the Coast Guard
are still relying on procedures established for
steel. In order to certify welders, extra time
m u s t be devoted to reaching an understanding
between all parties. Welding is a basic operation.
Aluminum welding is different. There is enough
of it being done to warrant coverage.
X rays of aluminum alloys should not be read
the same way as for steel. Generally, shipyard
quality aluminum welds will exhibit fine porosity.
I t is difficult to avoid it. Shipyards are located
near water and the working area is damp. Hu-
midity causes condensation on the plates. Mois-
Aluminum--TheAge of Ships
ture is detrimental to alumirmm welding and even
though reasonable precautions are taken to dry
the welding surface, some moisture will be drawn
into the weld puddle and will show up as fine
porosity. Fortunately, the mechanical strength
of the weld is not grossly affected by some scat-
tered porosity. Some credit should be given for
this condition.
Two of the most widely used specifications are
Sections 8 and 9 of the A S M E Boiler and Pres-
sure Vessel Code [15,16]. I t is believed t h a t less
stringent codes would suffice for the bulk of ship-
yard work. However, until one is established
specifically for marine work, existing codes will
have to be used.
Coast Guard regulations are based on steel and
make the use of other materials difficult. Until
aluminum is adequately covered by the regula-
tions, it will take a certain amount of patience and
fortitude to gain approval.,; for aluminum con-
struction. N a v a l architects;, ship operators, and
owners do not normally have the time nor the
inclination to carry on a long program with the
Coast Guard. I t is up to independent organiza-
tions such as S N A M E and the Aluminum As-
sociation to take the initiative. Whatever direc-
tion is needed to establish realistic standards
should come from them.
Several of these projects are underway. I t
would be nice to report that sure progress is being
made. Unfortunately, changing or modifying
regulations is a tedious job. Results to date have
been meager.
Construction Facilities
Most U.S. shipyards have had some experience
with aluminum. Generally, though, it has been
limited to deckhouses and miscellaneous struc-
tures. Design of aluminum hulls should, there-
fore, be tailored, if possible, to the yard or yards
t h a t will be bidding on the vessel. This practice
is particularly true in yacht and crewboat con-
struction. The more capable yards are not nor-
mally inclined to change theiir methods of build-
ing.
M a n y shipyards are unable to give competitive
quotations on aluminum construction. These
yards generally do not have a steady flow of alu-
minum work; thus their average productivity is
at the lower end of the learning curve. Their bids
usually reflect this situation.
This condition is discouraging to those in-
terested in, or promoting the use of, aluminum
hulls. Fortunately, experience in other industries
and in certain areas of the marine field have shown
conclusively t h a t this is not a hopeless situation.
Yards t h a t have built up a steady backlog state
365
t h a t labor cost for aluminum construction should
be no more than steel; and in m a n y instances,
less than steel.
Aluminum's first cost is higher t h a n a similar
steel vessel and is generally competitive with
fiberglass and wood construction. T h e t y p e of
vessel, its machinery and equipment, its outfit and
appointments will dictate the exact cost dif-
ferential.
An aluminum y a c h t will cost a b o u t 5 to 10
percent more, a fishing vessel about 15 percent,
and larger ships 20 to 30 percent additional. I t
should be noted, however, t h a t when aluminum
vessels are priced on dollars per ton of cargo-
carrying capacity they are frequently less ex-
pensive than steel.
Advantages and Economics of Aluminum
General
I t is not sufficient to say t h a t aluminum has
advantages for marine construction. Nor is it
completely proper to establish an impressive list
of credentials. T h e advantages v a r y with the
t y p e of vessel. T h e fact t h a t aluminum's cleanli-
ness is attractive to the fishing boat operator who
has experienced cargo loss due to contamination
from bacteria-infested, slime-coated wood in fish
holds is of little importance to the owner of a
high-speed transoceanic aluminum luxury yacht.
W h a t is i m p o r t a n t is the increase in a vessel's
performance t h a t can be attributed to the selec-
tive incorporation of some of the advantages of
aluminum into its design.
I n the broad sense, the two outstanding ad-
vantages of aluminum t h a t a t t r a c t the ship-
owner, operator, and builder are its lightweight
and its corrosion resistance. Properly applied,
these properties will not only improve performance
b u t enhance the economic picture as well. As
mentioned previously, aluminum's first cost is
generally higher. However, the increase in cost
can readily be offset b y tangible economic bene-
fits.
In a recent article [17], T. G. Lindsay, a marine
consultant specializing in this field, reviewed the
economic benefits from using aluminum for
merchantship hulls. Since our basic interest in
this paper is aluminum ships, extracts from the
highlights of Mr. Lindsay's article seem appropri-
ate.
Increased Cargo Deadweight
Any combination of length, beam, depth, and
draft m a y be limited b y trade route obstructions
such as bars, tides, channel or berth depths and
widths, locks and bridges, or b y cargo restrictions
366 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
(containers and trailers, and so on), ship-crane
reach, or shore-crane height. Available displace-
m e n t m a y also be limited b y requirements for sea-
kindliness, stability, and propulsion efficiency in
the form of minimum length-to-beam ratio and
m a x i m u m block coefficient. Size in the form of
gross tonnage m a y also be limited in an effort to
minimize crew and port expenses. N e t cargo
deadweight m a y be further reduced b y tare weight
of containers or trailers, weight of insulation and
refrigeration machinery, or ballast required for
stability.
Increasing deadweight through aluminum con-
struction can be economically attractive. The
most interesting conditions are when a ship's
draft is limited to 9 to 13 ft, speed is 12 to 16
knots, and gross tonnage is under 1000.
T h e greatest potential for aluminum is the so-
called European " p a r a g r a p h " group of coasters
and liner-types, of just under 500 gross tons,
operating as open-shelterdeckers. Although small,
these ships are becoming popular for liner trades,
serving less accessible ports as feeder ships.
Increased Available Cargo Space
In ships of higher speed-length ratios, where
beam and block coefficient is limited to minimize
power, stability is often a problem. Topside
weight is frequently reduced b y making the super-
structure of aluminum.
With general cargo requiring proportionately
more cubic t h a n lifting capacity, there is incentive
to add hold space b y increasing hull depth, to the
further detriment to stability. T h e height and
weight of deck loads, as in the cases of timber and
container ships, are frequently restricted b y sta-
bility conditions. Since additional hold space
is wasted around container vans in holds, there
is more economic pressure to regain cargo space
b y stacking vans as high as feasible on the weather
deck, or to add decks of trailers in r o / r o vessels.
Stability is usually the limiting factor in each case.
The elimination of a nonpaying ton at deck
level, b y aluminum covers for example, can in some
cases remove one to two additional tons of ballast,
to the advantage of increased speed, reduced power
and fuel cost, a n d / o r reduced draft. If a con-
trolling stability condition is maintained, weight
saved at deck level can be replaced by an equiv-
alent paying tonnage in deck cargo, in a deeper
upper 'twecn deck, or in additional vans or
trailers on the weather deck.
Building the entire ship of aluminum, at least
for smaller designs, can add greatly to this effect.
T h e weight saved can be replaced in full or in
p a r t as ballast low in the hull. Where an o p t i m u m
stability condition existed for the steel counter-
 Table 2 Particulars of a 499-Gross-Ton Vessel
Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Length between perpendiculars...
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depth to weather deck . . . . . . . . . .
Depth to 'tween, freeboard, or
shelter deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum or "open" draft . . . . . . .
Hatches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ratio length-depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Block coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speed-length ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total bale cubic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In 'tween deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Grain cubic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engine and quarters . . . . . . . . . . . .
Service speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
part, the aluminum saving permits adding to
hold bale cubic by using a greater hull depth, or
carrying additional weather-deck cargo such as
timber, containers, or trailers, all without altering
the original satisfactory displacement, stability,
draft, power, or speed.
Increased Speed or Reduced Power
An aluminum ship will be faster than a steel
duplicate because of its lower displacement.
Given a ~xed deadweight requirement, this gain
can be used to increase revenue by making more
trips yearly without increased fuel cost. If the
increased speed capability is not needed, even in
reserve, an engine of lower power can be installed,
reducing machinery cost and fuel expense, as well
as the power-tonnage manning factor.
The reduced displacement because of lower hull
weight can be handled by reducing all dimensions
and maintaining original draft, by reducing loaded
draft only, or by lowering the block coefficient
at the original dimensions and draft. The in-
crease in service sea speed from reduced block in
m a n y cases m a y be substantially greater than
would normally be expected from only the dis-
placement drop, perhaps enabling reductions in
power allowance factors.
An aluminum ship should average higher speeds
than a steel sister ship because of the elimination
of the steel-hull "aging" effect. The increase in
frictional resistance and power required to main-
tain speed caused by corrosion, pitting, paint build-
up and wear-and-tear should be appreciably
minimized with an aluminum hull.
Longer Hull Life
Because of the elimination of corrosion and
pitting, it is expected that aluminum-hull life
will be substantially longer than for steel. This is
partially indicated by experience with two alu-
minum tank barges where, after four years of
chemical trading in rough and shallow Mississippi
217 ft River service, original tool marks were still visible
192 ft below the waterline.
32 ft 6 in.
19 ft 2 in. Reduction in Maintenance Pair#ing
12 ft 2 in. Painting of an aluminum hull can be kept to a
12 ft minimum or eliminated other than for antifoul-
2
10.0 ing. Such hulls truly fit the " a u t o m a t e d " ship
0.69 concept since chipping and painting at sea can be
0.865
62,000 cbf eliminated. Savings in painting costs are es-
33,000ebf timated to average over $7000 a year for a small
69,000cbf aluminum ship.
Aft
12 knots
1100 bhp (reed. rpm) Hull Repairs and Insurance
Painting and sandblasting costs have been
mentioned. If gross tonnage is lower because hull
dimensions are reduced for a given deadweight
capacity, dry-docking expenses will be less versus
a larger steel ship of the,. same capacity. Be-
cause of the major reduction in ship weight,
smaller drydocks can be: used, permitting a
wider choice of yards and possibly lowering costs.
The absence of corrosion and scale facilitates
cleaning and gasfreeing of cargo tanks and double
bottoms. The potential hazard of product vapor
escaping from scale and sludge is minimized.
Costs for inspecting arid cleaning tanks for change
of liquid cargo grades, as from gasoline to chem-
icals or fuel to fresh water, are substantially
less in time and money as experience with barges
has shown.
Expensive steel hull renewals are required in
tanker service after 8 to 12 years when cargoes
such as gasoline are alternated with salt-water
ballast. Protective coatings are expensive and
are costly to maintain. On an average or allow-
ance basis, renewal expense., was well over $50,000
per year for a T-2 class tanker. This cost saving
alone suggests that aluminum should be considered
for small vessels in aviation jet fuel and similar
trades.
Hull damages from striking piers, slamming,
and groundings will be less extensive for aluminum
because of the increased resiliency. Although
plate renewal m a y cost about 30 percent more than
for the same area in steel, total repairs m a y be
less when dry docking, gasfreeing, cleaning, scrap
allowance, painting, and ship-time costs are in-
cluded.
Port Charges
If a'mninum permits a srnaller ship design with
less gross tonnage for a given cargo weight, if
draft is reduced, or if more deadweight capacity
is made available per ~ o s s ton, port charges
will be reduced in total or on a cargo-ton basis.
Docking, harbor dues, pilotage, dry docking,
Aluminum--The Age of Ships 367
berthing, canal dues, and tug charges are items
which usually depend on gross or draft. If
smaller for a given deadweight, the light-metal
ship can more readily maneuver and dock without
tugs. This overall potential saving would nat-
urally be relatively more important for a ship
making, say, 50 or more voyages a year.
Residual or Scrap Value
Aluminum has a high scrap value, and a hull
would be worth 6 to 7 times the same hull in steel
after 20 to 25 years. For a 499 ship, scrap value
would be equivalent to about 24 percent of the
original U.S. building cost premium.
Reduced Draft and Additional Customers
An aluminum ship will draw about 2 ft less
than a duplicate steel ship for a given cargo ton-
nage. When the steel 499 is down to 12 ft, for
example, the aluminum alternate will be down
only to 10 ft 10 in. She could, therefore, call at
shallower ports with an economic cargo quantity.
More shipper-customers and charterers would be
available on more routes. The Manchester Canal,
Erie Canal, St. Lawrence Seaway, the Finnish
Canal, the Parana, and Danube are routes of re-
stricted depths. Shallower small ports abound in
the Caribbean.
Cooler Holds and Tanks
Almninum has a higher reflectivity and will
absorb less heat from the sun. Tanker cargo
wiU be substantially cooler in hot weather. Po-
tential saving from reduced cargo evaporation loss
might be in the middle five figures annually per
ship, depending on cargo grade, value, and route.
Cargo holds in a freighter would also be cooler
on the average. In some cases this might reduce
heat problems with cargo in the 'tween deck,
perhaps also serving to reduce sweat damage.
The reflectivity advantage should also serve to
reduce to some extent the amount of insulation
required for a refrigerated vessel.
Bulk Liquid Cargoes
Aluminum has proven very attractive for tank
vessels and deep tanks in carrying vegetable oils,
sensitive chemicals, and steel-corrosive cargoes
such as fertilizer solutions. Cleanliness and lack
of corrosion result in a faster, cheaper cleaning
process, with easier, faster inspections and fewer
tank rejections. An aluminmn 499 could readily
be adapted to utilize some of the deadweight
gain serving the world's mushrooming liquid-
fertilizer industry.
