IB Biology SL Vocabulary Review

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1. 3:1 ratio - Mendel crossed 2 varietes of peas together

- Found that the offspring of F1 generation had the same characteristics as one of the parents
- Allowed the F1 generation to self-fertilize (each plant produced offspring by fertilizing its own female gametes
with its own male gametes)
- Found that the offspring of F2 generation contained both of the original parental types in a 3:1 ratio

- Each plant has 2 alleles of the gene

- Parents are homozygous (have 2 same alleles, either SS or ss)
- F1 plants are heterozygous (have 2 different alleles)
- F1 plants all have character of one of the parents because that parent has the dominant allele (S) while the other
has the recessive allele (s)
- When crossing the now heterozygous parents, 1/4 of the F2 generation are homozygous

--> 3 expressing the dominant (S) and 1 expressing the recessive (s)
2. Absorption The process of taking substances into cells and the blood. In humans, nutrients are absorbed by the epithelium.
Rate depends on the surface area of the epithelium.
3. Absorption
spectra

Shows the range of wavelengths absorbed by a photosynthetic pigment (mainly chlorophyll).

Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively. Small amounts of green light are absorbed but most is
reflected, making structures containing chlorophyll appear green.

The spectrum of visible light is the range of wavelengths from 400 nm to 700 nm that is used in human vision (violet
= shortest, red = longest). The same range is used by photosynthesis because the photosynthetic pigments do not
absorb other wavelengths
4. Acquired Characteristics that cannot be inherited/passed down to offspring, so they are lost when the individual dies
characteristics
e.g. the larger muscles and bones in the right arm of a tennis player will not be passed down because the genes
that influence the size of the muscles and bones has not actually been altered
5. Action The depolarization and repolarization of a neuron due to facilitated diffusion of ions across the membrane through
potential voltage-gated ion channels.

Depolarization:
- If potential of across membranes rises from -70mV to -50 mV, voltage-gated sodium channels open and sodium
ions diffuse in down the gradient.
- The entry of positive sodium ions causes the inside of the neuron to develop a net positive charge compared to
the outside, so the potential is reversed.

Repolarization:
- When the membrane polarity reverses, potassium channels open and potassium ions diffuse out down the
gradient.
- The exit of positive potassium ions causes the inside of the cell to develop a net negative charge again compared
with outside, so the potential is restored.
6. Action spectra

The efficiency of photosynthesis is not the same in all wavelengths of light. The graph shows the percentage use of
the wavelengths of visible light in photosynthesis.

Maximum photosynthesis rates are in blue light, with another but lower peak in red light. Green light is used least
effectively, only by accessory pigments that absorb some of it
7. Active site Region on an enzyme that complements the shape and chemical properties of the substrate (reactant), thus
allowing it to bind in order to speed up the reaction in the substrate. The substrate is more quickly converted into
its products and released. More substrates can bind per second.
8. Active -Can move substances against concentration gradient (FROM region of LOWER concentration to HIGHER
transport concentration)

- Use protein pumps

- Transports only particular substances, so cells control what is absorbed and what is expelled

- Work in a specific direction (only enter on one side and exit on the other)

Process:
1. Particle enters the pump from the side with a LOWER concentration
2. Particle binds to a specific site. Other types of particles can't bind
3. Energy from ATP is used to change the shape of the pump
4. Particle is released on the side with a HIGHER concentration and the pump then returns to its original shape
9. Active -Movement of substances against concentration gradient (FROM region of LOWER concentration to HIGHER
transport concentration)
10. Active Nutrients are pumped against the concentration gradient by specific pump proteins in the membrane
transport
(absorption
method)
11. Adaptation A characteristic that makes an individual suited to its environment and way of life
12. Adaptive Evolution of groups from a common ancestor adapted to specialized modes of life
radiation
e.g. pentadactyl limb in amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
13. Adhesive The dipolarity of water molecules makes them adhere to surfaces that are polar (therefore hydrophilic)
property of
water Helpful: adhesive forces between water and cellulose in cell walls in the leaf cause water to be drawn out of
xylem vessels, keeping the call walls moist and able to act as a gas exchange surface
14. Adipose cells Fat storage cells
15. Aerobic Oxygen: used
cellular Substrate: glucose or lipids
respiration Yield of ATP per glucose: large
Products: CO2 and water
16. AIDS - Caused by HIV
- If untreated, leads to death from infections by a variety of pathogens that would normally be controlled easily
17. Alleles Variant forms of a gene that have almost the same base sequence but differ in just one or a very small number of
bases

Different forms of the same gene because they:

- influence the same characteristic
- occupy the same position on a type of chromosome
- have base sequences that differ from each other by one or only a few bases

e.g. the 2nd base in the 6th codon of the human gene for the beta polypeptide of hemoglobin is most often
adenine (A). However, it can also be thymine (T), which causes the genetic disease, sickle cell anemia.
18. Alveolus - 100,000,000s give a huge overall surface area in lungs for gas exchange

Properties:
- permeable to oxygen and CO2
- a large surface area for diffusion
- thin, so diffusion distance is small
- moist, so oxygen can dissolve

Made of:
- type 1 pneumocytes
- type 2 pneumocytes
- blood capillaries
19. Amino acid

- Have a central carbon atom with 4 different atoms or groups linked to it

- 20 in proteins, each with different R groups

4 atom groups:
- hydrogen atom
- amine group (-NH2)
- carboxyl group (-COOH)
- R group or radical (R)
20. Amniocentesis - Method for obtaining cells of an unborn child for chromosome testing
- A sample of amniotic fluid is removed from the amniotic sac around the fetus by inserting a hypodermic needle
through the wall of the abdomen and uterus
- It is drawn out into a syringe and contains cells from the fetus
- 1% risk of miscarriage
- Small risk of infection of maternal or fetal tissues
21. Amphibians - Soft, moist, permeable skin
- Lungs with small internal folds
- Protective gel around eggs
- Larval stage lives in water
- External fertilization in water
22. Amphipathic Part of the molecule is hydrophobic and part hydrophilic
e.g. phospholipids
23. Amylase Enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine.

Starch --> maltose

24. Amylopectin One molecule in starch

Some 1,6 bonds make it a branched polymer of alpha glucose

25. Amylose One molecule in starch

1,4 bonds make it an unbranched polymer of alpha glucose

26. Anabolism Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules (in living organisms, monomers -->
macromolecules)

A form of condensation reactions (water is produced)`

27. Anaerobic cellular respiration Oxygen: not used
Substrate: glucose only
Yield of ATP per glucose: small
Products:
- Humans - lactate
- Yeast - CO2 and ethanol
28. Analysis of data from 1. Calculate mean results
respirometer experiments 2. Plot a graph with range bars
3. Describe the trend
4. Evaluate the data
29. Anaphase - Centromeres divide, making chromatids now chromosomes
- Spindle microtubules pull the genetically identical chromosomes to opposite poles
30. Anaphase I - Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles, halving the chromosome number
(though each chromosome still has 2 chromatids)
31. Anaphase II - Spindle microtubules pull the sister chromatids apart to opposite poles
32. Angiospermophyes Flowering plants

Roots, stems, and leaves:

- Roots: yes
- Stems: yes (shrubs are trees are woody)
- Leaves: yes
- Vascular tissue: yes

Reproductive structures:
- Seeds, which develop from ovules inside ovaries in flowers
- Fruits develop from the ovaries to disperse the seeds
33. Annelida Example: lugworm

- Bilateral symmetry
- Often bristles
- Segmented
- Mouth and anus
34. Antagonistic muscles Muscles that cause the opposite movement from each other

e.g. muscles for inspiration and expiration

35. Antibiotic - Genes that give resistance to an antibiotic occur in the microorganisms that naturally make that antibiotic
resistance in - These resistance genes can be transferred to a bacterium by means of a plasmid. There's then variation in this
bacteria type of bacterium, either resistant or not
- If antibiotic used to control bacteria, it will kill bacteria that are susceptible, but not those that are resistant
- The resistant bacteria reproduce, passing on the resistance gene, and spread from person to person by cross-
infection
- The more an antibiotic is used, more bacteria will become resistant, until most are eventually resistant
36. Antibiotics - Chemicals produced by microorganisms to kill or control growth of other organisms
- Work by blocking processes that occur in prokaryotic cells, but not eukaryotic cells
- Some strains of bacteria have acquired genes that give them resistance
- Viruses lack a metabolism and rely on a host cell to carry out metabolic processes
- Thus, it's not possible to use antibiotics to block these processes in viruses without also harming the human cell

e.g. Penicillium fungus produces penicillin to kill bacteria

37. Antibody 1. Antibodies are made by lymphocytes (1/2 WBCs) when stimulated by antigens
production 2. A lymphocyte can only make 1 type of antibody, so a huge number of lymphocyte types is needed. Each one
puts some of the antibodies that it can make into its cell surface membrane, with the antigen-combining site
projecting outwards
3. When a pathogen enters the body, its antigens bind to the antibodies in the cell surface membrane of 1 type of
lymphocyte
4. When they bind, the lymphocyte becomes active and divides by mitosis to produce a clone of many identical
cells
5. These cells are plasma cells that produce large quantities of the same antibody. The antibody binds to the
antigens on the surface of the pathogen and stimulate its destruction.
6. When the infection is gone, the lymphocytes used to produce the antibodies disappear (though some remain as
memory cells that can quickly reproduce to form a clone of plasma cells if a pathogen with the same antigen
enters again)
38. Anticodon A group of three bases on tRNA molecules that correspond to amino acids, which are then linked together by
peptide linkages along an mRNA strand until a polypeptide is formed.
39. Antigens Foreign substances that stimulate the production of antibodies in lymphocytes
40. Antiporter Pumps substances in opposite directions across membrane
41. Arteries Convey blood pumped out at high pressure by the ventricles of the heart. They carry the blood to tissues in the
body.

Structure (thick wall helps withstand high pressures):

- Narrows lumen to maintain high pressures
- Thick layer containing elastic fibers, which maintain high pressure between pumping cycles, and muscle, which
contracts/relaxes to adjust the diameter of the lumen
- Tough outer coat
42. Arthropoda Example: striped scorpion

- Bilateral symmetry
- Exoskeleton
- Segmented
- Jointed appendages
43. Artificial Classifying organisms based on superficial attributions
classification
e.g. have wings vs. don't have wings (animals with wings not similar enough in other ways to be grouped together)
44. Artificial Simplest method:
cloning - Break up an embryo into more than 1 group of cells at an early stage when it consists entirely of embryonic stem
cells. They will each develop into separate genetically identical individuals. At this stage, though, characteristics
are mostly unknown.

Difficult method:
- Somatic-cell nuclear transfer
45. Atmospheric Air monitoring stations measure concentrations of CO2, methane, and other gases. CO2 concentrations show an
monitoring annual fluctuation: drop from May to October, then rise from October to May.

The drop is due to an excess of photosynthesis over cell respiration globally, and vice versa for the rise. These
changes follow northern hemisphere seasons, as the area of land greater (and CO2 concentrations are greater
on land than sea)
46. Atom A single particle of an element, consisting of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively
charged electrons
47. Autoradiography Combined with electron microscopy, used from 1940s onwards to find where radioactively labelled substances
are located in cells

Process:
1. Thin sections of cells are coated with a photographic film
2. After being left in darkness for days/weeks, the film is developed
3. When viewed with a microscope, both the structure of cells in the section and black dots in the film are
visible
- Each black dot shows where a radioactive atom decayed and gave out radiation, which acts like light on the
film
48. Autoradiography By John Cairns to research E. coli chromosomes
and
chromosomes Experiment:
1. Grew E. coli in a medium containing radioactively labelled thymine, so its DNA became labelled but not RNA
2. Placed cells on a membrane and digested their cell walls, allowing the DNA to spill out over the membrane
3. Coated the membrane with a photographic film and left it in the dark for 2 months
4. When the film was developed, lines of black dots showed the position of the E. coli DNA molecules. He
discovered they were circular
49. Autosome All chromosomes apart from sex chromosomes
50. Autotrophs Make their own food by absorbing CO2, water, and inorganics nutrients (e.g. nitrates) from the abiotic
environment to use them to synthesize carbon compounds that they need. Energy source like light is needed.

e.g. corn plant

51. Avoiding - Osmosis can cause cells in human tissues or organs to swell up and burst, or to shrink due to gain or loss of
osmosis in donor water
organs
- To prevent this, tissues of organs used in medical procedures such as kidney transplants must be bathed in a
solution with same osmolarity as human cytoplasm

- A solution of salts called isotonic saline is used for some procedures

- Donor organs are surrounded by isotonic slush when they are being transported, with the low temperatures
helping to keep them in a healthy state
52. Base substitution A mutation that replaces one base in a gene with a different base
53. Benefits vs. Production of insulin has all benefits and no harmful effects. But GM crops are more controversial.
Risks of GM
crops Corn/maize is given a bacterium (Bacillus thuringiensis) that codes for a bacterial protein called Bt toxin, which
kills insect pests feeding on the crop (esp. corn borers)

Benefits:
1. Higher crop yields due to less pest damage --> more food
2. Less land needed for crop production --> some could become areas for wildlife conservation
3. Less use of insecticide sprays, which are expensive and harmful to farm workers and wildlife

Harmful effects:
1. Could kill insects that are not pests (maize pollen containing the toxin could blow onto nearby wild plants and
affect the insects feeding on them; leaves and stems would contain the toxin after harvest which could harm
insect detritivores in the soil and streams)
2. Transferred gene might spread to wild populations by cross-pollination, making them toxic, too
3. Insect pests of corn may develop resistance
54. Binary fission - Division of prokaryotic cells into two
- Sometimes can do this every 30 minutes

1. Bacterial chromosome is replicated so there are 2 identical copies

2. Copies move to opposite ends of the cell
3. Wall and plasma membrane pulled inwards so the cell pinches apart into 2 identical cells
55. Binomial A universal system among scientists that has been agreed upon and developed at a series of international
system congresses. It gives species scientific names. It avoids the confusion that would result from using the many
different local names. Good example of cooperation and collaboration between scientists.