When these benefits are analyzed with a spe-
cific ship and trade route in mind, the economic
368 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Table 3 Comparisonof Cargo Deadweight
Aluminum Steel
Hull and house . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 378
Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 100
Outfit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 150
Subtotal, dry weight 405 628
Fuel and water allowance.. 100 100
Total weight, wet . . . . . . . . . 505 tons 728 tons
Displacement at 12 ft draft.. 1472tons 1472 tons
Cargo deadweight . . . . . . . . . . 967 tons 744 tons
Gain due to aluminum . . . . . . 223 tons
Percent increase . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
case for aluminunl looks bright. Mr. Lindsay has
made such an analysis. I t is important to notice
that a strong argument for almninum is presented
without drawing on the operational and mis-
cellaneous benefits. These additional monetary
gains further justify aluminmn's consideration.
The particulars for a representative 499-gross
ton, open-shelterdeck liner type of cargo ship are
listed in Table 2 and the potential economic bene-
fits are reviewed in Tables 3 and 4.
In this instance, although the aluminmn design
costs 19..5 percent more to build, it is less expensive
on a cargo-ton basis. More important, it has the
capability of earning up to 30 percent more
revenue per trip, per year, or over its life, subject
to port delays, with no increase in the major ves-
sel costs of wages, fuel, and port charges. Financ-
ing and insurance costs would increase, offset to
some degree by a possible saving in maintenance
and supplies.
Assuming full utilization of the deadweight gain
in each direction over 13 round voyages annually
on a liner schedule, and a new freight or hire rate
equivalent to $10 per ton FIO, the almninum ship
might earn up to $58,000 more per year before
marginal cost changes and taxes. This figure is
27 percent of the U.S. building-cost differential.
There are m a n y types of vessels that can bene-
fit from aluminum construction. The list of ad-
vantages changes for each type. However, the
common denominator for all of them is that the
choice of aluminum makes sense.
Brief Application Review
Aluminum's present position has been a step-
by-step development. Experience gained in fab-
ricating and designing components and small
hulls has permitted this industry to tackle ships
with a reasonable amount of confidence. Some
of these stepping stones are listed in the following
paragraphs.
Deckhouses
One of the oldest uses for aluminum has been
 Fig. 5 View of 100-ft aluminum barge NMS 1202. Launched at lngalls Shipbuilding,
Pascagoula, Miss., delivered January 16, 1962
Table 4
Hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Machinery, outfit . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate total cost . . . . . . . . $1,315,000
Cost per cargo ton . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 1,380
Reduction due to aluminum .... 8 percent
o In U.S.A.
for superstructures and deckhouses [18,19]. I t
permits luxury liners to carry additional passengers
and still meet rigorous stability requirements.
New merchant ships are wedded to high-speed,
semiautomated designs. These hulls have been
fined for greater speed, with the result that top-
side weight is critical. Aluminum is an obvious
answer and is generally given careful review for
each new design.
Hatch Covers
Aluminum hatch covers have been used on a
number of foreign ships. United States develop-
ment has been limited. The two ships that the
author has worked on are the Edward L. Ryerson,
a Great Lakes ore ship, and the J. Louis, a
bauxite carrier. Some Canadian ships have been
built with aluminum covers in the past few years.
There has been new interest in aluminum covers,
however. Topside weight on container ships can
be critical. Aluminum covers can reduce ballast
requirements and increase the number of con-
tainers that can be carried on deck.
Fishing Boats
Aluminum has been used with marked success
for the 35-ft purse seiners used in the menhaden
industry. Each year more of the fleet is switched
to aluminum.
The seining operation requires a rugged, light
boat. Aluminum has been the answer to both
requirements.
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Cost Comparison-
$ 450,000 at $1.30/lb $ 280,000 at $0.33/lb
885,000 820,000
$1,100,000
$ 1,480
Yachts
I t is generally conceded that, all factors being
considered, an aluminum hull offers an owner more
for his money than either fiber glass, wood, or
steel. The superiority of aluminum as a hull
material for yachts designed to compete in in-
ternational racing has become obvious.
Nineteen aluminum yachts competed in the
Newport to Bermuda race this year. The first
two to complete the run were aluminum. Ten
aluminum yachts finished in the first 50 craft
on the basis of corrected time.
Ten of the 19 yachts will also participate in
the transatlantic race from Bermuda to Denmark.
Crewboats
As the petroleum industry discovered producing
wells further offshore, their transportation prob-
lem grew. Several methods were tried, including
helicopters. High-speed crewboats appear to
be the best solution.
Aluminum construction offers additional capac-
ity, increased speed, durability, and a minimum
amount of maintenance time. Because of these
advantages, aluminum's popularity has grown
rapidly. Several hundred of these craft are now
in operation in the Gulf and Lake Maracaibo.
Their lengths range from 55 to 116 ft.
Hydrofoils
The Maritime Administration's 104-ft Den-
nison and the N a v y ' s l l 5 - f t Highpoint (PCH)
369
Table 5 Comparison of Load Draft and Capacity for
a Steel and Aluminum Tanker
Petrol Capacity, Short Tons
Increase for
Load Steel Aluminum aluminum,
draft tanker tanker percent
7.5 763 930 20
6.5 619 772 25
4.6 335 477 42
were two of the early, m a j o r hydrofoil hulls in
this country. Hydrofoils are used extensively
in foreign countries. United States' acceptance
has been slow.
T h e promise of high speed and maneuverability
intrigues the N a v y . Their hydrofoil program is
continuing and they expect to have fully opera-
tional hydrofoils in the fleet in the near future.
Barges
I n 1961 two aluminum t a n k barges were con-
tracted for. T h e p r i m a r y objective of this pro-
g r a m was to prove aluminum as a hull material
a n d to establish a m a r k e t for specialty chemical
products [20]. Both barges have performed ad-
m i r a b l y in service, M a n y of the questions regard-
ing aluminum's suitability have been answered.
T h e operational record of the aluminum barges
attests to t h a t fact.
T h e N M S 1202, Fig. 5, a 100 ft b y 50 ft unit
which is operated b y National Marine Service,
w a s in drydock at Levingston Shipyard last year
f o r repairs to her bow. T h e basic hull was in
excellent condition. Weld beads were defined
a s originally laid down, discounting pessimistic
statements t h a t abrasion in this t y p e service
would be too severe for aluminum.
I n 1963 a 195 ft b y 52 ft 6 in. barge was built
f o r Union Carbide. I t also has performed as
expected.
T h r e e years ago m o s t papers on aluminum in
the marine field would have covered these topics
in more detail because there really was not m u c h
m o r e to discuss. T h a t situation has changed!
The Age of Ships
Forerunners
T h e first all-aluminum ship was built in Ger-
m a n y in 1960. I t was christened the Aluminia,
a n appropriate name for a distinctive vessel.
T h e tanker is 223 ft long, has a 26-ft b e a m and
a d e p t h of 12 ft. Its hold capacity is 47,340 cu
ft and is capable of lifting 950 tons of petrol or
1160 tons of diesel oil.
I t has been operating on the Rhine River for
Esso Tankshiff Reederei. Recent reports in-
370 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
dicate t h a t it is in excellent condition and has
performed as expected.
Table 5 compares the draft and capacity of the
Aluminia with an equivalent steel hull. A review
of the table will quickly point out the potential
advantages of aluminum in this trade.
The outer hull of the Aluminia is 0.35 in. plate,
3 percent magnesium, while the decks and floor
plates are 0.47 in. thick, 5 percent magnesium
alloy. Corrugated bulkheads were used to fa-
cilitate cleaning.
T h e Aluminia was closely followed b y the con-
struction of an aluminum bunker boat, the
Marleen. Particulars on the Marleen are listed
in Table 6.
Aluminum was chosen for Marleen's construc-
tion because of the need for a vessel t h a t could give
rapid delivery of m o t o r fuel, lubricating oil, and
drinking water to other ships on the Rhine. High
speed and good maneuverability were key re-
quirements.
Three high-speed diesels drive light metal pro-
pellers through a reversing reduction gear. En-
gines and gearing can be started from and operated
from a control stand independent of one another.
I n March, 1961, a new t y p e of inland vessel was
introduced to shipping circles. This was the in-
land t a n k motorship A T R 1. I t is a combination
steel and aluminum design. T h e midsection of
the vessel is aluminum. The bow and the stern
of the ship are steel. T h e particulars of the vessel
are given in Table 7.
T h e connection of individual parts is b y a
screw flange connection. The midship section
is made up of two parallel 9-ft-dia tubes. The
tubes are connected b y a flat b o t t o m with longi-
tudinal stiffening forming a center t a n k of the
same capacity as b o t h tubes together. T h e en-
tire midship section is stiffened at intervals b y
large transverse members. A transverse bulkhead
divides the midship section into six cargo tanks.
Theoretically, a number of these aluminum sec-
tions can be joined together forming a large in-
tegrated vessel.
There are other t a n k ship hulls operating on the
Rhine. E v e n though they have not contributed
directly to the fund of U.S. aluminum knowledge,
they have all played an i m p o r t a n t indirect role.
Knowing t h a t they are in operation and perform-
ing satisfactorily is a fact t h a t cannot be over-
looked.
Continuing U.S. Expansion and Growth
Increased interest in aluminum for all types of
vessels has resulted in the construction of several
new classes. Admittedly, not all of these craft
can be classified as ships; nonetheless, they are
 Table 6
Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 ft
Breadth on frame . . . . . . . . . 17 ft
Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61/~ft
Molded depth . . . . . . . . . . . . 81/~ft
Carrying capacity . . . . . . . . . 180 tons
Tank capacities:
Diesel fuel oil . . . . . . . . . . . 150 tons
Drinking water . . . . . . . . . 35 tons
Lubricating oil . . . . . . . . . . 7 tons
Used oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 tons
Fig. 6 View of 50-ft "Swift" boats on patrol in Viet
N a m (photo courtesy of U. S. Navy)
i m p o r t a n t in t h e i r own r i g h t a n d d e s e r v e a quick
review a t this time.
T h e w a r in V i e t N a m focused a t t e n t i o n on t h e
need for high-speed, s h a l l o w - d r a f t p a t r o l boats.
T h e u r g e n t n e e d for this t y p e of vessel r e s u l t e d in
orders for 104 50-ft a l u m i n u m hulled c r e w b o a t s .
T h e official d e s i g n a t i o n for t h e c r a f t is P a t r o l
C r a f t F a s t ( P C F ) , b u t t h e y are u s u a l l y called t h e
" S w i f t , " Fig. 6. O v e r 75 of t h e b o a t s h a v e been
d e l i v e r e d a n d a r e now on p a t r o l off t h e c o a s t of
Viet Nam.
T h e speed is s t a t e d b y t h e N a v y to be in "ex-
cess" of 25 k n o t s . W i t h a 3 ~ - f t d r a f t a n d t w i n
G M diesels, t h e b o a t s should be a b l e to m e e t t h a t
speed w i t h o u t a n y difficulty. T o p speed is classi-
fied.
The boats are being built by Sewart Seacraft,
Inc., in Berwick, La. H u l l p l a t i n g is 5456 alloy.
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Marleen Particulars
Engine output . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 X 150 hp
Speed in calm water . . . . . . . . 15 mph
Speed of delivery:
Diesel fuel oil . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 imp. gpm
Drinking water . . . . . . . . . . . 165 imp. gpm
Lubricating oil . . . . . . . . . . . 11 imp. gpm
Table 7 Particulars--ATR-1
Fore part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 ~ ft
Stern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 ft
Midship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 ft
Coupling parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291/~ ft
Molded breadth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 ~ ft
Molded depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ft
Draft loaded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ~ ft
Engine output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 X 450 hp
Carrying capacity . . . . . . . . . . . 900 tons ~
a One midship piece.
N o a r m o r is installed. S p e e d a n d m a n e u v e r a -
b i l i t y is t h e c r a f t ' s m a i n defense.
T h e b o a t s c a r r y a n offensive wallop. T w o 50-
c a l i b e r a i r c r a f t - t y p e m a c h i n e guns a r e m o u n t e d
on t o p of t h e wheelhouse. A 50-caliber m a c h i n e
gun is p o s i t i o n e d w i t h an 81-ram m o r t a r on t h e
afterdeck.
T h e crew consists of five E M ' s , one officer, a n d
a South Vietnamese naval representative.
After World War II the Navy had an ample
s u p p l y of l a n d i n g crafts. T h e L a n d i n g C r a f t
M e c h a n i z e d 8 ( L C M - 8 ) f o u n d wide use as a
u t i l i t y vessel. T i m e , however, h a s t a k e n its toll
of m o s t of t h e s e vessels. A c c o r d i n g t o one source,
all of t h e W o r l d W a r I I v i n t a g e L C M - 8 ' s will
h a v e been s u r v e y e d b y 1970.
T h e design of t h e s e vessels h a d a b a s i c dis-
a d v a n t a g e . T h e steel hulls weighed a b o u t 50
tons. S h i p b o a r d c r a n e s were r a t e d a t 40 t o n s or
less. F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of logistics i t was
d e s i r a b l e to k e e p t h e hull weight down. A f t e r
careful s t u d y , t h e a l l - a l u m i n u m L C M - 8 design
evolved.
T w e n t y - e i g h t b o a t s were b i d in April. L o w
b i d d e r for t h e 73 f t 6 in. b y 21 ft 1 in. c r a f t was
M a r i n e t t e M a r i n e in M a r i n e t t e , Wis. Hull
w e i g h t is a b o u t 53,000 lb consisting m a i n l y of
0.375 a n d 0.312-in. 5086-H32 p l a t e a n d 4 X 3 X
5/36 in. a n d 4 X 3 X 3~-in. 5 0 8 6 - H l 1 2 s t r u c t u r a l s .
T h e coxswain will be p r o t e c t e d b y 7039 a l u m i n u m
a r m o r plate. H o i s t i n g weight will b e well w i t h i n
t h e c r a n e limits.
T h e s a m e a d v a n t a g e of r e d u c e d h o i s t i n g w e i g h t
is b e i n g a p p l i e d t o a c o m m e r c i a l b e a c h i n g craft.
T h e Pacific I n l a n d N a v i g a t i o n C o m p a n y , V a n -
couver, W a s h . , services r e m o t e D E W line s t a t i o n s
in N o r t h e r n A l a s k a . T h i s logistics o p e r a t i o n is a
371
 race between men, equipment, and the ice. There
are a few months each year when the ice breaks
loose and opens a channel. During this period, a
sea-going supply barge is towed along the coast.
Since there are no port facilities, all cargo is
lightered.
The craft is the first of its kind in this trade and
will undoubtedly open up new uses for shallow-
draft commercial vessels. With the absence of
good roads and railroads, water transportation
is of the utmost importance to the Alaskan econ-
omy.
The lighter, Fig. 7, was designed by L. R.
Glosten & Associates and was built by Marine
Construction and Design in Seattle of 5086-H34
alloy. This is the same alloy and temper which
has exhibited excellent resistance to abrasion and
grounding in four years of barge service. MARCO
built this craft under a 110-day contract.
Last year the Bureau of Ships solicited bids for
the design and construction of two high-speed
hydrofoil gunboats (PGH). The operational
parameters were established by the Navy, but
they left the basic design to the contractor.
The successful bidders were Boeing and Grumman.
Boeing's analysis resulted in a 71-ft LOA hull
with a 25-ft beam. Full load displacement is
estimated at 57 tons. It will have a light scantling
welded 5456 hull and a riveted 6061 house. Foils
and struts will be 17-4 PH stainless steel and it
will be water jet propelled. Speed will be in
excess of 40 knots. Delivery of the vessel is
scheduled for late 1967.
These craft are to be part of a 36-vessel pro-
gram. If the designs perform as expected, this
class could become the first fully operational hydro-
foil in the Navy's fleet.
96-Ft Yacht
Aluminum yachts have continued to grow in
size, keeping pace with aluminum's progress in
other areas. The Burger Boat Company in
Manitowoc, Wis., has made an annual event of
launching the "largest" aluminum yacht. In
1965 the honors went to the 85-ft Aquarius. As
past history has shown, its reign was short-lived.
The year 1966 was highlighted by the building
and delivery of the 96-ft Titan, Fig. 8. The 96-ft
cruiser was designed by J. B. Hargrave and in-
corporates a host of features to make cruising as
delightful as possible for the owner and her
guests [21].
The dining room features built-in cabinets and a
buffet. The deck lounge is over 20-ft long and is
highlighted by a large built-in bar.
The owner's stateroom is extremely spacious
a n d has a large walk-in locker. There is one very
372 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Fig. 7 View of 78-ft beaching lighter on trials at
Marine Construction and Design in Seattle, Wash.
large guest's stateroom and a smaller double-
berth stateroom. The Titan will have quarters
for five crewmen.
Construction is of all-welded 5086 aluminum
alloy. Power will be supplied by twin Cater-
pillar D-343 diesels. The vessel will be navigated
from a raised pilothouse.
106-Ft Catamaran
John Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.,
commissioned George Meese, an Annapolis naval
architect, to design a ship that would be ideally
suited for physical oceanography. The vessel is
intended to be a 150-ton floating laboratory and
will work the Chesapeake Bay and the continental
shelf. Its range of operation will be in compara-
tively shallow water, 100 fathoms or less. Its
minimum draft will permit it to operate in in-
shore areas where conventional craft of its size
could not.
Bethlehem Shipbuilding in Baltimore is con-
structing the 106-ft all-welded 5086 alloy cata-
maran, Fig. 9. The 150-ton vessel has a 33-ft
beam and a draft of 61~ ft. The diesels will pro-
duce a total of 2400 bhp and will give the ship a
cruising speed of 18 knots.
116-Ft Crewboat
Aluminum has made steady progress and has
shown continued acceptance for offshore crew-
boats. With expanded usage, the size of the hulls
has also increased. This year, four all-aluminum
crewboats, 116 ft long, were built by the Breaux
Bay Craft in Loreauville, La., Fig. 10. These
boats were ordered by the T w e n t y Grand Com-
pany because they offered improved stability
and their minimum deadweight made possible
maximum power utilization. These vessels are
expected to be operational in 15-ft seas. T h e y
will be powered by two ll00-hp Caterpillar diesel
engines giving the boat a top running speed of
25 mph. According to Mr. Roy Breaux, this
horsepower would produce about 18 mph if a
heavy hull material was used. The boat will
 Fig. 8 View of 96-ft Titan under construction at Burger Boat Company, Inc.,
Manitowoc, Wis.
Fig. 9 Model of 106-ft c a t a m a r a n
operate in the Gulf of Mexico and will be capable
of carrying 50 men and a large amount of equip-
ment and supplies to and from the offshore drill-
ing rigs.
Breaux-built erewboats feature stout 5083
scantlings and are designed to take heavy pound-
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
ings. Each l l 6 - f t craft will utilize about 125,000
Ib of alloy.
117-Ft General Cargo Ship
An all-aluminum general cargo ship was
launched in 1966 and has gone into service in
British Guiana. The vessel, the MV Independ-
ence, Fig. 11, was built by Sprostons Shipyard.
It services MeKenzie and Georgetown on the
Demerara River. The ship displaces 300 tons.
It is 117 ft 9 in. long and has a 26-ft beam. Light
draft is 4 ft 6 in. aft and 3 ft 0 in. forward. Loaded
draft is 7 ft 6 in. The hull alloy is N P 5 / 6
(5086/5356); hull extrusions are N E 5 / 6 (5086/
5356). Weld wire is NG6. Total aluminum
used was 62 long English tons. I t will have a
crew of seven. The ship was launched on Feb-
ruary 23, 1966.
165-Ft Navy Gunboats
In 1962 the Bureau of Ships designed a new
high-speed motor gunboat, Fig. 12. This vessel,
originally planned in steel, had exacting opera-
tional criteria. The preliminary design was re-
viewed and found unsatisfactory. Steel scantlings
were light, and there was some question as to their
adequacy. Rather than compromise, the N a v y
decided to take a close look at aluminum.
Exacting operational criteria had to be met for
the design. The ship had to be well armed,
capable of high speeds; it had to be of rugged
construction, capable of shallow-draft operation,
and, of course, it had to be dependable.
373

Fig. 10 View of 116-ft crewboat under construction at Breaux Bay Craft
Fig. 11 View of 117-ft MV Independence in operation
on the Demerara River. Built by Sprostons Shipyard,
British Guiana
Contract drawings were prepared by Gibbs and
Cox of New York. The vessels were then let out
to bid. The low bidder was T a c o m a Boatbuilding
Company, Inc., Tacoma, Wash. The engineering
staff of T a c o m a Boatbuilding in conjunction with
Philip Spaulding, Seattle N a v a l Architects, trans-
ferred the general concept of the P G M into work-
ing drawings. Reynolds Metals C o m p a n y pro-
vided technical services on aluminum throughout
the design and fabrication phases.
Most of the metal in this vessel is aluminum
alloy 5086-H32. Specific design considerations,
however, called for extrusions of alloys 5086-
H l 1 2 and 5456-H311. T h e main casting alloy
was A356-T6. Strut bossings are forged 5086.
Bottom, bow plating, and sheer strake are
in. thick. Side plating is 0.375 and 0.313
in. thick. Deck plating is 1~ in. thick outboard
and 0.188 in. thick inboard. Aluminum plate,
3~ in. thick, is used in the aft b o t t o m section
of the ship.
T h e entire hull is welded by the metal inert-gas
method. An argon-helium mixture was employed
as the shielding gas. Alloy 5356 filler wire was
374 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
:~~ :
Fig. 12 View of 165-ft high-speed aluminum gunboat.
Sea trials conducted in Puget Sound. Built by Tacoma
Boatbuilding Company, Inc., Tacoma, Wash.
used. Automatic welding was used for deck,
platform, and bulkhead plating. Welding se-
quence was carefully controlled to minimize
distortion and to facilitate fit-up of the various
subassemblies.
In general, all framing members were contin-
uously welded. A small a m o u n t of intermittent
welding was done on the platform deck longi-
tudinals. !
Ten percent of all intersections of welded b u t t ~
joints and one spot in each 20 ft of butts and seams
within the 3~ midship length were Xrayed. Ra-
diographs were checked against N A V S H I P S
250-692-2.
Cutting of aluminum shapes and plates was
done with ordinary mechanical tools. Plasma
arc was used for heavy-plate contour cutting.
Cutting equipment used included rotary, all-
purpose, saber and band saws, routers, electric
planers, sanders, and milling machines.
Aluminum 7-12 alloy anodes were welded to the
hull to reduce electrolysis. Two 2-in. X 2-in.
 Fig. 13 View of 212-ft USS Plainview after launching at the Lockheed Shipbuilding and
Construction Company, Seattle, Wash.
extrusions, 20 ft long, were installed between the
propellers and the centerline keel. T w o sections,
25 ft long, were installed port and starboard in the
midships area just below the turn of the bilge.
T h e diesel, lube oil, flesh water, hydraulic oil,
and compressed air lines are 6061-T6 aluminum.
Sea-water circulation, firemain, flushing, plumb-
ing, and magazine sprinkling are copper nickel.
Some stainless steel and copper tubing are also
used. Because these systems are complex and
difficult to isolate fully from the effects of galvanic
corrosion, waster aluminum anodes were installed
at all underwater hull openings. These anodes
will protect the hull from a n y unusual corrosive
attack.
The propulsion plant for this vessel is interest-
ing. T h e gunboats are powered b y two 900-bhp
lightweight Cummings diesel engines and a single
14,000-bhp General Electric gas turbine. Power
is transferred into a nonreversing double-reduction
gear to two o u t p u t shafts with gear-drive, con-
trollable-pitch screws. Power from the diesels
will be used for normal cruising operations with
the 14,000-bhp gas turbine restricted to high-
speed bursts. The top speed of this vessel is
classified.
Fire power will be from a 3-in. forward gun with
a 40-ram gun aft. The 50-caliber machine guns
will be mounted on the 0-2 level. T h e vessels
are designed for counterinsurgency warfare.
Their high speed and shallow-draft capabilities
will be a valuable asset to the N a v y .
P G M 84 was launched M a y 1, 1965, and chris-
tened the USS Asheville. Sea trials were carried
out in the spring of 1966. Table 8 lists the par-
ticulars of the ship.
At present, there are 17 vessels contracted for.
T a c o m a Boat has contracts for 12, and Peterson
Builders in Sturgeon Bay, Wis., has contracts for 5.
Twenty-four aluminum gunboats were authorized
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Table 8 AshevilleParticulars
Length overall . . . . 164 ft, 6 in.
Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 ft, 10~ in.
Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 ft, 7 in.
Displacement . . . . . 230 tons
Propulsion . . . . . . . . Twin Cummings diesels, providing
1750 hp for normal cruising, and a
General Electric gas turbine, pro-
ducing 13,500 hp, for maximum
speed.
Hull structure ..... 5086-H32aluminum plate and 5086-
H112 aluminum extrusions.
Nominal plating thickness, 1~ in.
Crew . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximately $2,500,000, plus ap-
proximately $500,000 in govern-
ment-furnished equipment.
in the initial program. There is every reason to
believe, however, t h a t the gunboat complement
will be increased.
| 68-Ft Menhaden Steamer
Fish Meal C o m p a n y at Moss Point, Miss.,
has had significant success with their 36-ft alu-
m i n u m purse seiners. The c o m p a n y owns 26
boats and has started construction on 24 more.
Maintenance durability and longer life are the
primary features of aluminum construction.
According to Fish Meal Company, the average
life of the old steel purse seiner was a b o u t 6
years. T h e y calculate at least double the life
for an aluminum hull. One of their aluminum
purse seiners is 6 years old and is still in excellent
shape.
T h e successful operation of the small boats
p r o m p t e d Fish Meal to take a close look at alu-
m i n u m for the mother ship. Steel menhaden
steamers have a useful life of 10 to 15 years with
an average annual maintenance of $7000. Alu-
m i n u m ' s potential advantages were attractive.
Work has begun on a 168 X 28 X 12-ft men-
375
 Table 9 Particulars--USS Plainview
Length overall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.4 ft
Maximum beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.8 ft
Maximum draft, foils extended . . . . . . . 25.05 ft
Maximum draft, foil retracted . . . . . . . . 6 ft
Full load displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 toils
Speed, subeavitating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50+ knots
Speed, supercavitating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80+ knots
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 or 4, 15,000 hp
Gas turbines
Available weapons load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 tons

Table 10 Particulars of 226-Ft Trailer Ship

Specifications
Length overall . . . . . . . . . 226 ft
Beam molded . . . . . . . . . . 44 ft
Depth at side . . . . . . . . . . 28 ft
Maximum draft . . . . . . . . 12 ft 103/8 in. S.W.