Features:
- First name is the genus name (genus is a group of closely related species) (given an upper case letter)
- Second name is the sepcies name (given a lower case letter)
- Italics are used when a binomial appeared in a printed or typed document
56. Biogeochemical
carbon cycle

57. Birds - Feathers growing from skin

- Lungs with parabronchial tubes
- Hard shells around eggs
- Beak, but no teeth
- Wings instead of front legs
58. Blood clots in - A heart attack
coronary - Form if deposits of plaque rupture
arteries - Can completely block the artery
- An area of cardiac muscle thus receives no oxygen and stops beating in a coordinated way (fibrillation)
- Sometimes the heart recovers, but sometimes contractions can stop completely
59. Blood clotting - When the skin is cut and blood escapes from blood vessels, a semi-solid blood clot is formed from liquid blood
to seal up the cut and prevent pathogens from entering
- Ensures that clotting only happens when needed and is rapid

Process:
1. Clotting factors released from damaged tissue cells or from platelets, which set off a chain of reactions in which
the product of each reaction is the catalyst of the next
2. A prothrombin activator is releasing, converting inactive prothrombin into active thrombin
3. Active thrombin then converts soluble fibrinogen (a plasma protein) into insoluble fibrin (remove sections of
peptide that have negative charges. The remaining polypeptides bind to others to form long protein fibers, fibrin)
4. Fibrin forms a mesh of fibers across wounds
5. Blood cells are caught in the mesh and soon form a semi-solid clot
6. If exposed to air, the clot dries to form a protective scab, which remains until the wound is healed
60. Blood glucose Usually kept between 4 and 8 millimoles per dm3 of blood. Cells in the pancreas monitor the concentration and
concentration secrete insulin or glucagon when levels are too high or low

Too high: insulin is secrete by beta cells

61. Blood groups - Group A
- Group B
- Group AB
- Group O
62. Blood vessels - Arteries
- Capillaries
- Veins
63. Body mass mass in kilograms / (height in meters)2
index
or use a nomogram

Below 18.5: underweight

18.5-24.9: normal weight
25.0-29.9: overweight
30.0 or more: obese
64. Bony ray- - Scales grow from the skin
finned fish - Gills with a single gill slit
- Fins supported by rays
- Swim bladder (for buoyancy)
- External fertilization
65. Bryophytes Mosses

Roots, stems, and leaves:

- Roots: no, but rhizoid hairs (structures similar to root hairs)
- Stems: simple
- Leaves: simple
- Vascular tissue: no
- Liverworts have a flattened thallus

Reproductive structures:
- Spores produced in a capsule
- Capsule develops at end of a stalk
66. Capillaries Carry blood through tissues. They have permeable walls that allow the exchange of materials between the
cells of the tissue and the blood in the capillary.

Structure:
- Very narrow lumen so they can fit into small spaces. It also gives them a larger surface area.
- Wall made of a single layer of thin cells so the distance for diffusion is small
- Pores between cells in wall allow some plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid. Phagocytes can also be
squeezed out
67. Carbon cycle

68. Carbon Over last 150 years (since IR), atmospheric CO2 concentration has risen largely due to the combustion of
emissions/global fossilized organic matter (coal, oil, and gas)
warming
69. Carbon fixation Conversion process of inorganic carbon (i.e. CO2) to organic compounds (e.g. glucose)
70. Carcinogen Chemical substances that cause cancer
71. The cardiac cycle 1. The walls of the atria contract, pushing blood into the ventricles through the atrioventricular valves, which
are open.
2. The ventricle fills with blood.
3. The walls of the ventricles contract powerfully so the blood pressures rises rapidly inside them.
4. This closes the atrioventricular valves, to prevent back-flow, and opens the semilunar valves, to allow
blood to pump out into the arteries
5. The ventricles stop contracting so pressure falls inside them.
6. This closes the semilunar valves, preventing back-flow from the arteries to the ventricles
7. When the ventricular pressure drops below atrial pressure, the atrioventricular valves open.
8. Blood, which had been refilling while the other blood was pumping, flows on to fill the ventricle

*Begins every time the walls of the atria contract

72. Cardiac muscle Muscle that makes up the walls of the heart and can contract on its own without being stimulated by a
nerve.

Coronary arteries carry blood and thus nutrients, including oxygen, to the heart. Oxygen is used for aerobic
respiration, which provides energy for cardiac muscle contraction.

Valves ensure that circulation of blood by prevent back-flow. The atria are collecting chambers and the
ventricles are pumping chambers.
73. Carrier Parent has a recessive allele of a gene, but it does not affect their phenotype because a dominant allele is
also present
74. Catabolism Breakdown of complex molecules into simple molecules (in living organisms, macromolecules -->
monomers)

A form of hydrolysis (water molecules are split)

75. Catalysts Speed up chemical reactions without being changed themselves
76. Cell cycle Sequence of events between one cell division and the next

2 phases: interphase and cell division

77. Cell theory 1. Cells are the smallest possible units of life
2. Living organisms are made of cells
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
78. Cellular The controlled release of energy from organic compounds (e.g. glucose or fat) to produce ATP
respiration
ATP is used for a wide range of processes including active transport and protein synthesis. It is immediately
available as an energy source and can diffuse to any part of the cell and release its energy within a fraction of a
second.
79. Cellulose

Unbranched polymer of glucose (orientation of the glucose units ALTERNATES, up-down-up, making them
STRAIGHT not curved

Allows groups of cellulose molecules to be arranged in parallel, with hydrogen bonds forming cross links
(structures called microfibrils)

Use: basis of plant cell walls

80. Centrome Holds together sister chromatids during prophase and metaphase, before being pulled apart during anaphase
81. Centromere Point at which sister chromatids are held together
82. Cervix Protects the fetus during pregnancy, then dilated to provide a birth canal
83. Channel - Control what substances pass through cell membrane
proteins
- Only one type of substance can pass through

- FROM region of HIGHER concentration to region of LOWER concentration

e.g. chloride channels only allow chloride ions through

e.g. sodium and potassium channel proteins in the membranes of neurons open and close depending on voltage
across membrane to transmit nerve impulse
84. Chi-squared ...
test
85. Cholesterol - Component of animal cell membranes

- Most of it is hydrophobic with one hydrophilic end, so fits between phospholipids in the membrane

- Restricts the movement of phospholipid molecules, thus reducing fluidity and permeability of membrane to
hydrophilic particles like Na and H ions
86. Cholinergic Synapses that use acetylcholine. The pre-synaptic neuron secretes ACh into the synaptic cleft, which diffuses
synapses across the synapses and binds to receptors n the post-synaptic membrane. The ACh is broken down in the cleft by
cholinesterase, producing acetyl groups and choline. The choline is reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron.
87. Cholinesterase An enzyme in the synaptic cleft that breaks ACh into acetyl groups and choline. The choline is reabsorbed by the
pre-synaptic neuron.
88. Chordata Example: ferret

- Notochord
- Dorsal nerve cord
- Pharyngeal gill slits (in invertebrates)
- Post-anal tail

*almost all have a backbone consisting of vertebrae. Apart from fish, all these vertebrates are
tetrapods with pentadactyl limbs
89. Chorionic villi Fetal tissues in the placenta from which cells are removed for CVS
90. Chorionic villus sampling - Method for obtaining cells of an unborn child for chromosome testing
(CVS) - Cells are removed from fetal tissues in the placenta called chorionic villi
- A hypodermic needle is inserted into the wall of the abdomen and uterus to obtain the cells
- 2% risk of miscarriage
- Small risk of infections in maternal or fetal tissues
91. Chromatids Two structures that make up chromosomes in prophase and metaphase of mitosis.

Each contains a DNA molecule that was produced by replication during interphase, so their base
sequences are identical

Held together by the centromere, which divides at the start of anaphase, allowing the chromatids to
become separate chromosomes
92. Chromatography 1. Tear up a leaf into small fragments
2. Grind pieces of the leaf with sharp sand and propanone to extract the leaf pigments
3. Transfer sample of extract to a watch glass
4. Evaporate to dryness with hot air from a hairdryer
5. Add a few drops of propanone to dissolve the pigments
6. Build up a concentrated spot of pigment 10 mm from the end of the strip of paper
7. Suspend the strip in a tube with the base dipping into running solvent
6. Remove the strip from the tube when the solvent has nearly reached the top
9. Calculate the Rf value (distance moved by spot / distance moved by solvent)
93. Chromosome number Number of chromosomes. The diploid number is usually quoted, as that's how many chromosomes are
present in normal body cells.

Homo sapiens: 46
Chimpanzees: 48
Dog: 78
Rice: 24
Horse threadworm: 4
94. Chromosomes DNA molecules with proteins attached to them

Term for them once sister chromatids are separated during mitosis
95. Circular muscle in small Contracts behind the food to constrict the gut to prevent food from being pushed back toward the
intestine mouth

Contracts with longitudinal muscle to mix food with enzymes

96. Cis unsaturated
fatty acid

hydrogen atoms are bonded to carbon atoms on the SAME SIDE of a double bond in a fatty acid carbon chain
97. Clade A group of organisms that evolved from a common ancestor

Once determined by anatomical structures (but hard to distinguish between homologous traits derived from a
common ancestor and analogous characteristics that have developed by convergent evolution), but now by
comparing base sequences, or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein
98. Cladograms Tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades.

There are branching points (nodes) that show groups of organisms which are related, and therefore
presumably had common ancestry
99. Classification The process of putting species of living organisms into groups. Important to storing and accessing information
about all species.
100. Clone Group of genetically identical organisms derived from a single original parent cell
101. Cloning Production of an organism that is genetically identical to another organism

e.g. asexual reproduction, artificial cloning (if more organisms with a desirable combination of characteristics
are wanted)
102. Cloning adult 1. A cell is taken from the donor sheep's udder and cultured in a lab for 6 days. An unfertilized egg is taken
animals (using from another sheep and has nucleus removed.
differentiated 2. Egg without a nucleus is fused with a donor cell using a pulse of electricity
cells) 3. The resulting embryo is transferred to the uterus of a 3rd sheep (the surrogate mother)
4. Surrogate mother gives birth to the lamb, which is genetically identical to the sheep that donated the udder
cell
103. Cnidaria Example: common kingslayer box jellyfish

- Radial symmetry
- Tentacles
- Stinging cells
- Mouth, but no anus
104. Codon A group of three bases on the mRNA strand that is bound to by the anticodons of tRNA
105. Cohesive Water molecules cohere (stick to each other) because of the hydrogen bonds that form between them
property of
water Helpful: strong pulling forces can be exerted to suck columns of water up to the tops of the tallest trees in
tubes call xylem vessels. These columns of water rarely break despite the suction forces
106. Collagen Example of the structural function of proteins

It is made of 3 polypeptides wound together to make a rope-like conformation

This prevents tearing in skin
This prevents fractures in bones
This gives tensile strength to tendons and ligaments
107. Combustion in CO2 is produced by the combustion of carbon compounds (i.e. cell respiration; forest and grassland fires that
the carbon cycle burn biomass, releasing CO2)
108. Community A group of populations of different species living together and interacting with each other in an area
109. Condensation When chromosomes become shorter and fatter during mitosis

Makes them visible with a light microscope

110. Condensation 2 molecules are joined together to form a larger molecule plus a molecule of water
reactions
Monomers become dimers or polymers

Used to build up carbohydrates and lipids:

- Carbohydrates:
MONOSACCHARIDES (basic sub-units of carbs) --> DISACCHARIDES + WATER (and more can be linked to
disaccharides to form a polysaccharide)
- Lipids:
FATTY ACIDS + GLYCEROL --> GLYCERIDES (type of lipid) (a maximum of 3 fatty acids can be linked to each
glycerol to form a triglyceride + 3 molecules of water

e.g. amino acids can be joined together to form a dipeptide by a condensation reaction. Amino acids can be
linked to either end to form polypeptides. Peptide bonds link the peptides.
111. Coniferophytes Conifers

Roots, stems, and leaves:

- Roots: yes
- Stems: woody
- Leaves: often narrow with thick, waxy cuticle
- Vascular tissue: yes

Reproductive structures:
- Seeds, which develop from ovules on the surface of the scales of female cones
- Male cones produce pollen
112. Conservative Both strands of the parent DNA remain together and another molecule is produced with 2 new strands
replication
Rejected for semi-conservative
113. Consumers Feed on living organisms by ingestion (they take other organisms into their digestive system for digestion and
absorption). Organism may be whole, in parts, alive, or recently killed

e.g. deer, vulture

114. Control of - Sinoatrial node in the wall of the right atrium acts as a pacemaker
heart rate - It sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction, since it is propagated first through the walls of the
atria and then through the walls of the ventricles
- It sends out this electrical signal when it receives messages to do so

Messages:
- Impulses are brought from the medulla of the brain by 2 nerves that cause the SA node to either speed up the
rate or slow it down
- The hormone epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare the body for vigorous physical activity
115. Coral reefs and Over 500 billion tons of CO2 released by humans since the IR have dissolved in oceans, causing the pH to drop
CO2 from about 8.25 to 8.14, a 30% acidification.

Marine animals like reef-building corals that deposit calcium carbonate in their skeletons need to absorb
carbonate ions (which are not very soluble, thus low) from seawater. Dissolved CO2 lowers levels even more
because it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into H and hydrogen carbonate ions that
convert carbonate into more hydrogen carbonate.

Thus, new calcium carbonate cannot be made and hydrogen carbonate dissolves existing calcium carbonates, so
coral reefs begin to die.
116. Coronary - Caused by fatty plaque building up in the inner lining of the coronary arteries, which becomes narrow
artery - As it worsens, blood flow to the cardiac muscle is severely restricted, causing chest pain
disease - Minerals can become deposited in the plaque, making it hard and rough

Likely causes:
- High blood cholesterol levels
- Smoking
- High blood pressure (hypertension)
- High blood sugar levels (usually b/c of diabetes)
- Genetic factors (i.e. family history)
117. Coronary They supply to the heart the blood that runs through the capillaries in the muscular wall of the heart. With the blood
arties they bring nutrients, including oxygen. This causes aerobic respiration that provides enough energy for cardiac muscle
contraction.

Branch off the aorta close to the semilunar valves.