Design draft . . . . . . . . . . . 10 ft 3 in. S.W. Fig. 14 Model of 226-ft ocean-going ship
Displacement at max
draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2200 tons
Displacement at design be in excess of 40 k n o t s w i t h t h e s u b c a v i t a t i n g
draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1570 tons
Total deadweight at foils. T h e p r o p u l s i o n pods a n d s t r u t s a r e fully
design draft . . . . . . . . . . 1080 long tons retractable.
Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 knots
Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 General Motors 16-cylinder A b o u t 250,000 lb of 5456 a l l o y was used, 80
1500-bhp diesels p e r c e n t of which consisted of large e x t r u d e d p a n e l s
Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 four-blade stainless steel w i t h i n t e g r a l stiffeners. T h e four basic shapes
screws
Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roll-on, roll-off cargo r a n g e d from 13 to 25 in. in w i d t h a n d were
Cargo capacity . . . . . . . . . 40 van-type trailers s u p p l i e d in l e n g t h s as long as 40 ft. T h e p a n e l s
Aluminum required . . . . . 760,000 lb were a s s e m b l e d in a special welding j i g designed
Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5086
Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bottomplate 1~ 2 in., side a n d f a b r i c a t e d b y Lockheed. T h e y p r o v i d e d
plate ~ in. m a x i m u m s t r e n g t h w i t h m i n i m u m weight.
Operating range . . . . . . . . Florida to Puerto Rico
Builder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . American Marine Corporation, Sea trials on t h e Plainview were c o n d u c t e d a t
New Orleans P u g e t S o u n d in t h e s p r i n g of 1966.
Lessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boothe Leasing Corporation, T h e use of fully s u b m e r g e d foils in a research
subsidiary of Greyhound
Corp. vessel this size is e x p e c t e d to a n s w e r m a n y oper-
Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . South Atlantic & Caribbean a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . T h e ship will be m a n n e d b y a
Lines, Inc., subsidiary of crew of 20 i n c l u d i n g 6 officers.
United Tanker Corp.
226-Ft Trailer Ship
h a d e n s t e a m e r . T h e ship will r e q u i r e a p p r o x i - T h e m o d e l shown in Fig. 14 is of t h e w o r l d ' s
m a t e l y 250,000 lb of a l u m i n u m . first a l l - a l u m i n u m , c o m m e r c i a l o c e a n - g o i n g ship.
T h e 226-ft vessel is b e i n g b u i l t for t h e S o u t h A t -
212-Ft Hydrofoil Ship l a n t i c a n d C a r i b b e a n Lines, Inc., a s u b s i d i a r y of
I n June, 1965, one of t h e l a r g e s t a l l - a l u m i n u m the United Tanker Corporation, New York City.
ships in t h e world was l a u n c h e d a t t h e L o c k h e e d T h e A m e r i c a n M a r i n e S h i p y a r d in N e w Orleans
Shipbuilding and Construction Company's Seat- is c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e vessel.
fie y a r d . T h e official d e s i g n a t i o n for this h y d r o - I t will c a r r y 40 trailers b e t w e e n M i a m i a n d
foil ship is G E H 1. P u e r t o Rico. P a r t i c u l a r s a r e listed in T a b l e 10.
T h e r e s e a r c h ship Plainview, Fig. 13, was au- A l u m i n u m was chosen for this ship b e c a u s e its
t h o r i z e d w i t h t h r e e o b j e c t i v e s in m i n d : p r o v i d i n g l i g h t w e i g h t will p r o v i d e for i n c r e a s e d speed,
t h e n e x t s t e p in size for h y d r o f o i l technology, i m p r o v e d s t a b i l i t y , s h a l l o w - d r a f t c a p a b i l i t y , as
p r o b i n g t h e c a v i t a t i o n b a r r i e r to higher ship well as r e d u c e d m a i n t e n a n c e . I t will also e n a b l e
speeds, a n d p r o v i d i n g a w e a p o n s p l a t f o r m for t h e ship to c a r r y a g r e a t e r p a y l o a d . Speed, in
f u r t h e r t e s t i n g of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s of p a r t i c u l a r , is critical. T h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e ship
h y d r o f o i l ships [22]. requires it to o p e r a t e on a v e r y t i g h t schedule.
T h e vessel's p a r t i c u l a r s a r e l i s t e d in T a b l e 9. Before c o n s t r u c t i o n b e g a n t h e hull was m o d e l
T h e s h i p is p o w e r e d b y t w o G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c t e s t e d b y t h e N e t h e r l a n d s S h i p M o d e l Basin in
J-79 15,000-hp gas t u r b i n e s when foil-borne a n d H o l l a n d , a n d t h e designed speed a n d p o w e r cal-
b y t w o 600-hp diesels for cruising. S p e e d s will c u l a t i o n s were confirmed.

376 Aluminum--The Age of Ships

 Fig. 15 Construction of bow of 226-ft trailer ship
The ship is a twin-screw, diesel-propelled, open-
shelter-deck vessel and will be operated as a roll-
on/roll-off trailer ship. The main deck will carry
20 refrigerated or conventional trailers. There
will also be 20 conventional trailers stored on the
weather deck.
Two G M 1500-hp diesels will drive separate
shafts through reverse and reduction gears. Two
rudders with electromechanieal steering gear will
be installed.
Electrical service will be provided by two 200-kw
diesel generator sets. Normal engine room aux-
iliaries and deck equipment will be installed.
I t is expected t h a t this prototype ship will be a
forerunner of its type in similar trade. Un-
questionably its successful operation will stim-
ulate increased interest for large commercial
hulls.
Approximately 760,000 lb of 5086-H34 plate
and 5086-Hl12 extrusions are being used. The
depth of some of the frames precluded the use of
extrusions. Flanged plate is being used in this
area.
Erection and weld sequence were carefully
followed to minimize distortion. The bow sec-
tion was built upside down, Fig. 15. When fully
plated, it was flipped and joined to the midbody
section which was built in place. T h e stern as-
sembly was built separately in the upside down
position and joined to the midbody.
To insure the success of this ship, m a n y detail
areas were carefully scrutinized. A 9 ft 4-in. b y
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
22 ft deck section was built b y the Reynolds
Metals C o m p a n y Experimental Center and tested
for reaction under trailer loading.
Ten tests were conducted. Eight were single-
point static tests ranging from 12,000-1b to 26,000-
lb loads. A 40,000-1b dual-point static test was
also applied. T e s t loads were applied through
10 X 20-in. rubber pads to simulate the rubber
tires of the trailers.
A dual-point dynamic test was carried through
1,041,900 cycles. M a x i m u m applied load was
26,000 lb, and the m i n i m u m was 3000.
T h e purpose of the test was to determine the
o p t i m u m plate thickness and stiffener size and
spacing. D a t a obtained were analyzed, and
l~-in, deck plating with 4 X 3 X 5/~6-in. longitudinal
tees on 18-in. centers was selected. Transverse
frames were 4 ft 0 in. center to center.
The dynamic test was run primarily to check
the intermittent fillet weld pattern of the trans-
verse and longitudinal members. Fillets of
a/~ in. and 5/~6 in. were used, respectively, in a
6-in. and 18-in. staggered pattern. Upon com-
pletion of the test, the test specimen was thor-
oughly examined. No fatigue failures were found
in the welds or in the parent metal.
A test program was also conducted to test the
trailer hold-down fittings, Fig. 16, and their ef-
fect on the deck structure.
T h e design load was established at 70,000 lb.
T h e 70,000 lb pull was cycled several times, and
then the specimen was taken to failure. At
377
97,800 the forged steel " D " ring fractured. No
failures were detected in either the aluminum hold-
down strap or in the deck structure.
Other areas studied include: hull vibration,
stern door design, cathodic protection, deckhouse
sheathing and joiner work, dissimilar metal piping
systems, and welding techniques for confined
spaces.
The ship is scheduled for launching in the fall
of 1966 with delivery in early 1967.

Closing Remarks

Required Researchand Development Efforts

Continued technological advancement is man-
datory if aluminum is to maintain and to improve Fig. 16 Trailer ship hold-down fitting test specimen
its position in the marine field. Although the
weldability, strength, and corrosion resistance of and the effects of corrosion at great depths is
the present aluminum alloys is adequate, new alloys being studied.
would be welcomed. The welded strength of The use of polyurethane coatings and portable
today's aluminum alloys is less than the parent ultrasonic testing equipment is being evaluated.
strength of the material. It would be desirable to The strain-gage programs on the aluminum
have an alloy that would provide 100 percent barge, gunboat, Aluminaut, and miscellaneous
efficiency. items will help fill in voids in today's design tech-
The welding process used today is generally nology.
acceptable. However, it was not designed with the Several N a v y research programs on the prop-
peculiarities of shipbuilding in mind. Clean erties of aluminum are providing new data.
metal is necessary for sound welds. Preliminary Preliminary results from the drop-weight tear
work has been done on automatic cleaning pro- test and explosion bulge tests being conducted
cedures. Perhaps some day a machine will be by the Naval Research Laboratories are encour-
available that will combine the cleaning and weld- aging. Abrasion tests run on sample plates at-
ing operation. tached to the bow of a landing craft show no ma-
The bulkiness of today's welding equipment is a terial difference between the wear patterns of
disadvantage. Lighter and more durable guns aluminum and steel.
with longer cable lengths would be a definite asset The structural aluminum fire test program being
to shipyard welding. prepared by the HS-6 panel of SNAME will pro-
A gas shielding procedure that would allow for duce the data necessary to establish a set of stand-
high-quality welding out-of-doors would be help- ards for insulating aluminum. SOLAS 60 and
ful. Today, the welding of aluminum without the U.S.C.G. now require more stringent fire
some type of protection is difficult. protection for commercial ships. Acceptable
Yards that work aluminum normally modify insulation systems for steel structures have been
existing tools to suit their particular needs. The established. A similar set of standards is needed
development of standard tools and components for aluminum.
would be welcomed. Deck fittings, stuffing boxes, Rules for building aluminum vessels would be a
seacocks, struts, and so forth, are not normally definite asset. It would facilitate ABS and
available "off the shelf." U.S.C.G. approvals and inspection.
Research need not follow a planned program to
produce useful data. The 50 ft 11 in. by 8 ft 1 Conclusion
in. dia Aluminaut is providing practical alu- M a n y years have gone by since designers first
minum information despite its unique main mis- considered the potential gains of a lightweight,
sion of a deep-diving submersible [23]. The aluminum hull. To a certain extent, m a n y of
forging and casting practices developed to pro- those advantages have not yet been fully proved.
duce the eleven 40-in-long, 61/~-in-thick cylinders The vessels described in this paper will be instru-
have advanced that state of the art. Low-cycle mental in focusing more attention to them.
fatigue data and their effect on large forgings are The vessels discussed in this paper are not large
being obtained. Cathodic protection of a hull ships. Compared to the supertankers and new

378 AluminumuThe Age of Ships

classes of cargo ships, they are very small. They
do represent, however, a step forward. It is the
author's belief that aluminum i,s well suited for
the types of vessels described and will find in-
creased use in these areas.
Undoubtedly, there will be some problems with
these first ships. Technological advancements
are rarely foolproof. It is believed, however,
that any problems will be minor and will not af-
fect the overall performance of the ships.
Where will this progress lead ? There are areas
of potential development--larger, faster naval
hulls, such as destroyers, eomraereial ships ser-
vicing restricted trade, and expanded usage of
fishing, crew, and pleasure boats. The recent prog-
ress of aluminum has been rapid. There is little
reason to doubt that the light metal which gin-
gerly stepped out into the mainstream of marine
construction in the 1890's has at last found a de-
gree of acceptance. Perhaps history will con-
firm the fact that these times were, indeed, the
age of aluminum ships.
References
1 Standard for Aluminum Mill Products,
eighth edition, Aluminum Association.
2 "Tentative Code for the Selection of
Wrought Aluminum Alloys for :Ship Structures,"
SNAME T&R Bulletin 2-5.
3 "Aluminum Alloys; Correct Use of,"
BuShips Instruction 9110.37A, October 14, 1958.
4 Corrosion of Metals, American Society for
Metals, 1958.
5 Fusion Welding Aluminum, Reynolds Met-
als Company, 1965 edition.
6 "Report of Aluminum Weld Test Pro-
gram," SNAME T&R Bulletin '.),-13.
7 Aluminum Forming, Reynolds Metals
Company, 1961.
8 "Aluminum in Contact with Other Ma-
terials," The ADA Information Bulletin 21,
The Aluminum Development Association, Lon-
don, England, December 1955.
Discussion
R. S. Little, Member: This paper points to the
slow acceptance and apprehensive attitude on the
part of the marine industry in respect to the use
of the aluminum alloys. World War II was
another retarding factor which interfered with
what might have been a period of stinmlative
development. Now that there are sizeable chem-
ical barges in service on the inland waterways,
numerous small-craft applieatiens, a 226-ft roll-
on/roll-off vessel intended for ocean service, and
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
9 E. C. B. Corlett and K. J. Fryer, "An
Aluminum River Tanker Design," Transactions
of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders,
Scotland, vol. 99, part 2, 1955-1956.
10 R. S. Little, "Introductory Notes to
Aluminum," American Bureau of Shipping.
11 Karl Angermayer, "Structural Aluminum
Design," Reynolds Metals Company.
12 "Specifications for Structures of Aluminum
Alloys," Aluminum Construction Manual, The
Aluminum Association, New York, N. Y., May
1963.
13 "Strength of Aluminum," Aluminum Com-
pany of Canada, Limited, January 1965.
14 W. Muckle, "The Design of Aluminum
Alloy Ships Structures," Kings' College, Uni-
versity of Durham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Eng-
land.
15 "Nonferrous Welding Qualification,"
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section
9.
16 "Porosity Standards," ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code Section 8.
17 T. G. Lindsay, "Economic Benefits from
Using Aluminum for Merchant Ship Hulls."
18 C.V. Boykin and lX~. L. Sellers, "Practical
Problems Relative to the Use of Aluminum
Alloys in Ship Construction," SNAME Annual
Meeting, 1953.
19 L. M. C. Robinson, "Aluminum in Ships
Structures, A Review of Current Practice,"
AMINA International Maritime Congress, Na-
ples, Italy, September 1954.
20 C . H . Holtyn, "The Design, Construction
and Operational Experience of Aluminum
Barges," SNAME Gulf Section, February 1964.
21 "Yard News," Burger Boat Company,
Inc., Manitowoc, Wis., Winter issue, 1966.
22 R. T. Miller, "Hydrofoils for Naval
Purposes," SAE-ASNE Meeting, April 1963.
23 E. 1~2.Ellwood, "The 'Aluminaut' A Deep
Submergence Vehicle," Society of Automotive
Engineers, Dayton Section, May 1965.
many topside installations oll passenger and other
types of vessels, it would appear that the use of
marine aluminum alloys is definitely increasing
in this country.
It woukt seem that the prime requisite men-
tioned by Mr. Holtyn had been achieved in that
high strength, corrosion resistant, weldable alu-
minum alloys are now available and being uti-
lized. Nevertheless, it is also good to know that
with advances in metallurgical technology, alloys
379
 o{ even higher strength and having other beneficial
properties m a y not be far from reality. While
it is appreciated t h a t both the 5000 and 6000
series of alloys have m a n y fine qualities, the
question arises as to what extent alloys in the
newly developed 7000 series m a y prove to be
even more attractive to the naval architect.
I t is understood t h a t this last mentioned group of
alloys is classed as heat treatable b u t has rapid
age-hardening properties; also, t h a t they are
generally higher in strength.
I would like to enlarge upon one p a r t of this
paper which cites certain similarities, as well as
certain differences, between the properties of
marine aluminum alloys and those of shipbuilding
steels.
On frequent occasions design comparisons are
being m a d e between t h a t which would be required
in steel and t h a t required of the corresponding
aluminum alloy structure. However, I wish to
state emphatically t h a t this approach is a result
of the type of structure, not the material. Were
the designer to be dealing with a type of structure
for which the loads could be assessed with rea-
sonable accuracy, the various design requirements
could be determined readily without making
reference to the requirements dictated for another
material. Unfortunately this has not been the
case in the past and it is quite natural, therefore,
to relate the design in aluminum to a similar
design in steel which has been known to give satis-
factory performance for m a n y years. H a d the
wealth of experience which has lead to Classifica-
tion Rules been compiled from experience with
seagoing structures of almninum instead of steel,
it is quite possible t h a t a complete reversal of the
present situation might have prevailed. How-
ever, as the author quite properly points out, for
purposes of aluminum design, empirical standards
should be used only as a guide and not be allowed
to mislead the designer. Unpublished rules are
purely guidance rules and are not at this point
baeked up b y extensive experience. I t should be
possible to benefit in proper measure from attrac-
tive properties such as the greater corrosion resist-
ance common to the marine aluminum alloys.
F r o m the standpoint of hull girder action,
deflection is one of the more difficult problems
challenging the designer. In this connection
the test cited b y the author, wherein a barge was
subject to a four-corner supporting arrangement,
is felt to be particularly severe.
Owing to the differences in moduli of elasticity
between aluminum and steel, two structural
elements of identical geometry, one of aluminum
and one of steel, would be expected to have
comparative deflections in the ratio of three to
380 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
one, respectively, for a given load pattern. To
what degree an aluminum hull subject to deflec-
tions of the aforementioned order could be
expected to withstand continual flexing through
a very large number of stress reversals in a seaway
is open to question. This same question, insofar
as classification is concerned, has largely influenced
a conservative approach in respect to allowances
for hull girder deflection. However, none of the
vessels constructed of aluminum thus far which
have been classified by the American Bureau of
Shipping have had L / D ratios sufficiently high
t h a t this factor became a critical consideration.
I t has been our practice to accept L/D ratios as
high as 30 for steel barges classed for River and
H a r b o r Service and (to correct the author in one
detail) as high as 21 for regular service on the
G r e a t Lakes.
Another phase of the deflection probRm is t h a t
associated with the design of hatch covers,
wherein the classification societies admittedly
have been conservative, and for good reason, since
the hatch cover is the all-important barrier
between the sea and the cargo carried, not to
mention sea-worthiness of the vessel as a whole.
I t is doubtful t h a t deflections in almninum hatch
covers which might be permitted purely from a
strength standpoint would be capable of maintain-
ing watertight integrity.
T h e author makes repeated mention of the
great need for guidance rules for this type of con-
struction, and I can only agree with his feelings
in this respect. However, it should be emphasized
t h a t rules are usually a reflection of experience
over m a n y years and are expected to establish
minimum acceptable structures. Mr. Holtyn
will be glad to know t h a t we at the American
Bureau have similarly realized the need for guid-
ance rules for aluminum construction; also, t h a t
a definite effort will be made to solve this problem.
A. M. Johnson, Member: Mr. Holtyn has done a fine
job with the paper and I hope he will develop
further some of the arguments he has set forth
here. I suggest t h a t a full-blown comparative
preliminary design of steel versus aluminum,
complete with an economic analysis, would add a
powerful a r g u m e n t to the generalities expressed in
the paper.
T h e author has emphasized the weight savings
for equal strength. How about increased strength
and ruggedness for equal weight? After all, an
aluminum plate three times the thickness of an
A-7 structural steel plate of equal area is of sub-
stantially the same weight b u t is a b o u t nine times
the cross-sectional modulus, has about nine times
the bending strength, and will absorb, roughly,
27 times as much energy before it yields. A n y
marine structure subject to substantial abuse can
benefit from strength characteristics such as these.
Doesn't this suggest an aluminum hull for opera-
tion in ice ?
The author describes Naval ship policy regard-
ing the use of alloy 5456 as spelled out in
B U S H I P S Instruction 9110.37A. T h a t Instruc-
tion was cancelled in 1961. I t is true that during
the early use of this alloy a restriction was placed
on its application to vital structures. This restric-
tion stemmed from advice from some aluminum
manufacturers t h a t they questioned the stress-
corrosion properties of any alloy having more
than five percent magnesium. This belief was
not held by all primary producers of aluminum.
In order to bring the confused status of the
alloy to a resolution, a long-term research program
was begun at the Marine Engineering Laboratory.
The details of the program and results m a y be
found in M E L Report 68 101A Sub-Project
S-R007 01 02 Task 0701, published April 27, 1964.
This report was also presented as a paper at the
Marine Corrosion Symposium of the National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, held March
9-13, 1964 in Chicago, Illinois. T h e meat of
that report, as it concerns Alloy 5456 plate, is that
the stressed specimens showed no signs of stress-
corrosion cracking after five years of exposure to
sea water.
Naval ship design policy was changed in 1964
to unrestricted use of 5456-H321 or Hl12. This
policy is reflected in recent ship specifications.
In the introduction the author compares the
results of the S N A M E weld test with industry
figures. I believe tile statement comparing
"statistical averages" with "industry minimum"
could be misinterpreted. By "industry minimum"
does he mean the low end of the band of averages ?
In any event, Fig. 13 of the S N A M E report shows
the average tensile strengths of welded 5456-H321
to be about 46 ksi and of 5086-H34 or H32 to be
about 39 ksi. These values are substantially the
same as the average strengths shown in Fig. 2 of
the paper.
Prof. Harry Benford, Member: Mr. Holtyn's sum-
mary of the state-of-the-art of aluminum alloy
ships seems carefully and fairly considered. If
anything, he m a y be too conservative in advoca-
ting the application of aluminum to relatively
small, slow-speed ships. We have little use for
such ships in U. S. waters. Furthermore, the
growing trend toward high-speed container ships,
as well as the developing need for ocean bulk car-
riers, offer two potentially important applications
for lightweight structural materials. I wonder
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Table 11. Particulars of (Ocean Ore Carrier
(Steel or Aluminum Hull)
LBP, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Beam, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.6
Depth, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47.2
Draft, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :34.2
Block coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80
Machinery: single screw, steam 'turbine SIIP
--max. continuous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,000
Sustained sea speed, knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Voyage length, one way, nautical miles . . . . . . 12,000
if Mr. Holtyn has investigated the overall benefits
of aluminum hulls for, say, 26-knot cargo liners?
In the liner trades, cargo is linaited in availability
so the weight saving should be used to reduce the
displacement. Secondary gains would follow:
the horsepower could be reduced (holding the
same speed) so t h a t the displacement could be
whittled further--because of smaller fuel and
machinery weights--and so forth.
In his discussion on pp. 73-75 of the 1962
TRANSACTIONS, )/Jr. Robert Miller shows that
aluminum hulls may be close to becoming econom-
ically feasible for Great Lakes ore carriers.
With most of the. Lakes trade under the control
of the steel industry, I hardly expect to see any
immediate breaking away from the steel-hull
tradition in that area. B u t what about tankers
or ocean ore carriers ? In any of the bulk trades,
cargo is generally unlimited and weight savings
can go directly into increasing the annual trans-
port capacity. Suppose we consider the case of a
16-knot ocean ore carrier designed to carry as
much cargo as po..ssible on a limiting draft of 34.2
ft. The general characteristics of such a ship
are smmnarized in Table 11. We can estimate the
weights and cost.,;, both building and operating,
for a steel-hulled ore carrier of those character-
istics. In order to analyze the potential econom-
ics of an aluminum-hulled ore carrier of the
same dimensions and speed, we need to make
several assumptions as to relative weights and
costs. Whether brave or foolish, here are m y
assumptions of what might be attainable after
we've gained a few years' experience in building
large aluminum ships :
1 An aluminum hull will weigh 40 percent as
much as a steel huh of equal dimensions.
2 Labor and overhead costs will be 10 percent
greater for the aluminum-hulled ship. This
applies to outfitting and machinery as well as
structure.
3 Steel will cost $250 per long ton of finished
weight, including an allowance for miscellaneous
materials. Aluminum will cost $1500 per ton,
on the same basis.
4 The added insurance costs for the more
381
 Table 12 Relative Economics of Aluminum and t h e a c c u r a c y of our e s t i m a t e s , t h e y a r e t h e same.
Steel-Hulled Ocean Ore Carriers If y o u are willing to concede t h a t t h e p r e v i o u s
Hull Steel Aluminum assumptions are reasonably attainable within the
Weights (in long tons) n e x t s e v e r a l years, we can agree t h a t a l u m i n u m
Structural hull . . . . . . . . . . . 10,600 4,240 hulls a r e w o r t h i n t e n s i v e research a n d d e v e l o p -
Outfitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,678 1,678 m e n t . E x p e r i e n c e alone can a n s w e r m a n y of t h e
Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 882 questions. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t step, t h a t of
Light ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,160 6,800 b u i l d i n g a m a j o r ship of a l u m i n u m , is a b o l d one.
Fuel, fresh water, ete . . . . . . . 3,730 :3,730
Cargo capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . 36,220 42,570 Perhaps the aluminum companies and MarAd
Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53,10d 53,100 could agree to b a c k t h e v e n t u r e . If n o t h i n g else,
Building Costs ($1000) such a c t i o n m i g h t inspire t h e A m e r i c a n steel
Structural hull matl . . . . . . . . 2,566 6,360 i n d u s t r y to s t a r t rolling sections s u i t a b l e for
Structural hull labor . . . . . . . 2,400 2,640 w e l d e d ship c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e steel i n d u s t r y
Outfitting matl . . . . . . . . . . . 3,055 3,055
Outfitting labor . . . . . . . . . . 1,606 1,767 m i g h t even find a w a y to lower its prices. If i t
Machinery matl . . . . . . . . . . 2,330 2,330 were o n l y N u m b e r Two, i t m i g h t t r y h a r d e r .
Machinery labor . . . . . . . . . 438 481
Total material . . . . . . . . . . . 7,951 11,745 G. G. Wyland, Member: I t w o u l d be a p p r e c i a t e d
Total labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,444 4,888
Total overhead (70%) . . . . . 3,111 3,422 if t h e a u t h o r could c l a r i f y t h e s t a t e m e n t r e g a r d i n g
Sub-totM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,506 20,055 s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of t h e 5456 alloys to stress corrosion.
Profit (5%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 1,003
D i r e c t checks w i t h t h e N a v y h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t
Total for one ship . . . . . . . . . 16,28 21,058
Total for each of 5 ships . . . . 13,853 17,917 t h e earlier concern in this r e s p e c t no longer exists.