118. Covalent Bond between two atoms sharing an electron
bonds
119. Crossing - A process in meiosis which promotes genetic variation among the haploid cells produced by meiosis
over - During prophase I
- Homologous chromosomes pair up
- Parts of the non-sister chromatids are exchanged between the chromosomes
- Produces chromatids with a new combination of alleles
- Significant source of variation because where along the chromosomes exchange alleles is random
120. Cyclin- Enzymes that become active when cyclins bind to them and then attach phosphate groups to other proteins in a cell,
dependent which triggers other proteins to become active and carry out tasks specific to one of the cell cycle phases
kinases
121. Cyclins

A group of proteins used to ensure:

- that tasks are performed at the correct time
- that the cell only moves on to the next stage of the cycle when appropriate

Bind to enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases, which become active and attach phosphate groups to other
proteins in the cell, which triggers other proteins t be active and carry out tasks specific to one of the cell cycle
phases

4 main types:
- cyclin A, B, C, and D
- unless they reach a threshold concentration, the cell does not progress to the next stage

Discovered serendipitously by Tim Hunt, who was doing research into protein synthesis in sea urchin eggs. He noticed
a protein that increased and decreased in concentration repeatedly and also that those changes corresponded with
particular cell cycle phases. He named them cyclins.
122. Cystic - Recessive autosomal genetic disease
fibrosis - Caused by a recessive allele of a gene coding for a chloride channel
- Both parents are usually carriers --> 25% chance
123. Cytokinesis Division of the cytoplasm to form two cells

- Occurs after mitosis

- In plant cells:
- A new cell wall forms across the equator
- Plasma membrane is on both sides
- This divides the cell into two
- In animal cells:
- The plasma membrane at equator pulled inwards until meets in the center of the cell
- This divides the cell into two
124. Databases OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man): finds loci of human genes

GenBank: shows the base sequence of a gene (useful to then compare with the base sequences of the gene in
other species to find how long ago they diverged)

BLAST: GenBank database that compares base sequences of genes (useful to find mutations in other genes of the
same species or find how long ago two species diverged)

ClustaIX: compare a sequence with other selected genes

125. Davson-
Danielli Model

- Developed in 1930s
- Bilayer of phospholipids with layers of protein on either side
- Electron micrographs showed two dark lines separated by a lighter band
- Proteins usually appear darker than phospholipids

Process of discovery:
1. Chemical analysis of membranes showed that they were composed of phospholipids and proteins
2. Evidence suggested that the plasma membrane of red blood cells has enough phospholipids in it to form an
area twice as large as the area of the plasma membrane, suggesting a phospholipid bilayer
3. Experiments showed that the membranes form a barrier of passage of some substances, despite being very
thin, and layers of protein could act as a barrier
126. Denaturation When the conformation of a protein is damaged

Caused by:
- Heat (causes vibrations within protein molecules that break the intramolecular bonds; usually irreversible)
- pH (if increased or decreased beyond optimum of the protein by adding alkali or acid, intramolecular bonds
break within the molecule)
127. Depolarization - If potential of across membranes rises from -70mV to -50 mV, voltage-gated sodium channels open and sodium
ions diffuse in down the gradient.
- The entry of positive sodium ions causes the inside of the neuron to develop a net positive charge compared to
the outside, so the potential is reversed.
128. Designing Aim: to investigate the effect of temperature, pH, or substrate concentration on enzyme activity
enzyme
experiments Independent variable: only one; need a wide range to show all trends (e.g. pH 1-14); each level must be
maintained as accurately as possible

Dependent variable: measurement taken to assess activity (e.g. how long it takes for substrate to be used up;
quantity of product formed after a certain time); must be in SI units; must be quantitative and accurate

Control variables: other factors that could affect activity (e.g. if testing pH, control temperature at constant 20
C using a water bath)
129. Detritivores Obtain organic nutrients form detritus (dead material from living organisms, including dead leaves, roots, parts
of animal corpses, and feces) by internal digestion.

e.g. wax moth larvae, which feed on wax comb made by honeybees
130. Dextrinase Enzyme in the membraneS of microvilli on the villi that digests dextrins into glucose
131. Dextrins Fragments of amylopectin containing the 1,6 bonds that amylase can't digest
132. Diabetes When the control of blood glucose does not work effectively and the concentration can rise or fall beyond the
normal limits.
133. Dialysis tubing

Used to model absorption by the epithelium cells of the small intestine. Water outside it tested to see if
substances in the cola have diffused through the dialysis tubing.

Expected result is that glucose and phosphoric acids, with small particles, diffuse through the tubing. Caramel,
with larger polymers of sugar, does not.
134. Dichotomous Used in species identification
keys
Features:
- Consists of a series of numbered stages
- Each stages consists of a pair of alternative characteristics
- Some alternatives give the next numbered stage of the key to go to
- Eventually identification of the species will be reached
135. Differentiation A cell uses only the genes that it needs to follow its pathway of development, leaving other genes unused.

e.g. genes for making hemoglobin are only expressed in developing RBCs. Once a pathway of development
has begun, it's fixed, or "committed."
136. Diffusion - Passive process

- When particles are unevenly spread (higher concentration in one region than another), this occurs

- Passive movement of particles FROM a region of HIGHER concentration to a region of LOWER

concentration (as result of random motion of particles)

- Can occur across membranes if there is a concentration gradient and membrane is permeable to the particle

e.g. membranes are permeable to 02, so lower concentration of 02 inside than outside, so diffuses into the
cell

e.g. not permeable to cellulose, so it does not diffuse across

137. Digestion in the Enzymes digest most macromolecules (including proteins, starch, glycogen, lipids, and nucleic acids; not
small intestine cellulose) in food into monomers.

These enzymes are secreted by pancreas into SI:

- lipase (for lipids)
- endopeptidase (for polypeptides)
- amylase (for starch)
138. Digestion of 2 types of molecule in starch:
starch - Amylose (1,4 bonds make it an unbranched polymer of alpha glucose)
- Amylopectin (some 1,6 bonds make it a branched polymer of alpha glucose)

1. Amylase breaks 1,4 bonds in amylose into chains of 4+ glucose monomers, so doesn't become glucose but
MALTOSE
2. Amylase can't break 1,6 bonds in amylopectin (because of the specificity of its active site), so becomes
DEXTRINS (fragments containing the 1,6 bonds that amylase can't digest)
3. Maltase and dextrinase (enzymes in the membranes of microvilli on villus epithelium cells) digest maltose
and dextrins into glucose
4. Protein pumps in the membranes of microvilli absorb the glucose
5. Blood carrying products of digestion flow through villus capillaries to venules in the submucosa
6. The blood is these venules is carried via the hepatic portal vein to the liver, where excess glucose can be
absorbed by liver cells and converted to glycogen for storage
139. Digestive system

140. Diploid Two chromosomes of each type (i.e. pairs of homologous chromosomes)
141. Dipolarity Polarity only on two poles

e.g. water molecules

142. Disaccharides - Pairs of monosaccharides linked together by condensation

e.g. maltose, lactose, sucrose

(glucose + glucose --> maltose + water

glucose + galactose --> lactose + water
glucose + fructose --> sucrose + water)
143. Discovery of - William Harvey less successful in this area than blood circulation
sexual
reproduction - Aristotle's "seed and soil" theory - male produces a seed that forms an egg when mixed with menstrual blood
- Tested this by slaughtering open deer immediately after mating
- Expected to find eggs developing in the uterus, but only found things developing 2+ months after mating season
start
- Concluded that Aristotle is wrong, but claimed that mating does not create offspring, which is also wrong
- Didn't have effective microscopes to see games, process of fertilization, and embryo development
144. Discovery of By Crick and Watson using model making
the structure 1. Used cardboard shapes to represent bases in DNA and found that A-T and C-G base pairs could be formed
of DNA with hydrogen bonds between them; the base pairs were equal in length, so they'd fit into a molecule between
two outer sugar-phosphate backbones
2. X-ray diffraction data showed DNA to be helical, causing the realization that the strands had to run in opposite
directions
3. Used metal rods and sheeting held together with small clamps. All was to scale.
145. Dispersive Every molecule produced by DNA replication has a mixture of old and new sections in both of its strands
replication
Rejected for semi-conservative
146. DNA ligase Enzyme used for GMO process by making sugar-phosphate bonds to link nucleotides together and form
continuous strands of nucleotides
147. DNA Links nucleotides to the template strands to form 2 new strands
polymerase
148. DNA profiling 1. A sample of DNA is obtained (can't be contaminated with the DNA of any other organism)
2. DNA from a selection of STR loci is copied by PCR (often the DNA between the 11-13 loci because it's unlikely
for 2 people to have the same number of repeats at each of these loci)
3. The copies of STR alleles made by PRC are separated by gel electrophoresis, creating a pattern of bands. 2
individuals are unlikely to have the same patterns of bands unless they are twins.
149. DNA 1. Helicase unwinds the double helix of DNA and separates the strands by breaking hydrogen bonds
replication 2. DNA polymerase links nucleotides together on the template strands to form new strands
3. The daughter DNA molecules rewind into double helixes. They are identical in base sequence to each other
and the parent molecule because of complementary base pairing.
150. DNA vs. RNA DNA:
Pentose: deoxyribose
Bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
Structure: two strands; antiparallel (each strand opposite each other) and linked by hydrogen bonding between
the complementary base pairs)

RNA:
Pentose: ribose
Bases: adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine
Structure: one strand
151. Domains - Archaea (AKA archaeans)
- Eubacteria (AKA bacteria)
- Eukaryota (AKA eukaryotes)
152. Double
circulation

Pulmonary: circulations for the lungs; the right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the
pulmonary artery, and oxygenated blood returns to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary vein

Systemic: circulations for other organs of the body; the left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood via the
aorta to all organs (other than lungs), and deoxygenated blood is carried back to the right side of the heart via
the vena cava
153. Down Syndrome due to non-disjunction in the formation of the sperm or the egg causing trisomy 21, or the presence of
syndrome 3 chromosomes of type 21 instead of 2
154. Ecosystem A community and its abiotic environment.
155. Effect of CO2 Below 0.01% CO2, the enzyme used to fix CO2 (rubisco) is not effective and in many plants there is no net
concentration photosynthesis.
on
photosynthesis Between 0.01%-0.04%, the concentration of CO2 is often the limiting factor because the rate of successful
collisions between CO2 molecules and the active site of rubisco is lower than the other steps of photosynthesis.
ATP and high energy electrons are not used as rapidly as they are produced, which restricts further photolysis
and therefore O2 production.

At very high CO2 concentrations, some other factor is limiting

156. Effect of
concentration
on enzyme
activity

At low substrate concentrations, enzyme activity increases steeply as substrate concentration increases because
random collisions between substrate and active site occur more frequently

At high substrate concentrations, most of the active sites are occupied, so an increase in substrate concentration
has little effect on enzyme activity
157. Effect of light At low light intensities:
intensity on - the rate of photosynthesis and therefore O2 production is limited by the amount of light absorbed
photosynthesis - since light energy is used for the production of ATP and high energy electrons (which help convert CO2
into glucose) low light intensities limit the production of glucose these things

At high light intensities:

- some other factor is limiting photosynthesis

Unless heavily shaded or the sun is rising/setting, not usually the limiting factor
158. Effect of pH on
enzyme activity

Enzyme activity decreases as pH decreases from the optimum because the conformation of the enzyme is
altered more and more (below a certain pH, the acidity denatures the enzyme)

Enzyme activity decreases as pH increases above the optimum because the conformation of the enzyme is
altered more and more (above a certain pH, the alkalinity denatures the enzyme)
159. Effect of temperature
on enzyme activity

Enzyme activity increases as temperature increased (often doubles with every 10 degree rise) because
collisions between substrate and active site occur more frequently due to faster molecular motion

At too high temperatures, enzymes denature (*separate card) and stop working
160. Effect of temperature At low temperatures, all the enzymes that catalyze the conversion of CO2 into carbohydrates work slowly
on photosynthesis
Below 5 C, there is little or no photosynthesis in many plants

Above 30 C, rubisco is decreasingly effective, even though it has not been denatured.

Temperature is therefore the limiting factor at both low and high temperatures, with the low rate of use of
ATP and high energy electrons restricting further photolysis and therefore O2 production

At intermediate temperature, some other factor is limiting

161. The efficiency of The percentage use of light of a wavelength in photosynthesis
photosynthesis
162. Emergent Properties that arise from the interaction of the component parts of a complex structure.
properties
e.g. each cell in a tiger is a unit of life with distinctive properties (such as sensitivity to light in retinal cells), but all
cells combined to give additional properties (such as ability to hunt and kill)
163. Emphysema Main causes:
- Smoking
- Air pollution

Cilia that line the airways and expel mucus are damaged and cease to function, so mucus builds up in the lungs,
causing infections.
Toxins from causes cause inflammation and damage to WBCs that fight infections in the lungs.
A protease is released from these inflamed/damaged cells and WBCs that digests elastic fibers in the lungs,
causing breakdown of alveolus walls.
Microscopic alveoli are replaced by large air sacs with thicker and less permeable walls.

Consequences:
The surface area for gas exchange reduces, so oxygen saturation of the blood falls, making exercise more
difficult. Lungs lose their elasticity, making exhaling difficult. Mucus in lungs causes coughing a wheezing.
164. Endocytosis Fluidity of the membrane allows small pieces of it to be pinched off to create a vesicle containing some material
from the outside
165. Endocytosis Small droplets of fluid are passed through the membrane by means of vesicles
(absorption
method) e.g. triglycerides and cholesterol in lipoprotein particles
166. Endopeptidase Enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine.

Polypeptides (proteins) --> shorter peptides

167. Endosymbiosis - A larger cell takes in a smaller cell by endocytosis, so the smaller cell is inside a vesicle in the cytoplasm of the
larger cell

- Instead of being digested, smaller cell is kept alive to perform a function for the larger cell

- Smaller cell divides as often as the larger cell so that one or more of them are inside vesicles in the new larger
cells

Happened at least twice during the origin of eukaryotes:

1. A cell that respired anaerobically took in a bacterium that respired aerobically, supplying both itself and the
larger cell with energy as ATP. It gave the larger cell a competitive advantage because aerobic respiration is
more efficient than anaerobic. The aerobic bacterium gradually evolved into mitochondria and the larger cell
evolved into heterotrophic eukaryotes like animals
2. A heterotrophic cell took in a smaller photosynthetic bacterium, which supplied it with organic compounds,
making it an autotroph. The photosynthetic prokaryote evolved into chloroplasts and the larger cell evolved in
photosynthetic eukaryotes like plants

Explains characters of mitochondria and chloroplasts:

- grow and divide like cells
- have naked loop of SNA, like prokaryotes
- synthesize some of their own proteins using 70S ribosomes, like prokaryotes
- have double membranes (as expected when cells are taken into a vesicle by endocytosis)
168. Energy for Anaerobic respiration produces fewer molecules of ATP per glucose than aerobic, so it supplies ATP at a faster
muscles overall rate for a short time because it's not limited by how fast oxygen can be supplied. This maximizes muscle
contractions. It lasts for 2 minutes. It produces lactate and hydrogen ions. After 2 minutes, hydrogen ion
concentrations make the pH of the blood too low, so aerobic respiration must be used and high-intensity exercise
can't be continued.

It's used in muscles carrying out vigorous exercise like sprinting or weight lifting.
169. Energy loss due All organisms release energy from carbon compounds by cell respiration and use the energy for essential
to cell processes like muscle contraction and active transport. Energy used this way is converted into heat that is lost
respiration from the organism (it can't be converted back into chemical energy, so its lost from the ecosystem)

Why need an energy source to replace energy lost

170. Energy loss due 1. Some organisms die before being eaten by the next organism in the food chain (e.g. not all rabbits are eaten
to detritivores by a fox in a community; some rabbits die of disease)
and saprotrophs
2. Some parts of organisms are not eaten (e.g. bones, hair, and gall bladder)

3. Some parts of organisms are indigestible (e.g. cellulose in foods eaten by humans), so they are egested in
feces
171. Energy losses At each successive stage in the food chain, less food is available and therefore less chemical energy.

Lost by:
- being passed to detritivores and saprotrophs
- cell respiration
172. Energy
pyramids

Diagrams that show how much energy flows through each trophic level in a community

Amounts of energy show per square of area occupied by the community and per year (kJm-2 year-1)

Pyramid shaped because less energy flows through each successive trophic level:
- Energy is lost at each level (by being passed on to detritivores or through cellular respiration), so less remains
- Biomass is lost at each level (when C compounds are broken down by CR and CO2 is excreted, or when
waste products of metabolism like urea are removed), so energy content per gram of the tissues of each
successive trophic level is not lower.
173. Energy sources Plants, algae, and some bacteria: absorb light energy and convert it into the chemical energy in C compounds
(i.e. producers)

Consumers, detritivores, and saprotrophs: obtain energy from their food, which has chemical energy in it.
174. Enzymes Biological catalysts in living organisms that speed up and control the rate of reactions of metabolism

Globular proteins

When substrates (the reactant) are in a liquid (thus in continual random motion), they collide with the active site
on the surface of the enzyme. They bind with them. This reduces the energy needed for them to be converted
into its products, so it converts soon and is released from the active site.

Can catalyze its reaction many times per second.

175. Epididymis Stores sperm until ejaculation
176. Epithelium The single layer of cells forming the inner lining of the mucosa
177. Eppendofs Small tubes in which DNA is copied using polymerase chain reaction
178. Estrogen A steroid hormone that causes pre-natal development of female reproductive organs if testosterone isn't
present (oviduct, uterus, and vagina)

During puberty, raised levels cause development of secondary sex characteristics (growth of breasts and
pubic hair)
179. Ethical - Fly larvae or other invertebrates are sometimes used in the experiments
implications of
respirometers Must ask:
1. Will the animals suffer pain or any other harm?
2. Are there unacceptable risks to the animals (e.g. contact with the alkali)?
3. Will the animals have to be removed from their natural habitat and, if so, can they be safely returned to it
and continue to live natural lives?
4. Is it necessary to use animals in the experiment, or could a different organism be used (e.g. germinating
seeds)?
180. Eukaryotic cells - Compartmentalized (allows enzymes and substrates in a process to be concentrated in a small area in the
cell, with pH, other optimum conditions, and no other enzymes that might disrupt the process)
- Membrane-bound organelles

Has:
Organelles with single membrane:
- Rough ER
- Smooth ER
- Golgi apparatus
- Lysosomes
- Vesicles and vacuoles

Organelles with double membrane:

- Nucleus
- Mitochondrion
- Chloroplast
181. Evolution Occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change

Happens in populations of organisms and over many generations

182. Examples of - Nuclear accident at Chernobyl (the accident that caused explosions and a fire in the core of a nuclear
effects of reactor, which broke six tonnes of uranium and other radioactive metals in the fuel into small particles that
radiation were able to escape)
- Nuclear bombing of Hiroshima (atomic bomb that caused cancer and mutations that led to stillbirths,
malformation, or death in survivors)
183. Examples of Stargardt's macular dystrophy:
therapeutic stem - Develops in children 6-12
cell use - Due to recessive mutation of ABCA4 gene, causing a membrane protein used for active transport in retina
cells to malfunction, so photoreceptive cells degenerate and vision worsens.
- Embryonic stem cells injected into eyes attach to the retina and remain there, and vision improved

Leukemia:
- Type of cancer in which abnormally large numbers of WBCs are produced in the bone marrow
- A large needle is inserted into a large bone (usually pelvis) to remove fluid from the marrow
- Stem cells are extracted from this fluid and stored by freezing them (since adult, only have potential for
producing more blood cells)
- High dose of chemotherapy is given to kill all the cancer cells in the marrow, so it loses its ability to produce
blood cells
- Stem cells are returned to the body, where they re-establish themselves in the marrow, multiply, and begins
to produce RBCs and WBCs
184. Exceptions to cell theory 1. Skeletal muscle - made up of muscle fibers that are enclosed inside a membrane (like a cell),
but are larger than most cells and have 100s of nuclei

2. Giant algae - can grow to the length of 100 mm (so expected to have many small cells), but
contain a single nucleus

3. Aseptate fungi - made of thread-like structures called hyphae that are not divided into sub-
units containing a single nucleus, but many nuclei
185. Exhaling (muscles) Internal intercostal muscles: contract, moving the ribcage down and in

Abdominal muscles: contract, pushing the diaphragm into a dome shape

Volume of thorax: decreases

Pressure inside thorax: rises above atmospheric pressure

Air flow: from lungs to outside the body until the pressure falls to atmospheric pressure
186. Exocytosis Vesicles move to the plasma membrane and fuse with it, releasing the contents of it outside
the cell
187. EXPERIMENT 1. Prepare series of solutions with a suitable range of solute concentrations, like 0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3,
Estimating Osmolarity 0.4, and 0.5 moles/liter
2. Cut potato tissue into samples of equal size and shape
3. Find the mass of each sample, using an electronic balance
4. Bathe tissue samples in each of the range of solutions for long enough to get measurable
mass changes, usually between 10 and 60 minutes
6. Calculate percentage mass change using the formula:
((final mass - initial mass) / initial mass) x 100
7. Plot the results on a graph
8. Read off the solute concentration which would give no mass change, which means that the
osmolarities are the same

188. Experiments investigating
limiting factors in photosynthesis
Accuracy:
- the volume of the water used for making solutions should be measured with a volumetric
flask
- the initial and final mass of tissue samples should be measured with the same electronic
balance that is accurate to 0.01 grams (10 mg)
Photosynthesis is affected by various factors, but usually only once of these is actually limiting
the rate at a particular time. This is the factor that is nearest to its minimum.

Either:
- light intensity
- CO2 concentration
- temperature

Remember for experiment:

1. Only one limiting factor should be investigated at a time
2. A suitable range for the IV should be chosen, from the lowest level to a level when it's no
longer limiting
3. An accurate method should be chosen for measuring the rate of photosynthesis (usually a
measure of oxygen production per unit time)
4. Methods must be devised for keeping other factors constant.
189. Explaining natural selection 1. Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support
(observations and 2. Some individuals survive and some die in the ensuing struggle for existence
deductions) 3. Natural populations have variation between individuals
4. Some individuals are better adapted
5. The better-adapted individuals tend to survive and produce more offspring, while less-well-
adapted individuals tend to die and produce fewer offspring (so each generation has more better-
adapted offspring)
6. Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring
7. The frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted increases, and frequency of
others decreased, so species change and become better adapted
190. Facilitated diffusion - Passive process

- When substances are unable to pass between the phospholipids

- Use channel proteins

- Only one type of substance can pass through

- Cells control whether substances pass through their membranes by the types of channel proteins
inserted in their membranes

- FROM region of HIGHER concentration to region of LOWER concentration

e.g. chloride channels only allow chloride ions through

e.g. sodium and potassium channel proteins in the membranes of neurons open and close depending
on voltage across membrane to transmit nerve impulse
191. Facilitated diffusion Nutrients pass down the concentration gradient through specific channel proteins in the membrane
(absorption method)
e.g. hydrophilic nutrients like fructose
192. Factors affecting enzyme - Temperature
activity - pH
- substrate concentration
193. Fatty acids

- Make up triglycerides (with glycerol) and phospholipids (with glycerol and phosphate group)

- Saturated with all carbon atoms in molecules are linked together by a single covalent bond, thus holding as much
hydrogen as possible

Two parts:
- carboxyl group (-COOH / -C=O-OH)
- unbranched hydrocarbon chain (-CH2-(CH2)n-CH3)

Types (i.e. vary in number of carbon atoms and bonding of atoms to each other and hydrogens)
- Saturated
- Unsaturated
- Monounsaturated
- Polyunsaturated
- Cis unsaturated
- Trans unsaturated
194. Feedback The level of a product feeds back to control the rate of its own production
systems
195. Female - Ovary
reproductive - Uterus
system - Oviduct
- Cervix
- Vagina
- Bladder
- Vulva
- Large intestine
196. Fertilization A male and female gamete fuse together to produce a zygote, which has twice as many chromosomes as the
gametes.

At another stage in the life cycle, the number of chromosomes per cell must be halved so that each generation
doesn't have twice as many chromosomes as the previous one
197. Fibrillation Uncoordinated muscle contraction of cardiac muscle due to blood clots in the coronary arteries
198. Fibrin Fibrinogen that has had negatively-charged peptides removed from it to make it insoluble. Remaining polypeptides
bind to others, forming long protein fibers that form a mesh of fibers across wounds that catch blood cells and form
a semi-solid clot
199. Fibrinogen Soluble plasma protein that is converted into fibrin for blood clotting
200. Filicinophytes Ferns

Roots, stems, and leaves:

- Roots: yes
- Stems: non-woody
- Leaves: curled up in bud and often divided into pairs of leaflets (pinnae)
- Vascular tissue: yes

Reproductive structures:
- Spores produced in sporangia
- Sporangia usually produced on underside of the leaves
201. Finch beaks - Daphne Major is a small island in the Galpagos archipelago
- There's a population of medium ground finch that feed on seeds with a wide range of sizes
- The larger seeds are more difficult to crack open
- There is variation in beak size, some having larger beaks
- The climate is very variable because of the oscillation of warm ocean temperatures, which bring heavy rains, and
cold temperatures, which bring droughts
- During droughts, few small, soft seeds are available, while larger, hard seeds are produced

1974-1977:
- There was severe drought
- Droughts produce more large, hard seeds
- Population decreased from 1,300 to 300
- Mean beak size of the finches who lived was much higher than those who died (the larger beaks were better
adapted to feed on the larger seeds)
- When they began to breed again, the mean beak size remained higher

1983:
- There was a strong event with heavy rains
- Rains produce more small, soft seeds
- Mean beak size dropped
202. Fluid Mosaic
Model

- Also by Singer and Nicolson (1966)

- Made of a phospholipid bilayer and proteins in a range of positions in the membrane (integral proteins are
embedded in the bilayer; peripheral proteins are attached to the outer surface; glycoproteins have sugar units
attached to the outer surface of the membrane)
203. Fluxes Transfers of carbon in the cycle cycle
204. Follicle A fluid-filled sac in the ovaries in which oocytes mature during the menstrual cycle
205. Food chain Made up of 3-5 trophic levels. Can't be much more because of the theories of energy flow and energy loss. Only
about 10% of energy and biomass is passed on from 1 trophic level to the next.
206. Food chain Producer: grass
example Primary consumer: grasshopper
Secondary consumer: rat
Tertiary consumer: snake
Quarternary consumer: hawk

207. Food web The complex network of feeding relationships in a community.

An example of how populations of different species in a community interact with each other
208. Fossil fuels - Peat and coal
- Oil and gas
209. The fossil record Strong evidence for evolution because organisms that have been discovered no longer exist, and
existing organisms do not have fossils.

The sequences organisms appear matches their complexity

210. FSH Stimulates follicle development (which contain an oocyte and follicular fluid) and the secretion of
estrogen by the follicle wall.

Rises to a peak before and during menstruation.

WITH ESTROGEN (I.E. LOWER ESTROGEN RAISES FSH, WHICH STIMULATES ESTROGEN, WHICH
INHIBITS FSH, WHICH LOWERS ESTROGEN, WHICH RAISES FSH...)
211. Functions of life - Nutrition
- Growth (increases in size and dry mass)
- Response (reacts to stimuli)
- Excretion (expels waste products of metabolism)
- Metabolism (carries out chemical reactions in cytoplasm)
- Homeostasis (keeps internal conditions within limits)
- Reproduction
212. Fusion of gametes - Promotes genetic variation in the zygote
- During fertilization
- The alleles from 2 different parents are brought together
- Fertilization is a random process (any male gamete can fuse with any female gamete)
213. G1 phase (of interphase) "Growth 1"

- growth/increase in size
- synthesizes mRNA and proteins and organelles
214. G2 phase (of "Growth 2"
interphase)
- growth and prepartion for division
- lower SA:V ratio so that the cell can get bigger
215. Gas exchange Process of swapping one gas for another (i.e. oxygen for carbon dioxide)
216. Gel electrophoresis Method of separating mixtures of proteins or fragments of DNA, which are then charged.