Required Freight Rate One w e l l - k n o w n b u i l d e r in t h e G u l f has b u i l t a
Annual operating costs $1,574,000 $1,574,000 large n u m b e r of crew b o a t s of this alloy a n d we
Annual costs of capital re- a r e n o t a w a r e t h a t stress corrosion has been a
covery (CRF = 0.175).. $2,424,000 $3,135,000 problem.
Average annual cost . . . . . . . $3 , 998 , 00() $4,709,000
Annum transport capacity, M o s t c e r t a i n l y , as in t h e stainless steels,
long tons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186,400 219,000 bronzes, a n d a l l o y steels, t h e r e seems to b e too
RFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 21.45 $ 21.50 m a n y alloys a v a i l a b l e . T h i s results in confusion
to t h e designer, w h o is o f t e n faced w i t h t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l w h i c h he h a s specified t e n d s to
e x p e n s i v e a l u m i n u m ship will cancel t h e a n n u a l h a v e b e c o m e o b s o l e t e or c a n ' t b e e x p e d i t i o u s l y
s a v i n g s in p r o t e c t i v e coatings. p r o c u r e d in a n y case. A n y t h i n g w h i c h t h e
5 Ships will be b u i l t in t h e U. S. a n d o p e r a t e d a l u m i n u m i n d u s t r y could do to r e d u c e t h e n u m b e r
u n d e r t h e U. S. flag. of a c c e p t a b l e m a r i n e alloys a v a i l a b l e w o u l d b e of
6 B e c a u s e new technologies t e n d to a c c u m u l a t e help all a r o u n d .
m o r e e x t r a s t h a n credits, we shall specifically B e c a u s e deflection is a c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r in so
ignore t h e longer life a n d a d d e d s c r a p v a l u e of t h e m a n y a l u m i n u m s t r u c t u r e s , i t q u i t e often d e v e l o p s
a l u m i n u m ship, as well as t h e possible i n c r e a s e d t h a t for a n u m b e r of reasons m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e
transport capacity resulting from decreased dry- deflections do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n m a x i m u m
d o c k time. allowable stresses.
7 T h e a n n u a l costs of c a p i t a l r e c o v e r y a r e T h e i m p o r t a n c e of m i n i m u m b e n d r a d i i in
b a s e d on a 2 5 - y e a r life, a 4 S - p e r c e n t tax, s t r a i g h t - flanging should be e m p h a s i z e d . C r a c k i n g d u e to
line d e p r e c i a t i o n , an a l l - e q u i t y i n v e s t m e n t , a n d a r e e n t r a n t saw c u t s a t corners of flanged floor
s t i p u l a t e d a f t e r - t a x i n t e r e s t r a t e of r e t u r n of 10 p l a t e s or b r a c k e t s is a l w a y s a p o s s i b i l i t y where d u e
percent. care is n o t t a k e n in p l a t e p r e p a r a t i o n .
T h o s e a r e m y a s s m n p t i o n s . I w o u l d e x p e c t no I a m g l a d to n o t e t h e a u t h o r ' s reference to
one to a g r e e w i t h all of t h e m ; b u t t h e r e s u l t i n g m e r c u r y - b e a r i n g p a i n t s a n d m i g h t a d d t h a t we
c a l c u l a t i o n s are s p r e a d before you, m a k i n g re- h a v e h a d d i s a s t r o u s experiences w i t h c r a c k i n g of
vision easy. T h e s e a r e in T a b l e 12, which sum- b r o n z e b o l t s a n d s t r u c t u r e d u e to t h e i r use on
m a r i z e s t h e c o m p a r a t i v e w e i g h t s a n d costs for w o o d e n boats.
t h e t w o h y p o t h e t i c a l ships. A l t h o u g h t h e alu- T h e c o m m e n t s on t h e electrical s y s t e m are good,
m i n u m ship carries h i g h e r a n n u a l costs of c a p i t a l b u t I can see l i t t l e difference in t h e p r o b l e m
r e c o v e r y a n d is no c h e a p e r to o p e r a t e , its g r e a t e r w h e t h e r t h e b o a t s are steel or a l u m i n u m .
transport capacity almost exactly overcomes the We have had estimates indicating aluminum
h i g h e r costs. As a r e s u l t t h e t r a n s p o r t efficieneies y a c h t s to be c h e a p e r t h a n wood, b u t such
of t h e t w o ships, as m e a s u r e d b y t h e R e q u i r e d c o m p a r i s o n s on a r e a l l y e q u i v a l e n t basis a r e h a r d
l~'reight R a t e , a r e p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same. W i t h i n to o b t a i n . F i b e r glass y a c h t s in general, b e c a u s e

382 Aluminum--The Age of Ships

of high mold costs, are stock boats, whereas nearly
all larger aluminum craft thus far have been
custom built. Because the fiber glass boats are
stock boats and are outfitted for competitive
selling, it is highly doubtful if the s t a t e m e n t t h a t
the aluminum boats are competitive with t h e m is
justified.
In reference to speed and power advantages,
we have designed several small passenger and
commercial boats of aluminum, and there is, of
course, a very real a d v a n t a g e in power reductions
or speed increases. There is another a d v a n t a g e
t h a t goes hand in hand with this where the craft
operate in localities where minimizing wave
formation is desirable. T h e boats in question
operate at speed-length ratios of plus or minus
two, so t h a t the corresponding reduction of wave
making is a very real advantage.
Mention is made of the "largest" aluminum
yacht. T h e Aurora, 114 ft in length, with a trial
speed of over 20 knots at half load and a cruising
range of over 3000 miles, was designed b y our
firm and built b y Cantieri Navali Apuauia in
I t a l y in 1963. Hull and deck houses are alu-
minum. The hull is welded and the boat deck is
riveted.
J. B. Robertson, Jr., Member: Although much of
the design and fabrication information given in
Mr. H o l t y n ' s paper is available in the excellent
handbooks p u t out b y the aluminum companies,
its presentation in this paper is certainly timely
and useful.
In reading the section of his paper entitled
"Regulations," I detect a distinct bias against
regulations and inspection. However, under
"closing remarks," he says, "Rules for building
aluminum vessels would be a definite asset." I t
seems t h a t Mr. H o l t y n ought to m a k e up his
mind. Possibly it would help if he could be a
little more patient and could realize t h a t some of
the problems he refers to concerning approval
and inspection are the natural and reasonable
result of the lesser experience with aluminum as
well as of consideration of certain inherent dif-
ferences between aluminum and s t e e l - - n o t all
favorable.
M y m o s t serious criticism of this paper is t h a t
it almost completely avoids coming to grips with
the problems associated with aluminum's low
melting point. T h e nearest he comes to dealing
with this is under "Closing R e m a r k s " where he
says, "Acceptable insulation systems for steel
structures have been established. A similar set
of standards is needed for aluminum."
T h e melting point of the aluminum alloys used
is only a b o u t 1050-1200 F. Thus, and despite
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
aluminum's higher heat conductivity than steel
the integrity of aluminum structures subjected to
fire exposure is severely limited. Mr. Holtyn
refers to the successful experience of the A luminia
and other aluminum t a n k vessels on the Rhine.
Apparently this experience has not included any
severe fire exposure. However, experience on a
much broader basis has shown t h a t the proba-
bility of severe fire following a tank-vessel collision
cannot be overlooked. In the case of steel t a n k
vessels, tanks not actually ruptured in collisions
have remained intact through quite intense fires
and have thus serv,ed to contain all of their con-
tents except the p a r t lost b y evaporation and
flaming off through vents and burnt-out expansion
trunk seals. I t seems t h a t aluminum construc-
tion under similar circumstances might have
failed completely, vastly increasing the scale of
the conflagration.
Mr. Holtyn could perform a distinct service to
the profession if he would suggest either a suitable
means to ameliorate this risk or a course of
investigation with the aim of determining such
mea~s.
G. E. Meese, Member: The author comments on
welding equipment and its bulkiness. I t should
be noted t h a t some manufaoturers or builders
modify this equipment with curved tips and
smaller tips in order to make the units useable in
more difficult and inaccessible areas, as required in
vessel construction.
I t is observed t h a t the author writes a b o u t
Alloy 5086-Hl12. This alloy and hardness is
almost impossible to obtain at this time. Rather,
the hardness H l 1 2 has been changed to H i l l , and
this latter n u m b e r i,s the available material. I t is
understood, also, t h a t the properties of the
material have been increased considerably with
this H l l l designation, which change was made
several years ago. I t is difficult to know why the
aluminum manufacl:urers and Aluminum Associa-
tion continue to use the designation H l 1 2 when
it is not manufactured any longer.
Regarding cost, i1: should be realized t h a t some
builders, who specialize in building aluminum
vessels, now will m a k e quotations for building
with this material which will be less than quota-
tions for building in steel.
T h e author disc'usses forgings for the N a v y
P G M construction. Recently we had a very dis-
appointing experience in tryJing to obtain alu-
m i n u m forgings for commercial construction.
A m i n i n m m time of 18 months was submitted by
the manufacturer, and this was', subject to all kinds
of qualifications. I t would be interesting to
hear from the attthor how much aluminum
383
actually is forged and w h a t kind of facilities are
available in this country for this kind of work.
Donald Stein, Member: This paper serves to
remind us of the versatility and advances in
techniques in aluminum fabrication as it pertains
to the marine industry. F r o m time to time those
who are responsible for design a n d / o r operation
of seagoing craft m u s t be made aware of the prog-
ress being made, especially when they have been
once disappointed.
As a case in point, I was formerly associated
with a ship-operating firm which saw fit to pur-
chase some aluminum life boats prior to World
W a r II. After the close of the War, when re-
furbishing our fleet, we were so pleased with the
corrosion resistance and durability of these prewar
boats fabricated of 52S-1/4 H (now known as
5052-H12) that, where necessary, all steel boats
were replaced with aluminum. T h e postwar
boats were built of 6~61-T6 (then known as
61S), which was touted as being an i m p r o v e m e n t
over 5052 for this use. Unfortunately, the post-
war boats had very few of the admirable qualities
of the 5052 prewar hulls. The newer boats were
soon plagued with pitting and general corrosion.
One }@in.-thick breast-hook delaminated to
such an extent that, at time of replacement,
thickness had reached almost 1 in. Where the
prewar boats were kept presentable with an
occasional coat of automobile wax, the postwar
boats were soon painted with zinc chromate and
aluminum paint which periodically had to be
maintained. I t is indeed gratifying to note in
this comprehensive paper that, apparently, the
501)0 series of aluminum has assumed its rightful
place in the field of ship construction.
Another problem encountered has been with
the decorative aspects of alunfinum used in ex-
posed areas. Anodization has been sold to the
marine industry as a finish intended to be weather-
resistant. True, virgin anodization is very hard
and does resist the corrosive attacks of a salt
atmosphere, but, when and where scratched or
penetrated for fastenings, the material breaks
down rapidly. In addition, there is a considera-
ble problem in matching the finish on adjacent
pieces of anodized aluminum, as, for instance, on
handrails.
I n calculating the potential savings t h a t might
be realized in utilizing aluminum where steel
normally has been used in the past, it is now
essential t h a t we include the effect of the use of
improved coatings, such as inorganic zinc silicate
or epoxies, on steel. Recent changes to the A.B.S.
Rules allow w h a t is, in effect, a 10-percent reduc-
tion in scantlings of the hull structural steel so
384 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
protected. These coatings have also reduced
maintenance painting costs very substantially.
H. S. Townsend, Member: T h e author is to be con-
gratulated on this informative paper, and for his
integrity in freely setting forth not only the
benefits, b u t also the problems, associated with
aluminum fabrication.
T h e author points out the benefits of alunfinum
with respect to strength/weight efficiency, steanl-
ing and cleaning, and corrosion, all in connection
with the operation of vessels; he indicates t h a t
hull damages should be less extensive on alu-
minum vessels than on steel vessels because of the
increased resiliency of aluminum over steel;
and he points out the high scrap value; but he
also makes reference to the fact t h a t familiarity
with aluminum fabricating procedures is not
universal in building and repair facilities.
In view of the limited working familiarity with
aluminum, and the fact t h a t aluminum renewals
m a y cost a b o u t 30 percent more than steel re-
newals, it seems reasonable to conclude t h a t
emphasis should be given to the development of
structural arrangements in aluminum, which, in
spite of increased resiliency, will be less prone to
damage than arrangements to date for steel con-
struction. T h e appalling lack of dissemination
of information concerning the major repetitive
types of damages, from owners to designers, is
probably the major reason for the lack of attention
to design methods which possibly would reduce the
extent of ordinary operation damage as opposed
to fortuitous damage. For example, side-shell
damage experienced while mooring general cargo
vessels, tankers, and bulk carriers is one of the
known significant repetitive types of damages,
yet the same structural arrangements obtain,
design after design, for the areas principally
affected.
I t is to be hoped t h a t classification societies'
building rules, in connection with the use of alu-
minum, will be developed soon, and t h a t the
classification area, where approvals are con-
cerned, can thus be expedited.
Experience with steel vessels in advanced stages
of deterioration, gathered through current opera-
tion of m a n y vessels of World W a r I I vintage,
points out the value of utilizing corrosion-resistant
materials, particularly for tankers. I t seems only
natural t h a t more emphasis b y industry will be
given to the use of special materials, and we
certainly can expect to see aluminum included in
the picture. I t goes without saying t h a t m a n y in
the commercial field will be watching with inter-
est the operating experience of the 226-ft trailer
ship scheduled for delivery in early 1967.