Process:
1. Placed on a thin sheet of gel, which acts like a molecular sieve
2. Particles move toward one or the other electrodes, depending on if they're positively or negatively
charged
3. Rate of movement depends on the size of the molecules (smaller move faster)
217. Gene Heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences a specific characteristic
218. Genetically modified Organisms that have had genes transferred to them
organisms (GMO)
219. Genetic modification The transfer of genes from one species to another
220. Genetics The study of variation and inheritance
221. Gene transfer Desired gene:
using plasmids 1. mRNA coding for insulin is extracted from human pancreas cells that make insulin
2. DNA copies of the mRNA are made using reverse transcriptase (1 strand --> 2 strands)
3. Sticky ends are made by adding extra G nucleotides to the ends of the gene

Vector (i.e. meanwhile):

4. Plasmids are cut open using restriction enzymes (e.g. restriction endonuclease)
5. Sticky ends are made by adding extra C nucleotides to the ends of the cut plasmid

Combined:
6. The insulin gene and plasmid are mixed, linked by complementary base pairing between the Gs and Cs
7. DNA ligase seals up the nicks in the DNA by making sugar-phospate bonds

Transfer:
8. The recombinant plasmids are mixed with the host cells, so that the host cells absorb them
9. The modified E. coli are cultured in a fermenter
10. The E. coli bacteria start to make human insulin, which is extracted, purified, and used by diabetics
222. Genome The whole of the genetic information of an organism.

The size is therefore the total amount of DNA in one set of chromosomes in that species. It can be measured in
millions of base pairs (bp) of DNA. It varies greatly.

T2 phage: 0.18 million bp

E. coli: 5 million bp
D. melanogaster: 140 million bp
Homo sapiens: 3,000 million bp
Paris japonica: 150,000 million bp
223. Global Without the greenhouse effect, temperature at the Earth's surface would be -18 C. It is actually more than 30 C
warming/climate higher, so obvious that climate is influenced by greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere.
change
Human activities are also causing increases in CO2, methane, and other greenhouse gas concentrations. Much
dispute over whether global warming is due to greenhouse gas emissions from human activity.
224. Glycogen

Branched polymer of glucose

1,6 linkages, more than amylopectin, making it more branched

Use: animals store glucose in liver and muscle cells. Because it's insoluble, large amounts can be stored, where
if glucose was stored it would cause water to enter the cells by osmosis, thus a danger of bursting
225. Glycoproteins - Sugar units attached on the outer surface of the membrane

- Used for cell-to-cell communication

226. Greenhouse About 25% of short wavelengths from the sun are absorbed in Earth's atmosphere, ozone absorbing much of
effect the UV.
The other 75% thus reaches Earth's surface, where it's absorbed, converted to heat, and re-emitted as much
longer wavelengths (mostly infrared, i.e. heat).
Before it passes into space, a lot of this longer wavelength is absorbed by the atmosphere, which re-emits the
radiation back to the surface of the Earth, causing warming.
227. Greenhouse The gases that trap the radiation being re-emitted into space from the Earth's surface.
gases
Impact of a gas depends on:
- its ability to absorb long-wave radiation (i.e. heat)
- its concentration in the atmosphere (e.g. methane causes much more warming per molecule than CO2, but
there's less of it in the atmosphere)

Most significant: carbon dioxide and water vapor

Less significant: methane and nitrogen oxides
Not significant: stratospheric ozone (absorbs incoming short-wave radiation, not outgoing long-wave
radiation)
228. Gregor Mendel - Father of genetics
- Crossed varieties of pea plants that had different characteristics
- Deduced the principles on which inheritance is based
- Depended on quantitative, not just qualitative data
229. Haploid One chromosome of each type

e.g. gametes such as the sperm and egg cell

230. Helicase Unwinds the DNA double helix
Separates the strands by breaking hydrogen bonds
231. Hemophilia - Recessive sex-linked condition

The mother is a carrier of the condition, the father doesn't have it (mother: XH Xh, father: XH Y)

All female children inherit the father's XH chromosome, so don't get hemophilia; 50% chance they are carriers
(if inherit mother's Xh)

There's a 50% chance the son is hemophiliac because he inherits either the mother's XH (and is thus
unaffected) or mother's Xh (and is thus affected)

--> overall chance is 25% (daughters: 0%, sons: 50%)

232. Heterotrophic Most, but not all plants and algae are autotrophs. Some obtain carbon compounds from other organisms.
plants/algae
e.g. dodder, which feed on the stems of other plants
e.g. ghost orchid, which lives entirely underground except when it flowers and obtains C compounds from
fungi living on roots
233. Heterotrophs Can't make own food, so they obtain them from other organisms. Many carbon compounds (e.g. proteins,
starch) must be digested before they be absorbed and used.

e.g. wood mouse

234. Hierarchy of When species are classified into a series of taxa, each of which includes a wider range of species than the previous
taxa one

Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
235. High energy Includes X-rays, short or medium wave UV, and gamma rays and alpha particles from radioactive isotopes that
radiation increase the rate of mutation (i.e. it's a mutagen)
236. HIV - Infects a type of lymphocyte that plays a vital role in antibody production
- Gradually, these lymphocytes are destroyed
- Thus, antibodies can't be produced
- This causes AIDS
- Does not survive long outside the body and can't pass easily through the skin. Involves transfer of body fluids
(through small cuts in the vagina, penis, mouth, or intestine during sex; in traces of blood on hypodermic needles
shared by drug abusers; across the placenta from mother to child; through cuts during childbirth; in milk during
breastfeeding; transfused blood)
237. Homologous In humans, there are 23 different chromosome types, each of which carries a different group of genes. All the
chromosomes chromosomes of one particular type are homologous, meaning they carry the same genes although not the same
alleles.
238. Homologous Evolved from same part of a common ancestor and have similarities of structure despite differences of function
structures
239. Host cell The cell that receives the recombinant plasmid
240. Huntington's - Dominant autosomal genetic disease
disease - Caused by dominant alleles of the gene coding for huntingtin, a protein with an unknown function
- Manifests usually during adulthood (so might already have had children and passed it down)
- Usually only one parent has the disease, so unlikely for a child to have 2 dominant alleles --> 50% chance
241. Hydrogen An intermolecular bond that forms between the positive pole of one water molecule and the negative pole of
bond another

Energy is released when the bond is made, and energy is used when the bond is broken

e.g. when a water molecule evaporates, hydrogen bonds between it and other molecules must be broken. Heat
energy is used to do this, explaining the use of sweat as a coolant - evaporation of water from sweat removes heat
from the body
242. Hydrolysis A large molecule is broken down into smaller molecules. In the process, water molecules are used up and broken
reactions down into -H and -OH groups. The -H and -OH groups are used to make new bonds after a bond in the large
molecule has been broken.

e.g.
Polypeptides + water --> dipeptides or amino acids
Polysaccharides + water --> disaccharides or monosaccharides
Glycerides + water --> fatty acids + glycerol
243. Hydrophilic Substances that are more attractive to water and form intramolecular bonds with water molecules
244. Hydrophobic Substances that, when placed in water, do not overcome the hydrogen bonds between water molecules, so they
are insoluble
245. Hypertension High blood pressure
246. Hypertonic Surrounding solution has higher solute concentration, and cell has lower solute concentration

HYPER in reference to surrounding concentration

247. Hypotonic Surrounding solution has lower solute concentration, and cell has higher solute concentration

HYPO in reference to surrounding concentration

248. Immobilized enzymes Enzymes that have been attached to other materials or into aggregations to restrict their movement and
be used industrially

Methods:
- adsorption: attach enzyme to surfaces like glass
- trap in a membrane or gel (e.g. alginate)
- aggregation: bond enzymes together into particles of up to 0.1 mm in diameter

Benefits:
- Catalysis can be controlled by adding or removing enzymes from the reaction mixture
- Enzyme concentrations can be higher
- Enzymes can be reused (which saves money)
- Enzymes are resistant to denaturation over greater ranges of pH and temperature
- Products are not contaminated with enzymes
249. Immunoglobulins Example of the antibody function of proteins

It binds to antigens on pathogens

A wide range can be produced with different types of binding sites to have specific immunity against
different diseases
250. Inhaling (muscles) External intercostal muscles: contract, moving ribcage up and out

Diaphragm: contracts, becoming flatter and moving down

Volume of thorax: increases

Pressure inside thorax: drops below atmospheric pressure

Air flow: into lungs from outside the body until the pressure inside rises above atmospheric pressure
251. Inheritance of blood - Involves codominance and multiple alleles
groups
Codominance:
- They have joint effects on a heterozygous individual
- If IA and IB are present together, they both affect the phenotype (inherited if IAIA x IBIB)

Multiple alleles:
- When there are more than 2 alleles of a gene (i.e. IA, IB, and i)
- Produces varying phenotypes (IAi x IBi = IAIB, IAi, IBi, ii)
252. Insulin Example of the hormone function of proteins

It is carried dissolved in the blood

It binds to insulin receptors in body cell membranes, allowing the cell to absorb glucose to lower blood
glucose concentration
253. Integral proteins Embedded in phospholipid bilayer

e.g. insulin receptor - hormone receptor that protrudes off both ends

e.g. cytochrome oxidase - immobilized enzyme embedded in membrane to which cytochrome c binds
on the outside

e.g. calcium pump - active transport of calcium ions

e.g. nicotinic acetylcholine receptor - receptor for neurotransmitter and channel for facilitated diffusion
of Na ions

254. Intermolecular Weak bonds between molecules

forces
255. Interphase - Very active phase in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur
- e.g. DNA replication in nucleus; protein synthesis in cytoplasm (though some occur during mitosis, too; e.g. cell
respiration)

- Numbers of mitochondria increase as they grow and divide

3 phases:
- G1 phase - synthesizes mRNA and proteins
- S phase - cell replicates all genetic material (so after mitosis both new cells have complete genetic code)
- G2 - growth and preparation for division
256. Intestinal villi Small, finger-like projections of the mucosa on the inside of the intestinal wall.

Increases the area of the epithelium layer of the small intestine by a factor of 10 to increase the rate of
absorption.

Absorb mineral ions, vitamins, and monomers formed by digestion like glucose.
257. Investigating A new plant will be cloned from another one if roots develop from a stem cutting. It will root in either water or a
factors solid medium.
affecting
rooting in stem Many factors affect if it will form roots. To investigate it:
cuttings IV: the temperature the cuttings are kept in
DV: whether roots form
CV: same species of plant
258. In vitro 1. Down regulation - woman takes a drug each day that stops her pituitary gland from secreting FSH or LH.
fertilization Secretion of estrogen and progesterone therefore also stops. This suspends the normal menstrual cycle to allow
doctors to control timing and amount of egg production in the ovaries
2. Superovulation - intramuscular injections of FSH and LH are given daily for 10 days to stimulate follicle
development. The FSH injections give much higher concentrations than normal, so many more follicles develop
(12-20)
3. Egg retrieval and fertilization - when follicles are 18 mm in diameter, they are stimulated to mature by an
injection of hCG, a hormone that is normally secreted by the embryo. A micropipette mounted on an ultrasound
scanner is passed through the uterus wall to wash eggs out of the follicles. Each cell is mixed with 50,000-100,000
sperm cells in sterile conditions in a shallow dish and incubated at 37 C till the next day)
4. Establishing pregnancy - if fertilization is successful, 1+ embryos are placed in the uterus when they are 48 hours
old. Because the woman hasn't had a menstrual cycle, extra progesterone is given as a tablet placed in the vagina
to ensure that the uterus lining is maintained. Embryos implant and grow.
259. Isotonic Surrounding solution and cell have same solute concentration
260. Karyogram A photograph or diagram in which the chromosomes of an organism are shown in homologous pairs of
decreasing length

Uses:
1. Deduce sex of an individual (either 2 X chromosomes, or 1 X and 1 Y chromosome)
2. Diagnose conditions due to chromosome abnormalities (if there are more or less than 2 chromosomes for each
pair; e.g. Down syndrome is due to having 3 copies of chromosome 21)
261. Karyotype The number and type of chromosomes present in a cell or organism
262. Lactase Hydrolyses (breaks down, using up water) lactose into galactose and glucose
263. Lactose- Lactose is a sugar (disaccharide) in milk that is hydrolysed into glucose and galactose by the enzyme, lactase.
free milk
Lactase is an enzyme that hydrolyses lactose in glucose and galactose. It can be obtained from microorganisms like
Kluveromyces lactis, a yeast that grows in milk.

Method:
- add free lactase to milk
- use lactase that has been immobilized. It can be immobilized by adsorption (on a surface). Or, it can be immobilized
by making alginate (a gel) beads that contain lactase and putting them in milk. This reduces the lactose concentration
and raises the glucose concentration.

Advantages:
- many people are lactose-intolerant; they can't consumed more than 250 mL of milk a day
- galactose and glucose are sweeter, so less sugar needs to be added to sweet foods with milk in them (e.g.
milkshakes or yogurt)
- lactose crystallizes during ice cream production, giving it a gritty texture; glucose and galactose are more soluble
than lactose, thus remain dissolved, giving it a smooth texture
- bacteria ferment glucose and galactose more quickly than lactose, so yogurt and cottage cheese production is
faster
264. Leptin A protein hormone secreted by adipose cells (fat storage cells). Its concentration increases when the amount of
adipose tissue in the body increases. Its target is a group of cells in the hypothalamus that help control hunger. It
binds to receptors in the membranes of these cells and cause long-term appetite inhibition and reduced food intake.
265. Leptin and - Mice with 2 recessive alleles, ob/ob, (so they didn't have a gene for the synthesis of leptin) were injected with leptin
obesity - Their appetite declined, energy expenditure increased, and body mass dropped by 30% in 1 month

- Clinical trial carried out on 73 obese volunteers to see if leptin injections would control obesity in humans
- Injected with either doses of leptin or a placebo (and double-blind, so neither researcher nor participant knew)
- Injections reduced skin irritation and swelling
- 8 patients with highest dose lost average 7.1 kg of body mass
- 12 patients with the placebo lost average of 1.3 kg of body mass
- But the body mass lost by highest dose group varied greatly, and lost weight quickly regained after trial

- Most obesity cases are not due to insufficient leptin secretion, but to resistance to leptin in the target cells in the
hypothalamus (so injections can't control obesity)
266. LH Stimulates the completion of meiosis in the oocyte (which is still in the follicle)
Stimulates the partial digestion of the follicle wall, which allows it to burst open and release the oocyte (ovulation).
Promotes the development of the wall of the follicle after ovulation into the corpus luteum, which secretes estrogen
and progesterone.

Rises to a sudden and sharp peak after the follicular phase, as ovulation begins.
WITH PROGESTERONE (I.E. STIMULATES PROGESTERONE, WHICH INHIBIT LH, WHICH LOWERS PROGESTERONE,
WHICH RAISES LH, WHICH STIMUALTES PROGESTERONE...)
267. Light Light energy
energy in --> energy in organic matter in producers (by photosynthesis)
the
ecosystem --> energy in organic matter in saprotrophs and detritivores (by the death of the producer, so the energy passes to
them when they digest it)
OR
--> energy in organic matter in primary consumers (by the primary consuming eating the producer)
OR
--> heat (by the release of energy by cell respiration for use in the producer)

268. Limestone in Limestone is mostly calcium carbonate and often contains fossils like mollusc shells (who fall to the sea bed when
the carbon they die and become part of the limestone rock) and hard coral skeletons (which accumulate over time to build
cycle coral reeds, which consist of limestone). These organisms absorb calcium and carbonate ions and secrete them as
calcium carbonate.

If the limestone reacts with acid, it releases the carbon. Rainwaiter contains carbonic acid.
269. Lipase Enzyme secreted by the pancreas into the small intestine.

Lipids --> fatty acids and glycerol

270. Lipids Carbon compounds made by living organisms that are mostly or entirely hydrophobic.

Identified if have 2-3 hydrocarbon chains or quadruple ring structure of steroids (zigzag lines or
hexagons/pentagons)

Three types:
- triglycerides
- phospholipids
- steroids
271. Lipids vs. - Both used by living organisms as stores of energy
carbohydrates - plant seeds have starch or oil
energy - humans have glycogen stores in the liver and muscles of fat in adipose tissue
storage
Lipids better for long-term storage:
- the amount of energy released in cell respiration per gram of lipids is DOUBLE the amount released from a
gram of carbohydrates
- thus, the same amount of energy stored as lipid rather than carbohydrate adds half as much to body mass

- fats form pure droplets in cells with NO WATER associated, while glycogen us associated with 2 GRAMS OF
WATER
- thus, lipids are actually 6 times more efficient in the amount of energy that can be stored per gram of body mass
- important because we have to carry out energy stores with us, and even better for animals like bats and birds
that fly
272. Locus The locus of a gene is its particular position on homologous chromosomes
273. Longitudinal Contracts where the food is located to move it along the gut
muscle in
small intestine Contracts with circular muscle to mix food with enzymes
274. Lung cancer Main causes:
- Smoking (tobacco smoke contains many mutagens that cause tumors)
- Passive smoking (exhaled breath from smokers passes carcinogens on to others)
- Air pollution (sources include diesel exhaust fumes, nitrogen oxides from vehicles, and smoke from wood and
coal fires)
- Radon gas (leaks out of rocks, especially granite)
- Asbestos and silica (dust from these cause cancer is deposited in lungs)

Consequences:
- Difficulties breathing
- Persistent coughing
- Coughing up blood
- Fatigue
- Chest pain
- Appetite loss
- Weight loss
275. Magnification size of image / size of specimen
calculation
(make sure in same units)
276. Male reproductive - Sperm duct
system - Seminal vesicle
- Prostate gland
- Penis
- Epididymis
- Urethra
- Scrotum
- Testis
277. Maltase Enzyme in the membranes of microvilli on the villi that digests maltose into glucose
278. Mammals - Hair growing from skin
- Lungs with alveoli
- Give birth to live young
- Teeth of different types
- Mammary glands secrete milk
279. Measuring past 1. Columns of ice drilled in the Antarctic, which has built up over thousands of years.
global 2. Bubbles of air trapped in the ice extracted and analyzed to find CO2 concentrations.
temperatures/CO2 3. Ratios of hydrogen isotopes in the water molecules can find global temperatures.
concentrations
280. Meiosis The process that halves chromosome number and allows a sexual life cycle of fusion of gametes, making
them haploid.

- A diploid nucleus divides twice to produce 4 haploid nuclei

- The DNA of the chromosomes is replicated before the first division so that each chromosome consists of 2
sister chromatids
- The DNA is not replicated between the 1st and 2nd division
- It's the separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division that halves the chromosome
number
281. Melanism Dark varieties of typically light-colored insects

e.g. the peppered moth. The melanistic variety was originally rare, but became common in 19th century
England when industry developed. The peppered variety became rarer.

Explanation:
- Peppered moths fly at night to find a mate and reproduce
- During the day they roost on tree branches
- In unpolluted areas, peppered moths camouflage well against pale-colored lichen
- Soot from coal burning blackens the pale-colored lichen on tree branches, so melanic moths camouflage
better now
- Peppered moths were found and eaten more in industrialized areas, so a higher proportion of melanic
moths survived to breed and pass on the dark wing color, causing evolution
282. Melatonin and jet Regulates circadian rhythm. Ganglion cells in the retina detect it it's light or dark and send impulses to the
lag supra-chiasmatic nuclei (SCN) in the hypothalamus. SCA neurons control melatonin secretion from the
pineal gland. Secretion changes depending on time of day and declines with age.

When the circadian rhythms are disrupted b traveling rapidly across time zones, jet lag occurs. The SCN
and pineal gland continue to set circadian rhythm to times of point of departure not destination. In a few
days, impulses from the ganglion cells to the SCN readjust the body.
283. Membrane - Partially permeable (allow some substances to diffuse through but not others)
284. Menstrual cycle A cycle controlled by the hormones FSH and LH (produced by the pituitary gland), and estrogen and
progesterone (produced by the ovary). During the cycle, an oocyte (egg) matures inside the follicle (a fluid-
filled sac in the in the ovary). The egg is released when the follicle bursts open during ovulation.

Negative and positive feedback are both used.

285. Menstrual 1. FSH rises to a peak and stimulates follicle development (which each contain an oocyte and follicular fluid) and the
cycle secretion of estrogen by the follicle wall
stages DURING MENSTRUATION
2. Estrogen stimulates an increase in FSH receptors in the follicles, making them more receptive to FSH, which boosts
estrogen production (positive feedback)
DURING MENSTRUATION
3. Estrogen stimulates the repair and thickening of the uteran lining (endometrium) after menstruation
AFTER MENSTRUATION
4. When it reaches high levels, estrogen stimulates LH secretion and inhibits FSH secretion, leading to a fall in
estrogen secretion
AFTER MENSTRUATION
5. LH rises to a sudden and sharp peak. It stimulates the completion of meiosis in the oocyte and partial digestion of
the follicle wall, which allows it burst open and release the oocyte (ovulation)
DURING OVULATION
6. LH also promotes the development of the wall of the follicle after ovulation into the corpus luteum, which secretes
estrogen and progesterone
AFTER OVULATION
7. Progesterone levels rise in the days after ovulation, promoting the thickening and maintenance of the uteran lining
(endometrium)
AFTER OVULATION
8. High progesterone and estrogen levels inhibit FSH and LH secretoin (negative feedback b/c FSH and LH stimulate
progesterone and estrogen secretion)
AFTER OVULATION
9. Progesterone and estrogen levels fall is no embryo is formed. Eventually, they're low enough to allow FSH
secretion again.
AFTER OVULATION
10. FSH levels rise again, starting the menstrual cycle again
286. Meselson Found strong evidence for semi-conservative DNA replication after Crick and Watson's model
and Stahl
Experiment:
1. Cultured E. coli bacteria for many generations in a medium where the only N sources was the 15N isotope, so the N
in the bases of the bacterial DNA was 15N
2. They then abruptly transferred the bacteria to a medium with the less dense 14 N isotope
3. A solution of caesium chloride was spun in an ultracentrifuge at 45,000 revolutions per minute for 24 hours.
Caesium ions are heavy and tend to sink, so this created a gradient with the greatest caesium concentration and
therefore density at the bottom. And any substance centrifuged with the solution becomes concentrated at the level
of its density.
4. Spun samples of the DNA collected from the bacterial culture at different times after the transfer to the 14N
isotope.
5. The DNA shows up as a dark band in UV light
6. After 1 generation, the DNA was intermediate in density between 14N and 15N (1 old strand and 1 new strand). After
2 generations, there were 2 equal bands, 1 still at 14N/15N, and 1 at 14N. In following generations, the less dense 14N
band became stronger, and the 14N/15N became weaker.
287. Mesocosm Small experiment area set up in an ecological research program.

Demonstrate that, as long as nutrients are recycled, ecosystems only require a supply of energy (usually light) to
continue.

- Autotrophs (produce C compounds and regenerate O used in CR by organisms inside) and saprotrophs
(decompose dead organics matter and recycle nutrients) are essential
- Consumers and detritivores are not essential
288. Metabolic pathways Most often chains of reactions, but sometimes cycles of reactions

e.g. initial substrate

--> intermediate substance
--> intermediate substance
--> intermediate substance
--> intermediate substance
--> end produce/substrate
289. Metabolism Web of all the enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell or organisms

Metabolic pathways consist of chains of reactions, but there are also some cycles
290. Metaphase - Nuclear membrane is broken down
- Chromosomes align at the equator
- Spindle microtubules from both poles attach to each centromere from opposite sides
291. Metaphase I - Random orientation: the pairs of chromosomes line up at the equator. There are 2 possible
orientations for each chromosome (one side can face the one pole and one side face the
other pole, or vice versa)
- Spindle microtubules from the poles attach to different chromosomes in each pair, pulling
one to one pole and one to the other
292. Metaphase II - Chromosomes line up at equator
- Spindle microtubules attach to the centromeres of the sister chromatids
293. Metastasis Spreading of cells to form tumors in a different part of the body
294. Methane in the carbon cycle Methane is produced naturally by a group of prokaryotes called methanogenic archaeans,
which break down organic matter in anaerobic conditions and release methane as a waste
product.

These anaerobic conditions happen in swamps, bogs, and other sites where dead organic
matter is not fully decomposed by saprotrophic bacteria and fungi.

The methane may accumulate in the ground or diffuse into the atmosphere.

It's a relatively stable substance in the atmosphere, but is eventually oxidized to CO2, so
concentrations in the atmosphere remain low
295. Methanogenic archaens Prokaryotes that naturally produce methane by breaking down organic matter in anaerobic
condition and releasing the methane as a waste product
296. Methods for obtaining cells of - Amniocentesis
an unborn child for - Chorionic villus sampling
chromosome testing
297. Methods of absorption - Simple diffusion
- Facilitated diffusion
- Active transport
- Endocytosis
298. Mitosis Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
299. Mitotic index Ratio between the number of cells in mitosis in a tissue and the total number of observed cells

- Used by doctors to predict how rapidly a tumor will grow and therefore what treatment is
needed (high index indicates fast-growing tumor)
300. Modes of heterotrophic nutrition - Saprotrophs
- Consumers
- Detritivores
301. Molecular biology Explains living processes in terms of the chemical substances involved
302. Molecule A group of two or more atoms held together by single, double, or triple covalent bonds

E.g. ethanol, CO2, hydrogen cyanide

Bonds:
Hydrogen - 1 bonds
Oxygen - 2 bonds
Nitrogen - 3 bonds
Carbon - 4 bonds
303. Mollusca Example: Burgundy snail

- Muscular foot and mantle

- Often a shell
- No visible segmentation
- Mouth and anus
304. Monitoring - Monitor ventilation rate and tidal volume at rest and then during exercise
ventilation in
humans Monitor ventilation rate:
- Place an inflatable chest belt around the thorax and pump air in with a bladder
- Use a differential pressure sensor to measure pressure variations inside the chest belt due to chest
expansions
- Deduce the ventilation rate and relative size of ventilations

Monitor tidal volumes:

- Use spirometer
- Breathe through a tube into the bell jar of the spirometer to measure expired volume
- Deduce by how much lung volume decreased or increased with each ventilation
305. Monosaccharides - Sugars that consist of a single sub-unit (monomer)

- Contain only atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1

e.g. ribose, glucose, galactose, fructose

306. Monounsaturated Fatty acid carbon chain with only 1 double bond
fatty acid
307. mRNA The RNA copy of the base sequence of the gene that codes for a polypeptide, which is carried to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm to give them the information needed to synthesize a polypeptide

Why it's called "messenger RNA"

308. Mucous - Mucous membranes are soft areas of skin that are kept moist with mucus (e.g. nose, trachea, vagina, and
membranes urethra)
- Do not form strong physical barrier, but many bacteria killed by lysozyme, an enzyme in the mucus
- In the trachea, pathogens get caught in the sticky mucus, and cilia push the mucus and bacteria up and out
309. Mutagenic For example, nitrosamines in tobacco, mustard gas used as a chemical weapon, and benzene, that increase
chemicals the rate of mutation
310. Mutagens Chemical substances that increase the chance of mutations and thus the risk of tumor formation (oncogenesis)
311. Mutation Random changes to the base sequence of a gene

Source of genetic variation

Mutation rate increased by 2 types of mutagens:

- high energy radiation
- mutagenic chemicals
312. Myogenic Contraction that is not stimulated by a nerve, but performed on own
contraction
313. Natural Classifying organisms based on one common ancestral species from which the species in a group have evolved.
classification
Allow the prediction of characteristics shared by species in a group and help species identification
314. Negative A change in levels causes the opposite change, so it has a stabilizing effect. A rise in levels feeds back to
feedback decrease production and thus reduce the levels. A decrease in levels feeds back to increase production and thus
raise the levels.

e.g. control of insulin levels. When blood glucose concentrations rise, the pancreas secretes more insulin to lower
glucose levels
315. Neonicotinoid Bind to ACh receptors in the post-synaptic membranes of cholinergic synapses in insects. Cholinesterase does not
pesticides break down these pesticides, so they remain bound to the receptors, preventing ACh from binding. Thus, they
block synaptic transmission, killing the insect.
316. Nerve An action potential that travels along the axon of a neuron from one end to the other
impulse
317. Neurons

Nerve cells that carry messages at high speeds in the form of electrical impulses. Myelinated nerve fibers have a
myelin sheath with small gaps (nodes of Ranvier) that allow the nerve impulse to jump from node to node
(saltatory conduction)
318. Non- Non-separation of chromosomes in the first or second divisions of meiosis
disjunction
Thus, the gametes produced have either one chromosome too many (e.g. trisomy) or too few (usually die quickly)
319. Non-specific Immune response that does not distinguish between pathogens, but ingests any pathogen if it is stimulated to do so
immunity
e.g. phagocytes
320. Nucleic acid Polymer of sub-units called nucleotides
321. Nucleotide
chain

Sub-units of nucleic acids

Made of:
- pentose sugar (pentagon)
- a phosphate group (circle)
- a base (rectangle)

The pentose sugar of one nucleotide is linked to the phosphate of the next by covalent bonds
322. Numbers of genes Humans: 23,000
E. coli: 3,200
Fruit fly: 14,000
Puffer fish: 25,500
Rice: 41,000

Trends:
- Bacteria have fewer genes than eukaryotes
- Some animals have fewer and some more genes than humans
- Plants may seem less complex than humans, but some have more genes
323. Nutrient recycling in Energy is not recycled, but lost through heat and replaced with energy from light.
ecosystems
Nutrients are recycled. Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other essential nutrients are absorbed from the
environment, used by living organisms, and then returned.
324. Oil and gas Silt is deposited alongside the remains of dead marine organisms on the beds of shallow seas. Because of
formation anaerobic conditions, the matter is only partially decomposed.