 Capt. C. R. Watts, USN (Ret.), Member: In connec-
tion with the history of the use of aluminum alloys
by the U. S. N a v y it is interesting to look back 25
years to see to what extent aluminum alloys were
being used in the construction of N a v a l vessels
at t h a t time. I t is likely t h a t the extent of use
will surprise you.
Technical Bulletin No. 1 issued b y the Bureau
of Ships September 1940 was titled " T h e Use of
Aluminum Alloys in Vessels of the United States
N a v y . " I t was authored by then Lieut. Comdr.
S. N. Pyne, Lieut. P. W. Snyder, and Mr. H. D.
M c K i n n o n of the Aluminum C o m p a n y of Amer-
ica. Some of the principal applications from an
extensive list were as follows: ammunition
handling equipment; ammunition stowages and
fittings; berths; bulkheads, nonstructural and
partition; deckhouse plating; decks, nonstrength;
doors, joiner; elevators and tracks, aircraft;
furniture : floor plates; steam kettles; lockers ;
sheathing, insulation; and ventilation ducts and
trunks.
The wrought alloys used were limited to A1 52,
now designated 5052 and A1 53, a heat-treatable
alloy later known as 6053, which was superseded
b y 606l alloy, which is of higher strength. All
fastening was b y riveting, as the welding technique
and the weldable marine alloys of the 5000 series
had not been developed.
On F e b r u a r y 23, 1941 a m e m o r a n d u m was
issued b y the Design Division of the Bureau of
Ships entitled " A l u m i n u m Alloys--Reduction
in Use of, in N a v a l Construction." This study
resulted from the scarcity of the metal and the
large demands being made for it b y the aircraft
industry. This m e m o r a n d m n listed the following
amounts of aluminum alloys incorporated in the
construction of vessels being built at t h a t time
(all amounts given in pounds) :
BB (35,000 ton) . . . . . . . . . . . 1, I)40,000
BB (45,000 ton) . . . . . . . . . . . 1,340,000
CV 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925,000
CV 9 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 ,100,000
CB 1 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910,000
CA 68 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593,000
CL 55 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514,000
CL 51 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338,000
D D 445 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . 234,000
D D 453 Class . . . . . . . . . . . . 190,000
This is only a partial listing, b u t for all vessels
scheduled for construction a t t h a t time it was
estimated t h a t the total aluminum requirement
was 119,144,000 lb. Requirements for this ma-
terial in F e b r u a r y 1941 a m o u n t e d to 1,200,000
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Table 13
Before After
Conversion Conversion
Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HTS AL 6061-T6
Platform Weight, kips . . . . . . 106 130
Live Load, kips . . . . . . . . . . . 35 74
Hoisting Load, kips . . . . . . . . 14l 204
Platform Weight/Live Load 3.03 1.76
lb per m o n t h and it was estimated t h a t this would
increase to 3,000,000 lb per m o n t h b y 1943.
I t was pointed out in this study t h a t the use of
steel (the only practicable substitute) in place of
aluminum alloys would result in an approximate
increase in weight of 100 percent for aluminum
alloy installations, which (quoting) "is not desira-
ble on any vessel and is highly undesirable on
m a n y c o m b a t a n t vessels."
I t is true t h a t m a n y of the applications referred
to come within the category of secondary ship
applications as expressed by the author. How-
ever, the structural applications in the D D 409
class destroyers amounted to 37.7 percent of the
total almninum weight, with 17.6 percent used
for furniture and s'mrages. Generally, today, in
reporting the weight of aluminum alloys used in
naval vessels, we report only the a m o u n t used for
structural applications and not t h a t included in
items purchased by the shipbuilder such as furni-
ture, lockers, ladders, and miscellaneous applica-
tions. This makes comparison difficult, but at
least it can be pointed out t h a t 25 years ago in
1941 the use of aluminmn alloys in naval con-
struction was not in:significant.
Capt. S. R. Heller, Jr., USN, Member: Mr. Holtyn
has presented a most appealing case for expanded
use of aluminum for ship structures based largely
on weight saving and corrosion resistance. This
discussion will give three additional examples to
bolster his case.
T h e first example concerns airplane elevators.
Incident to the conversion of Alidway (CVA 41)
Class to operate high-perfor:mance jet aircraft,
the design study, make in 1952, revealed t h a t the
lifting capacity could be doubled with minimum
change to the hoisting machinery by using alu-
minum vice steel, even though the platform size
was increased to accommodate the larger aircraft.
This dramatic effect was actually achieved with
Alloy 6061, the properties of which in the welded
condition are definitely inferior. T h e pertinent
information is shown in Table ]:3.
T h e second example concerns possible future
construction and :~hould be considered in the
context of the author's statements relating to
structural weight and to increased cargo dead-
385

0 8
-o-
o __--d] --~ .......
..... ~ ALUMINUM _ _ ~ , _ . _ _
50 I00 150
NUMBER OF B E A C H I N G S
Fig. i 7 Relative abrasion of steel and aluminum
weight. T h e potential application is Landing
Craft, Utility (LCU). These t a n k lighters have
all their principal dimensions constrained:
(a) Length and b e a m b y the requirement t h a t
they be transportable in the wells of Landing
Ships, Dock (LSD).
(b) D r a f t b y the beaching requirement.
None of which can be relaxed. At the same time
new military characteristics for the craft itself
add weight to the light ship, and the load has
increased because the tanks are heavier.
Thus, the naval architect has a nearly impossi-
ble task: How to s t a y within the constraining
envelope and still m e e t the speed and load-
carrying requirements. Obviously, h e m u s t reduce
light-ship weight drastically. Hull structure
presently comprises a b o u t two thirds of the light-
ship displacement, which makes it the p r i m a r y
target for weight saving.
Two complete designs for a new L C U were exe-
cuted: one using steel, the other, aluminum.
Weights of hull structure were 120 tons for steel
and 60.5 tons for aluminum, which confirms the
nonmarine factor of 50 percent. As was expected,
the aluminum version was more expensive than
the steel--specifically 20 percent greater. Fortu-
nately, the cargo carrying capacity of the alu-
m i n u m L C U is also 20 percent greater than the
steel LCU. Thus, for the same cost, the load-
carrying capabilities are identical. T h e telling
argument is t h a t the use of aluminum as the
structural material permits all military require-
ments to be m e t whereas the use of steel does n o t - -
and a t no overall increase in cost.
T h e last example is an elaboration on the rela-
tive abrasion of steel and aluminum. T h e results
of the beaching tests mentioned in the paper are
now available. As can be seen in Fig. 17, alu-
m i n u m is slightly superior.
Cdr. M. K. Eckhardt, USN (Ret.), Member: The
author's s u m m a r y of aluminum-built ships and
their characteristics is excellent. Another vessel
386
can be added to this list which is unique from the
others. T h a t is the Lockheed deep-submersible
Deep Quest. T h e outer hull of this vessel is an
all-aluminum welded structure, Fig. 18. T h e
hull, which is flooded when submerged, is made of
__&~gk . . . . . . o 5083 aluminum, with the shell varying from 0.125
to 0.25 in. in thickness. Aluminum was chosen
4
because steel was too h e a v y and fiber glass too
O-----ALUMiNUM
0 .... STEEL expensive. T h e hull is 40 ft long, 16 ft wide, and
I 0 approximately 13 ft from skegs to top of sail.
200 250 3OO
D r y weight of the vessel is 50 tons, wet 100.
T h e original plans of using M I G welding for
Deep Quest were discarded for T I G welding,
primarily because of the difficulties of using M I G
equipment in the small "crowded" areas of the
structure and main ballast tanks. Also, long
clear welding runs were not frequent enough to
capitalize on the high speed of M I G welding.
Instead, a flexible T I G stinger with microswitch
attached was adopted. I t was also noted t h a t
critical welds, e.g., lift lugs, where 100-percent
penetration was required, were easier to control in
quality with T I G than M I G . Root passes were
made with dc T I G and cover passes with ac
TIG.
As for distortion and shrinkage due to welding,
a method of cooling heated, highly stressed areas
was adopted. T h e method consists of cooling b y
use of wet rags and an air stream. Such t r e a t m e n t
is accorded in "closed structure" where parts are
being added or modifications made. Cooling
definitely helps eliminate cracks of existing welds
a n d / o r warpage of structure near and sometimes
at quite a distance a w a y from the welding.
T h e problem of dissimilar metals and faying
surfaces has received considerable attention.
A method quite like the one described in the paper
is used for gunking dissimilar-metal fasteners.
(Special requirements of 8000-ft depth had to be
considered in the choice of all gunking material
and adhesives.) T h e faying-snrface problem,
however, is unique in t h a t the water pressure
during dives tends to force water to penetrate and
settle in welded faying-surface areas, e.g., welded
gussets. Pressure gunking of these areas to keep
water out is being performed. T h e degree of
success of this method is questionable. The
author might c o m m e n t if he has experience with
or suggestions for techniques of giving these areas
better protection. Incidentally, 316 C R E S fas-
teners are used for a t t a c h m e n t s in foundations and
where strength fasteners are required, otherwise
nylon fasteners are used.
As for preservation, all aluminum parts are
alodined or iridited. Then phosphoneal is applied,
followed b y a polyurethane paint system. The
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
 Fig. 18
only exception is in the main ballast tanks, where
a vinyl system is used.
Strain gages will be installed and, as the author
points out, will help provide information of
technical interest on aluminum design.
David Maclntyre, Member: In addition to the
author's review of the most recent hull construc-
tion, his detailed information on alloys, current
design, and shipyard practices is most valuable.
Much progress has been made since the presenta-
tion of my similar paper, "Some Practical Aspects
of Aluminum in Shipbuilding," before the Pacific
Northwest Section in 1959, covering developments
to that time. It is pleasing to know some pre-
dictions made therein have been realized.
My own introduction to aluminum construction
started 50 years ago with the Clydeside ship-
building firm, who built the R-34, the first suc-
cessful British rigid airship which made the
initial transatlantic flights in 1919. The alloy
used was trade-named Duralumin, but when I
entered the U. S. aluminum industry 10 years
later I found it designated 17S, now 2017. When
reduction of weight in warships became necessary,
following ratification of the Washington Disarma-
ment Agreement, 17S was the only high-strength
alloy available for structures, including aircraft
and ships.
In a discussion of the paper, "The Uses of
Aluminum in Shipbuilding," by Dr. P. V. Fara-
gher, Alcoa metallurgist, presented at The Society
Annual Meeting in 1930, Vice-Admiral (then
Capt.) E. S. Land in his discussion urged members
to consider the aluminum "ships that are com-
pletely made thereof." He cited as examples for
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
shipbuilders the two rigid airships Akron and
Macon then building for the Navy. The framing
of these vessels used Alloy 17S, but it was not
particularly suitable for ship structures, being
susceptible to sea-water corrosion.
Fortunately, Alloys 5052 and 6053, having
remarkably high resistance to salt-water corro-
sion, were marketed by Alcoa in 1931. They were
quickly adopted by the Navy for ship construc-
tion. By 1940 extensive structural installations
had been made in nearly 100 U. S. warships, and
these alloys had become standard for both naval
and merchant work, all riveted construction.
In 1944, Alloy 6061, "a magnesium-silieide alloy of
higher strength, replaced 6053 and was quickly
adopted for postwar merchant-ship deckhouse
installations, described in my article, "New Ship
Structures Materials," published in 1948.
The inert-gas shielded welding process, intro-
duced in 1942, was applied initially to aluminum
use in the Manhattan Project. The first welded
hulls using this process were two U. S. Navy PT
boats built in 1948-9 using 6061 alloy. This
project expedited commercial development of the
welding equipment and accelerated that of the
5000 series of alloys, proven most suitable for
welded structures. They were described in a
paper, "Welded Aluminum Construction," pre-
sented by G. O. Hoglund and this discusser before
the New York Metropolitan Section in 1950.
The parallel welding and alloy developments
posed a number of problems for the marine regula-
tory authorities in establishing standards and
regulations, at home and abroad. It was not
until 1955, however, following my appointment to
the Hull Structure Committee, that the effort
387
was organized, through the then Panel S-11 and
its Aluminum Manufacturers Task Group, to-
wards establishing the U. S. standards described
by the author. About the same time, the Inter-
national Organization for Standardization was
attempting, since merchant shipping is inter-
national in character, to establish world standards
for aluminum alloys for ships structures, through
its Technical Committee No. 8. This discusser
attended the 1958 meeting of ISO as the S N A M E
adviser to TCS, and the next meeting was to be
held in 1960. The author does not mention the
ISO effort, or the expected certification of T G
HS6-1 to ISO/TCS, but his advice on progress
should be valuable.
Author's Closure
Mr. Little stated that the 7000 series of alloys
show promise of superseding the 5000 series in use
today. They have properties which appear to be
attractive. There are, however, some unresolved
metallurgical questions.
The question of stress corrosion has been raised.
The alloys exhibit tendencies toward stress-cor-
rosion cracking in the short transverse direction.
Welding sequence and weld bead orientation could
result in shrinkage stresses which would induce
stress-corrosion cracking.
There are reservations about forming them in
the final heat-treated conditions. Residual
stresses m a y be left which could cause the ma-
terial to fail.