The silt is converted into shale, with compounds from the organic matter becoming oil or gas trapped in
pores in the rock.
325. Oncogenes Genes involved in the control of the cell cycle
326. Oncogenesis Formation of tumors that starts with mutations in oncogenes (genes involved in the control of the cell
cycle)

When control of cell cycle lost, cell divides uncontrollably to produce a mass of cells called a primary
tumor

Mutations must occur in several oncogenes in the same cell for control to be lost (chance is very small, but
body has billions of cells, so risk is high)

Anything that increases the chance of mutation will increase risk (e.g. mutagens)
327. Oocyte Egg cell, which matures inside the follicle in the ovaries during the menstrual cycle
328. Origins of the first - Before cells today, there was only non-living material on Earth
cell
- 64 codons of genetic code have same meanings in all cells of all organisms, apart from minor variations,
which suggests that life evolved from the same original cells
329. Oscilloscope traces

Measure the changes in membrane potential in axons during action potential

330. Osmolarity - Number of moles of solute particles per unit volume of solution

- Greater concentration of solutes, then higher osmolarity

- If two solutions with different osmolarity are separated by a semi-permeable membrane, water will move by
osmosis FROM solution with LOWER osmolarity to HIGHER osmolarity

- Can be hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic

- Pure water has osmolarity of 0

331. Osmosis - Passive movement of water FROM region of LOWER solute concentration to HIGHER solute concentration

- Different from diffusion because water is a solvent

- Moves due to concentration of solutes, not water

- Attractions between solute particles and water molecules are reason for water moving to regions with HIGHER
solute concentration

- Can cause cells in human tissues or organs to swell up and burst, or to shrink due to gain or loss of water
332. Ovary Produces eggs, estrogen, and progesterone
333. Oviduct Collects eggs at ovulation, provides a site for fertilization, then moves the embryo to the uterus
334. Ovulation When the follicle wall bursts open to release the oocyte
335. Pasteur's - Verified principle that cells can only come from pre-existing cells
experiment
1. Placed samples of broth in flasks with long swan necks and melted the glass of the necks to bend them into
different shapes
2. Boiled the broth in some of the flasks to kill any organisms present, and left others unboiled (controls)
3. Fungi and other organisms appeared in the unboiled flasks but not the boiled ones (even after a long time)
4. The broth in the flasks was in contact with air (which had been suggested was needed for spontaneous
generation), but that didn't occur, so disproved it
5. Snapped necks of some of the flasks to leave a shorter vertical neck, and organisms were soon apparent and
decomposed the broth
6. Concluded that the swan necks prevented organisms from the air getting into the flasks and that no organisms
appeared spontaneously
336. Pathogen An organism or virus that causes disease
337. Peat and Saprotrophs can't break down dead leaves and other organic matter in acidic and/or anaerobic conditions, which
coal are in bogs and swamps. Partially decomposed plant matter thus accumulates to form thick deposits (peat)
formation
Peat was crushed and converted into coal long ago.
338. Penis Has erectile tissue that becomes enlarged and hard, allowing penetration of the vagina so that semen can be
ejaculated near the cervix
339. Pentadactyl The basic bone structure of the forearm.
limb
Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals all have it, though use it for different things (e.g. walking, jumping,
swimming, climbing, and digging). Must have all shared an ancestor that had a pentadactyl limb, but groups evolved
and adopted different types of locomotion.
340. Peptide Links amine group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of the next amino acid
bond
341. Peripheral Attached to outer surface of the membrane
proteins
e.g. cytochrome c (electron transport) that binds to the outside of cytochrome oxidase

342. Peristalsis Waves of muscle contract that pass along the intestine.
Contraction of circular muscle behind the food constricts the gut to prevent food from being pushed back
towards the mouth.
Contraction of longitudinal muscle where the food is located moves it along the gut.
Contraction of both layers of muscle mixes food with enzymes in the small intestine.
343. Phagocytes - Ingest pathogens by endocytosis
- The pathogens are then killed and digested inside the cell by enzymes from the lysosome
- They can ingest pathogens in the blood
- They also squeeze out through the walls of blood capillaries and into tissues to sites of infection, where they
ingest the pathogen causing the infection (large numbers form pus)
- Gives us non-specific immunity to diseases (doesn't distinguish between pathogens, but ingests if stimulated to
do do)
344. Phospholipid - Basic components of cell membrane
- Amphipathic (part of the molecule is hydrophobic and part hydrophilic)

- Phosphate head is hydrophilic and 2 fatty acids tails (composed of hydrocarbon chains) are hydrophobic

- When mixed with water, they form bilayer, with hydrophilic heads facing out and making contact with water, and
hydrophobic tails facing inward away from the water

- The attraction between the hydrophobic tails in the center and between the hydrophilic heads and surrounding
water makes them very stable
345. Phospholipids

2 fatty acids, 1 phosphate group, and 1 glycerol

Partly hydrophobic and form the basis of membranes

346. Photolysis The splitting of water molecules. It produces oxygen as a waste product. The electrons produced are used to
convert CO2 into a carbohydrate in photosynthesis.
347. Photosynthesis Production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy and simple inorganic substrates

In plants, algae, and some bacteria

CO2 + water + light energy --> glucose + oxygen

Stages:
1. CO2 is converted into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds. Energy is needed to do this.
2. Energy is obtained in the form of light. The light is absorbed by photosynthetic pigments.
3. Electrons are needed to convert CO2 into carbohydrate. They are obtained by photolysis, the splitting of
water molecules, which produces oxygen as a waste product.
348. Photosynthesis 3.5 billion years ago: first organisms released O2 into the air
and the
atmosphere 2.4-2.2 billion years ago:
- O2 content in atmosphere rose from very low to 2% because of photosynthesis
- this caused dissolved iron in the ocean to precipitate as iron oxide, sinking to the bottom and forming rock
deposits called banded iron formations

750 million years ago:

- O2 levels rose from 2% to 30% and then back down to 20%
- increased above 2% were probably because of the evolution of multicellular algae and land plants, which
raise global photosynthesis rates
349. Phyla Plants:
- Bryophytes (mosses)
- Filicinophytes (ferns)
- Angiospermophytes (flowering plants)
- Gymnospermophytes (conifers)

Animals:
- Porifera (sponges)
- Cnidaria (jellyfish)
- Platyhelminths (flatworm)
- Annelida (earthworm)
- Arthropoda (scorpion)
- Mollusca (Burgundy snail)
- Chordata (fish)
350. Pinnae Pairs of leaflets that divide the leaves of filicinophytes
351. Plasmid Smaller extra loops of DNA in prokaryotes that act as vectors for GMO
352. Platelets Small cell fragments that circulate with red and white blood cells in blood plasma and plays an important role
in blood clotting
353. Platyhelminths Example: tapeworm

- Bilateral symmetry
- Flat bodies
- Unsegmented
- Mouth, but no anus
354. Polarity In a covalent bond, when the nucleus of one atom is more attractive to the electrons than the other, electrons
are not shared equally, thus one part of the molecules has a slight positive charge and another part has a slight
negative charge

e,g, water molecules (hydrogen nuclei are less attractive to nuclei than oxygen nuclei, so 2 hydrogen atoms
have slight positive charge and oxygen has slight negative charge (has two poles, so DIpolarity)
355. Polymerase Consists of a cycle of stages carried out again and again to produce many copies of a DNA molecule
chain reaction
DNA polymerase is used to copy a DNA molecule over and over again, doubling the quantity with each cycle.
By the end, there can be 100,000,000 copies in a 0.2 mL eppendorf (small tube).

To speed it up, it can be carried out at high temperatures using Taq DNA polymerase, a special type of heat-
stable DNA polymerase.

Uses:
- Makes many copies of a desired gene for a gene transfer procedure
- Makes larger amounts for forensic analysis

356. Polypeptide An unbranched chain of amino acids coded for by the base sequences in the DNA of a gene

1+ make up proteins

Usually between 50-2,000 amino acids (< 40 is usually just called a peptide)
357. Polysaccharides - Monosaccharides linked together

- A numbering system for carbon atoms in glucose is used

- Basic linkage between the glucose subunits is a glycosidic bond from C1 of a glucose to C4 of the next (but
some also have 1,6 glycosidic bonds, giving them a branched structure)

e.g. cellulose, glycogen, and starch

358. Polyunsaturated Fatty acid carbon chain with 2+ double bonds
fatty acid
Position to the CH3 (end opposite -COOH) is important. In omega-3 fatty acids, it's the 3rd bond. In omega-6
fatty acids, it is the 6th bond.
359. Population A group of organisms of the same species, who live in the same area at the same time
360. Porifera Example: purple vase sponge

- No clear symmetry
- Attached to a surface
- Pores on and through its body
- No mouth or anus
361. Positive A rise or fall leads to further rises or further falls, so it leads to sudden rises and falls.
feedback
e.g. uterine contractions during birth until the baby is out/there's no more stimulus
362. Potassium - On the axons of neurons
channels
- Used during action potential

- Closed when the axon is polarized, but open in response to depolarization of axon membrane

- Allow K+ ions to exit by facilitated diffusion, which repolarizes the axon

- Only remain open for short time before globular sub-units block the pore and closes again
363. Pressures in
the cardiac
cycle

In the left atrium, the left ventricle, and the aorta during the cardiac cycle

Left atrium: pressure consistent, spikes just as semilunar valves open, then goes back down (explained because
contracts to open it)

Left ventricle: Peaks ginormously when semilunar valves open, then goes back down when they close and the
atrioventricular valves open (explained because contracts powerfully to pump the blood out, but then pressure
must fall to atrial pressure so the atrioventricular valves can open again)

Aorta: Peaks when semilunar valves open, then goes back down (explained because the blood being pumped out
from the ventricles at this point is being pumped through the aorta)
364. Primary - Form barriers preventing entry of pathogens
defense
Skin:
- Outer layers are tough and form a physical barrier
- Sebaceous glands in the skin secrete lactic acid and fatty acids, which make the surface of the skin acidic
- This prevents growth of pathogenic bacteria

Mucous membranes:
- Soft areas of skin that are kept moist with mucus (e.g. nose, trachea, vagina, and urethra)
- Do not form strong physical barrier, but many bacteria killed by lysozyme, an enzyme in the mucus
- In the trachea, pathogens get caught in the sticky mucus, and cilia push the mucus and bacteria up and out
365. Primary Mass of cells as the result of repeated uncontrolled divisions of cells with a mutation in an oncogene
tumor
Often benign because they go not grow rapidly and do not spread; but can become malignant if cells become
detach and are carried else in the body, to become secondary tumors (called metastasis)
366. Production of Human insulin is a protein with just 51 amino acids. To produce it in order to treat diabetes, the gene that codes for
human insulin insulin is transferred from humans to the bacterium E. coli. Because of the universality of the genetic code, the
amino acid sequence of the insulin produced in the bacterium is the same as that in humans.
367. Progesterone A steroid hormone that prepares the uterus during the menstrual cycle for the implantation of an embryo by
thickening and maintaing it. Has important roles in supporting a pregnancy, too.
368. Prokaryote Eukaryote:
vs. eukaryote - linear DNA molecule
chromosomes - associated with a histone protein
- no plasmids
- 2+ different chromosomes

Prokaryote:
- circular DNA molecule
- naked (not associated with a protein)
- plasmids often present (extra)
- 1 chromosome only
369. Prokaryotic - First cells to evolve
cells - Not compartmentalized
- Replicates by binary fission
- No nucleus, mitochondria, or membrane-bound organelles within nucleus

Has:
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleoid (region containing naked DNA)
- 70S ribosomes
- Cell wall
- Plasma membrane
- Pili
- Flagellum
370. Propagation The action potential of one part of an axon triggers an action potential in the next part. It is due to the diffusion of
of nerve sodium ions between a region with an action potential and the next region that's still at resting potential by
impulses changing the voltage across the membrane from -70mV to -50mV, which causes more voltage-gated sodium
channels to open
371. Prophase - Spindle microtubules grow
- Chromosomes becoming shorter and fatter by supercoiling

- Each chromosome now consists of two identical chromatids formed by DNA replication in interphase and held
together by the centromere
- Spindle microtubules extend from each pole toward the equator
372. Prophase I - Chromosomes pair up. Chromosomes in each pair are homologous.
- Crossing over: parts of non-sister chromatids are exchanged
- Spindle microtubules grow from each pole toward the equator
- Nuclear membrane will break down soon
373. Prophase II - 2 new haploid cells after telophase II
- New spindle fibers grown from the poles to the equators
374. Prostate At the start of ejaculation, secretes an alkaline fluid that is added to the sperm to help sperm swim
gland
375. Protein A protein's 3D structure, stabilized by intramolecular bonds between the amino acids in the polypeptides brought
conformation together by the folding process