There is an electrolytic-sdlution potential dif-
ference between the weld metal, base plate, and
the heat-effect zone in between. This can result
in corrosion of the heat-effect zone. I t can be
overcome by aging the entire structure after
welding. For shipbuilding this would be an
impractical measure.
ABS's present position on hull girder defleetion
is logical. W h a t would happen to machinery
systems, piping, and other outfit if permissible
deflection were increased 300 percent? The
50-percent additional deflection allowance seems
to be a reasonable approach.
The author disagrees with the L/360 deflection
requirement for hatch covers, however. I t con-
trolled the design of the Edward L. Ryerson's
covers; the results was a cover t h a t was exces-
sively stiff and difficult to dog down.
Mr. Johnson's comments on increased strength
and ruggedness for equal weight are unique.
Aluminum is very seldom considered in this light
because of its higher cost. However, hull cost
is a small portion of some vessels. Thus, a
388 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Table 14 Minimum Welded Ultimate Tensile
Strength
SNAME
T & R 2-13 Figure 2
5086 H32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,000 35,000 q-
5086 H34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,000 35,000 +
5086 Hl12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,500 35,000 +
5456 H321 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,500 42,000 +
superior ship could be obtained at a relatively
modest price increase.
Since the Naval Ship Design policy was changed
in 1964 to the unrestricted use of 5456, the com-
ments on the Naval use of this alloy are in error.
In regards to the S N A M E weld test, the point
being made was that the statistical minimums
listed on p. 19 of the S N A M E report are lower
than aluminum industry figures. Table 2 of this
paper does not differentiate between tempers.
However, minimum tensile strengths across the
weld for tempered plate normally would be higher
than the annealed-plate figures given.
Professor Benford stated that we have little use
for relatively small, slow-speed ships in U. S.
waters. A more appropriate statement might be
that there is little use for such "steel" ships in
U. S. waters. Economic analyses of areas not
being served by self-propelled vessels at present
because of a poor economic return become fairly
attractive if an aluminum ship is considered.
The reasons for building small ships initially,
however, is to build up a fund of technology to
permit an orderly advance to larger ships.
In 1959 the National Academy of Sciences
National Research Council issued the Walrus
Report. One of its recommendations was: "De-
sign and construction of an aluminum cargo ship,
in order to work out the design, structural, and
construction problems involved, aimed at the
eventual use of aluminum in making large fast
ships feasible."
Presumably a high-speed liner was selected
because hull weight is a problem in its design.
A fine hull restricts cargo space, tending to raise
hull depth and lowering metaeentric height.
The additional ballast required to improve
stability increases the draft. Aluminum would
be beneficial to this design.
I t is doubtful that the Great Lakes ore carriers
will use aluminum in any great volume. Oeean-
going hulls are, however, a different story. A
study on the use of aluminum for ore carriers was
presented by David M a c l n t y r e at the J a n u a r y
25, 1952 meeting of the Great Lakes Section and
was published in the 1952 edition of S N A M E
TRANSACTIONS.
Professor Benford's economic analysis is based
 on common cargo. Aluminum will provide
versatility. Edible oils, food stuffs, exotic chemi-
cals, and a wide range of products not readily
carried in a steel hull can be moved. Such prod-
ucts normally would be shipped at a high rate,
making the use of aluminum even more attractive.
As Mr. Wyland pointed out, there are too m a n y
alloys available. The Aluminum Association,
however, is eliminating all superfluous alloy
designations. T h e marine alloys under study are
5083 and 5456. Their characteristics are very
similar. Consideration has been given to drop-
ping 5456; however, no action will be taken until
tk e situation is thoroughly investigated.
I t is true t h a t most of the larger aluminum
yachts are custom built, whereas fiber glass hulls
are stock. However, stock aluminum builders are
competitive. Aluminum Cruisers, Louisville,
K e n t u c k y , offers a 26-ft and 32-ft b o a t at approxi-
m a t e l y 88000 and $13,000 base price. A com-
parable-strength fiber glass hull would be $2000 to
$3000 more. R o a m e r Boats, Holland, Michigan,
offers 37-ft, 48-ft, and 57-ft aluminum yachts.
All are less expensive than their fiber glass counter-
parts.
Despite the use of molds and volume produc-
tion, fiber glass runabouts are generally more
expensive t h a n aluminum. A recent study gave
these comparisons: In the 15-ft 6 in. to 17 ft 5 in.
range, aluminum is $446 and fiber glass is $799;
in the 17 ft 6 in. to 19 ft 5 in. range, aluminum is
$$74 and fiber glass is $970.
Mr. Robertson concluded t h a t the author was
biased in regard to regulations and inspection.
The need for regulations is unquestioned. How-
ever, the Coast Guard, Maritime Administration,
American Bureau of Shipping, Public Health
Service, Bureau of Customs, and other agencies
have permitted their regulations to intertwine and
become complex to the point where frustration is
common. T h e logical conclusion is not to elim-
inate b u t to streamline them to minimize over-
lapping of services.
Mr. Robertson refers to the melting point as a
problem associated with aluminuna. Aluminum,
however, should not be judged solely on the merits
of a particular a d v a n t a g e or disadvantage, rather
on an "equivalent degree of safety" basis.
T h e successful experience of the .,:1lum,inia and
other aluminum tank vessels was questioned
because neither vessel has been in a m a j o r fire.
Approval for aluminum barges was obtained
from USCG on an "equivalency" basis. The
safety advantages of aluminum were stressed :
(a) Reduction in explosion danger due to the
elimination of rust and sludge whieh entrap chem-
icals and vapors.
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
(b) Reduced danger of tank rupture clue to
higher resiliency of aluminum.
(c) Reduction in v a p o r build-up due to the
higher heat reflectivity of the deck surface.
(d) Elimination of the danger of hull failure due
to extreme cold. Aluminum. does not have a nil-
ductility transition temperature.
(e) Elimination of hull structure damage due to
failure of coating systems in tanks carrying highly
corrosive cargoes.
(/) Reduced explosive hazard in the event of
fire due to the expected venting of the tank.
(g) Elimination or reduction in the quantity of
combustible paints used to protect ship hulls and
structures from co:rrosion.
This is certainly an unenviable position. If
aluminum vessels are indeed safer, because of the
reasons outlined in the foregoing, and do not
experience a major fire, [hen what ?
How do you rate a material t h a t m a y help to
minimize the danger of fire? Is it less safe
because its reaction under severe fire loadings will
be different? T h e difference is recognized in
tank-truck and tank-car movements. Fifty states
and the I C C have approved them "bearing in
mind the risk of fire" for m o v e m e n t through city
streets and highways. The operating experience
has been good.
Building an aluminum ship does not permit
you to bypass tke regulations. The builder is
still subject to inspections. The author feels
t h a t these regulations should reflect aluminum
practices, not steel practices.
Longer cable leads and smaller welding guns
in conjunction with the curved and smaller tips
mentioned b y Mr. Meese would be desirable.
Moving the control unit from space to space can
be time consuming and difficult. Current, wire
speed, and gas flow controls on the gun also
would be helpful.
In order to correct some erroneous temper
designations and 1:o provide some degree of con-
sistency between the mechanical-property levels
for the A1-Mg alloys, The Aluminum Association
Technical Committee (in the fall of 1962) ap-
proved certain changes in temper designations and
specified mechanical properties for these alloys.
At t h a t time it was found t h a t the existing H l 1 2
(as-extruded) temper designation was incorrect
for Alloy 5086 since the required mill practices
necessary to obtain the specified properties were
actually those used to produce an -Hl11, and the
tensile strength increased by 1000 psi and the
yield strength increased b:7 3000 psi. In an
effort to preclude confusion, the temper designa-
tion -H112 was temporarily withdrawn for 51)$6
extrusions.
389
 T h e Aluminum Association Technical Com-
mittee, however, within the past couple of
months, has reinstated 5086-Hl12 extrusions.
T h e mechanical properties will appear in the 9th
Edition of T h e Aluminum Association's "Stand-
ards for Aluminum Mill Products."
There are a n u m b e r of aluminum forging facili-
ties capable of producing shipyard forgings.
Some of t h e m are: Alcan--Riverside, Calif.;
Alcoa--Cleveland, Ohio; Bergman Manufacturing
C o . - - S a n Rafael, Calif. ; Bohn Aluminum and
Brass--Detroit, Mich.; Bridgeport B r a s s - -
Bridgeport, Conn.; Chase Brass & C o p p e r - -
Waterbury, Conn.; W. P a t Crow, I n c . - - F o r t
Worth, Texas; Harvey Aluminum--Adrian,
Mich.; Ladish Pacific Division--Los Angeles,
Calif. ; Ladish C o . - - C u d a h y , Wis. ; Scovill Manu-
f a c t u r i n g - - W a t e r b u r y , Conn. ; T h o m p s o n R a m o
Wooldrige--Cleveland, Ohio; and W y m a n Gor-
don Co.--Worcester, Mass. 1965 statistics list
the aluminum forging total at 95,000 lb.
Mr. Stein's comments on the unfavorable
experience with postwar lifeboats is not unusual.
T h e alloy was reported as 6061-T6. However,
it m a y have been some combination of aircraft
alloys which were in abundance at t h a t time.
Aluminum of this type found its way into m a n y
marine applications with poor results.
Anodizing is a very decorative and misunder-
stood process. Vendors specify t h a t their product
is anodized and therefore it has good corrosion
resistance. Corrosion resistance, however, is pro-
portional to the thickness of the anodic film esta-
blished. T h e aluminum should be a marine
alloy to avoid corrosion where the anodic film is
broken.
Anodizing can result in a nonuniform appear-
ance. To obtain a color match, all of the alloys
involved m u s t be compatible. Weld wire also
m u s t be selected so t h a t the color difference will
blend in. Castings and forgings generally will as-
sume a different color. T h e entire system needs
to be studied before the final finishing procedure is
specified.
Coatings and the 10-percent A.B.S. scantling
reduction can be used to a d v a n t a g e on steel.
Aluminum, however, does not need coatings or re-
quire any upkeep.
Mr. Townsend's comments on developing a
structural a r r a n g e m e n t which would be less prone
to damage are well taken. Such structural modi-
fication, however, probably would be equally
adaptable to steel or aluminum. I t is reasonable
to expect, though, that, in the case of aluminum,
damage information would be more likely to get
back to the designer. He would then be able to
alter his design accordingly.
390 Aluminum--The Age of Ships
Aluminum tanker construction has been under
consideration. Several studies have been con-
ducted, most of which have been favorable to alu-
minum. The evaluations have involved the ship-
m e n t of chemical products rather than ordinary
petroleum cargos.
Captain W a t t s ' review of the N a v y ' s aluminum
requirements 25 years ago is interesting. During
the past several years N a v a l structural aluminum
requirements have averaged a b o u t 12 million
pounds a year. By comparison, the N a v y De-
p a r t m e n t ' s estimate for 1943 was 36 million
pounds.
T h e 100-percent increase in weight from using
steel as an aluminum substitute confirms the gen-
eral 50-percent weight-reduction figures used to-
day. One would have assumed, however, t h a t in
1941 those designing aluminum structures would
have been more conservative.
T h e author m a y have misled some in his refer-
ence to secondary ship applications. The distinc-
tion t h a t the author was trying to make was be-
tween primary hull structures and all other appli-
cations.
Captain Heller's example of the aircraft carrier
elevator is a good example of weight reduction
being put to good use. In addition to the increase
in lifting capacity, the reduced weight was prob-
ably of some stability benefit.
T h e results of the abrasion tests for the L C U
Program m a y have surprised some people. Alu-
m i n u m alloys are not necessarily soft. Aluminum
oxide is used in manufacturing grinding wheels.
Some aluminum alloys are used for armor plate.
On the practical side, however, aluminum prob-
ably showed up better because it was affected only
by the mechanical effects of abrasion. Steel, on
the other hand, was subjected to corrosion and
abrasion.
I t should be pointed out t h a t aluminum hull
plate is normally thicker than steel. Thus, even
if the loss in thickness were equal, aluminum would
still have a safety margin because of its greater
thickness.
Mr. M a c I n t y r e ' s review of his early develop-
m e n t efforts in this field is apropos. I t m u s t give
him a great deal of satisfaction to h a v e followed
aluminum's progress during the past 50 years.
S N A M E does have a representative from T a s k
Group HS-6-1 assigned to T C 8 of ISO. There
has been a certain a m o u n t of difficulty in making
arrangements for the representative to attend the
meetings, all of which have been held in Europe.
One of the members of the T a s k Group is now
European based and has consented to remain as
an active m e m b e r of T G HS-6-1.
 Mr. E c k h a r d t ' s comments on welding in
crowded areas reinforces the author's belief t h a t
equipment especially designed for the shipyard is
needed. Although T I G equipment was able to
weld the "crowded" structures of Deep Quest, it
was probably done at the expense of increased dis-
tortion.
Wet-rag cooling m a y draw moisture into the
weld area. Mr. E c k h a r d t is not explicit in stating
Aluminum--The Age of Ships
whether the coolini,~ was done immediately after
the welds were made or during the process. I t is
assumed t h a t chill bars or the use of C02 was not a
practical means of distortion control.
T h e method of pressure insulating welded fay-
ing surfaces is unusual. Experience with the de-
sign and construction of the .4lurninaut confirms
the uniqueness of the problems encountered a t
great depths.
391