Determined by the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide (most are folded to produce a globular shape)
376. Protein - Enzyme (e.g. rubisco, which catalyzes the photosynthesis reaction that fixes CO2 from the atmosphere)
functions - Hormone (e.g. insulin, which is carried dissolved in the blood and binds to insulin receptors in body cell
membranes to allow them to absorb glucose and lower blood glucose concentration)
- Antibody (e.g. immunoglobulins, which bind to antigens on pathogens and can be produced by the immune
system with different types of binding sites that allow specific immunity against different diseases)
- Pigment (e.g. rhodopsin, which makes the rod cells in the retina light-sensitive and has a non-amino acid part
called retinal that absorbs a photon of light that causes the rod cell to send a nerve impulse to the brain)
- Structural (e.g. collagen, which has 3 polypeptides wound together in a rope-like conformation to prevent
tearing in skin, fractures in bones, and give tendons and ligaments tensile strength)
377. Proteome All of the proteins produced by a cell, tissue, or organism

Unlike the genome, it's variable because different cells in an organism make different proteins

Can be extracted from tissue and separated by gel electrophoresis

378. Pulmonary Blood circulation for the lungs
circulation
The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery, and oxygenated
blood returns to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary vein
379. Quadrat A square sample area used in ecological research
380. Quadrat 1. Mark out gridlines along 2 edges of an area
sampling 2. Use a calculator or tables to generate 2 random numbers to use as coordinates
3. Place quadrat on these corners
4. Record the presence/absence of each species of interest or record the number of individuals in the quadrat
5. Repeat with as many as possible
381. Random - A process in meiosis which promotes genetic variation among the haploid cells produced by meiosis
orientation - During metaphase I
- The pairs of homologous chromosomes from prophase I line up at the equator
- There are 2 possible orientations (one sister chromatid facing one pole, one sister chromatid facing the other
pole, or vice versa)
- Because this is random and doesn't influence other pairs, different combinations of chromosomes (thus different
combinations of alleles) are produced
382. Reaction for glucose + galactose --> lactose + water
lactose
Condensation reaction
383. Reaction for glucose + glucose --> maltose + water
maltose
Condensation reaction
384. Reaction for glucose + fructose --> sucrose + water
sucrose
Condensation reaction
385. Reclassification Evidence from cladistics shows that classification of some groups based on structure did not correspond with
of figworts the evolutionary origins of a group or species

Species in the family did not all share a recent common ancestor.

So, some genera were moved to the plantain and broomrape families. Others were moved to 2 new families,
lindernia and calceolaria.

Also, 2 existing families were found to contain species that shared common ancestry with the figwort family, so
they were merged.
386. Recombinant A plasmid with a gene from another species inserted into it
plasmid
387. Repolarization - When the membrane polarity reverses, potassium channels open and potassium ions diffuse out down the
gradient.
- The exit of positive potassium ions causes the inside of the cell to develop a net negative charge again
compared with outside, so the potential is restored.
388. Reptiles - Dry, scaly, impermeable skin
- Lungs with extensive folding
- Soft shells around eggs
- 1 type of teeth
- Internal fertilization
389. Resolution The ability of the microscope to show 2 close objects separately in the image. Depends on the wavelength of
the rays used to form the image (shorter wavelength, higher resolution; electrons have shorter wavelength than
light, so electron microscopes have higher resolution than light)
390. Respirometer

Any device used to measure respiration rates

Parts:
- Sealed glass or plastic container to place the tissue/organism in
- An alkali (e.g. potassium hydroxide) that absorbs CO2 produced by cell respiration. The volume of the air inside
should thus be reduced as a result of oxygen being used in CR by the organisms inside
- A capillary tube connected to the container containing fluid that allows the volume of the air inside to be
monitored
391. Response to Insulin is secreted by beta cells. It stimulates the liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose and convert it to
high blood glycogen. Granules of glycogen are stored in these cells. Other cells are stimulated to absorb glucose and use it
glucose in CR instead of fat.
concentration
392. Response to Glucagon is secreted by alpha cells. It stimulates liver cells to break glycogen down into glucose and release it.
low blood
glucose
concentration
393. Resting Voltage (electrical potential) across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is not conducting a nerve impulse.
potential
It is maintained by the concentration gradient of sodium and potassium. Sodium is pumped out and potassium is
pumped in by active transport through sodium-potassium pumps. The inside of the neuron develops a net
negative charge compared to the outside because of the present of chloride and other negative ions. Thus,
there's voltage across the membrane (usually -70mV)
394. Restriction Enzyme used for GMO process by cutting DNA molecules at specific base sequences
endonuclease
395. Reverse Enzyme used to make DNA copies of the mRNA (1 strand --> 2 strands) extracted from human cells with desired
transcriptase genes (e.g. human pancreas cells that make insulin)

Remember: backward process of transcription

396. Rhodopsin Example of the pigment function of proteins

It makes the rod cells in the retina light-sensitive

It has a non-amino acid part called a retinal that absorbs a photon of light
The rod cell then sends a nerve impulse to the brain
397. Rubisco Example of the enzyme function of proteins

It catalyzes the photosynthesis reaction that fixes CO2 from the atmosphere
398. Saltatory When the nerve impulse jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next around the myelin sheath to speed up the
conduction transmission
399. Saprotrophs Obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by external digestion (i.e. they secrete digestive enzymes into
materials like dead leaves, wood, animals, or feces. Protein, cellulose, and other carbon compounds are digested
externally and then absorbed)

e.g. bacteria, fungi

400. Saturated all of the carbon atoms in a fatty acid carbon chain are connected by SINGLE COVALENT BONDS so the number
fatty acid of hydrogen atoms bonded to the atoms CAN'T BE INCREASED
401. Scanning electron Produce an image of the surface of structures
microscope
*know structure
402. Scrotum Holds testes at lower than core body temperature
403. Secondary tumors When cells detach from the primary tumor and are carried elsewhere in the body, no longer benign but now
malignant (now called cancer)

(detachment called metastasis)

404. Selective breeding Selecting individuals of a species with desirable traits and breeding from them
(AKA artificial
selection)
405. Semi-conservative - The two strands of DNA are separated by breaking the hydrogen bonds between their bases.
replication - New polymers of nucleotides are assembled on each of the 2 strands (the "template strands")
- The new strands have the same base sequences as the old strand that was taken away, thus the molecules
produced are identical to each other and the parent molecule
- Thus, semi-conservative because has 1 new strand and 1 strand from the parent molecule.

Rejected theories of conservative replication and dispersive replication

406. Seminal vesicle At the end of ejaculation, secretes an alkaline fluid that contains proteins that make semen sticky
407. Serendipity Making happy and unexpected discoveries by accident

e.g. Tim Hunt and cyclins in sea urchin eggs

408. Sex determination All egg cells carry an X chromosome, so the sex of the child depends on whether the sperm is carrying an X
or a Y chromosome.

Embryonic gonads all initially develop in a similar way so they can become either ovaries or testes.
Decided by the presence or absence of the SRY gene, which codes for TDF (testis determining factor), a
gene regulation protein that stimulates the expression of the genes for either male or female testis by
binding to specific DNA sites.
Since only on Y chromosome, if embryo is XY, SRY is present so testes develop. If embryo is XX, SRY is
absent, so varies develop.
409. Sex-linkage The association of a characteristic with the sex of the individual, because the gene controlling that
characteristic is located only on a sex chromosome

Usually due to genes on the X chromosome because it's relatively large and has important genes on it, while
the Y chromosome has very few genes

Patterns of inheritance of these genes differ in males and females because females have 2 Xs and males
have 1 X --> only females can be carriers of recessive alleles of sex-linked genes because these alleles are
much more frequent in males

e.g. hemophilia, red-green color-blindness

410. Short tandem Loci in the chromosomes where instead of a gene consisting of a long sequence of bases, there are much
repeats (STR) shorter sequences of 3-5 bases that are repeated many times

There are many different possible alleles that vary in the number of repeats

Used in DNA profiling

411. Sickle cell A genetic disease that demonstrates how a single base substitution mutation can have very significant
anemia consequences. Occurs in HBB, the gene for the beta polypeptide of hemoglobin.

1. Base substitution of A for T in the 2nd base on the 6th amino acid of the beta polypeptide hemoglobin,
changing the allele HbA into HbS
2. One codon in the mRNA is different now, thus that amino acid is different
3. This can cause red blood cells containing the altered hemoglobin to become sickle-shaped. They carry
oxygen less efficiently, but can give resistance to malaria
412. Signals to SA - Impulses are brought from the medulla of the brain by 2 nerves. One says to speed up heart rate. One says to
node slow it down.
- The hormone epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare the body for vigorous physical activity
413. Simple diffusion Some substances move between phospholipids molecules in the membrane
414. Simple diffusion Nutrients pass down the concentration gradient between phospholipids in the membrane
(absorption
method) e.g. hydrophobic nutrients like fatty acids and monoglycerides
415. Singer-Nicolson - Developed in 1950s and 1960s
Model - Falsified by evidence

Polar amino acids:

- On the surface of proteins, so make them water soluble
- Create channels through which hydrophilic substances can diffuse; positively charged R groups allow
negatively charged ions through and vice versa;
- Cause parts of membrane proteins to protrude from the membrane (transmembrane stick out in 2 spots)

Non-polar amino acids:

- In the center of water-soluble proteins, so stabilize their structure
- Cause proteins to remain embedded in membranes

Process of discovery:
1. Freeze-fracture electron micrographs show globular proteins present in the center of the phospholipid
bilayer
2. Analysis of membrane proteins showed that parts of their surfaces were hydrophobic (so they'd be
positioned in the bilayer and sometimes stretch to both sides)
3. Fusion of cells with membrane proteins tagged with different colored fluorescent markers showed that these
proteins can move within the membrane as the colors became mixed within a few minutes of cell fusion when
they became 1 cell
416. Sinks Methods of carbon storage in ecosystems
417. Sister The two parts of the chromosome
chromatids
Term for it before separated during mitosis
418. Size of specimen size of image / magnification
calculation
(make sure in same units)
419. Skin as defense - Outer layers are tough and form a physical barrier
- Sebaceous glands in the skin secrete lactic acid and fatty acids, which make the surface of the skin acidic
- This prevents growth of pathogenic bacteria
420. Small
intestine
layers

(From inside to the outside)

Villi
Mucosa
Submucosa
Longitudinal muscle layer
Circular muscle layer
421. Smoking Positive correlation between cigarette smoking and death rate due to cancer

Although does not by itself prove smoking causes cancer, there's evidence that chemicals in tobacco smoke are
mutagenic and therefore carcinogenic
422. Sodium- - Energy required for active transport/pumping is obtained by converting ATP to ADP and phosphate, so it an ATPase
Potassium (Na+/K+-ATPase)
Pumps
- One ATP provides enough energy to pump 2 K+ ions in and 3 Na+ ions out

- Pump an antiporter because pumps substances in opposite directions across membranes

In the center of the pump there are 2 binding sites for K+ and 3 for Na+. The pump has 2 alternate states: there's
access to the binding sites from the outer of side of the membrane and a stronger attraction to K+ (so Na+ discharged
from cell); and there's access to the binding sites from the inside and a stronger attraction to Na+ (so K+ discharged
into the cell)

- Concentration gradient created by this transport is needed for transmission of nerve impulses in axons
423. Solubility Ionic compounds and substances with POLAR molecules are HYDROPHILIC, and thus SOLUBE in water because their
in water ions or molecules are more attracted to water than to each other

HYDROPHOBIC substances are not repelled by water, but water molecules are more attracted to each other than to
the NON-POLAR molecules of the substances, thus they are INSOLUBLE
424. Solute Dissolved particles
425. Solvent Liquid in which particles dissolve
426. Solvent Many substances dissolve in water due to its polarity, including those composed of ions or polar molecules
property
of water Helpful: most chemical reactions take place with all of the substances involved in the reaction dissolved in water, so
water is the medium of metabolic reactions
427. Somatic- More difficult method of cloning an adult animal by removing the nucleus from an egg cell and replacing it with a
cell nucleus from a differentiated somatic (body) cell
nuclear
transfer
428. Sources - Mutation (produces new alleles, which enlarges the gene pool of a population)
of - Meiosis (produces new combinations of alleles by breaking up existing combinations in the diploid cell through
variation crossing-over and random orientation)
- Sexual reproduction (the fusion of male and female gametes produces offspring with a combination of alleles from 2
different individuals)
429. Speciation Populations of a species sometimes become separated and are therefore unable to breed with each other. Then
are then able to evolve differently, causing their characteristics to diverge more and more. Eventually, they are so
different that they can't interbreed anymore even if they inhabit the same area. Now, they're new species.
430. Species A group of organisms with similar characteristics, which can potentially interbreed and produce fertile offspring
431. Species Finding out what species of organisms there are in the area being studied in an ecological investigation
identification
432. Spectrum A range of wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
433. Sperm duct Transfers sperm during ejaculation
434. S phase (of Synthesis
interphase)
- DNA replication
- occurs in nucleus
435. Spontaneous - 19th-century belief that life could appear in non-living material
generation
- No evidence today that shows that living cells can be formed by anything except division of pre-existing cells
436. SRY gene A single gene that codes for TDF (testis determining factor) and resides on the Y chromosome. Therefore, if
embryo is XY, TDF is present, so testes develop. If embryo is XX, TDF is absent, so ovaries develop.
437. Starch

Polymer of glucose (all of the glucose subunits in the SAME orientation, giving the polymer a HELICAL shape)

Two forms:
- Amylose (1,4 linkages, so unbranched)
- Amylopectin (1,6 linkages, so branched)

Use: plants store glucose in an insoluble form that does not cause osmotic problems. Being branched allows
glucose to be added or taken away more rapidly, since there are more points on starch molecules to which
glucose can be added or detached
438. Stem cells Cells that have the capacity to divide and to differentiate along different pathways.

Embryos are entirely stem cells in their early stages, but gradually the cells commit themselves to differentiation.
Small numbers persist in the adult body, usually in human tissues like bone marrow, skin, and liver, giving tissues
powers of regeneration and repair. Other tissues like the brain, kidney, and heart don't have stem cells so can't
repair themselves.
439. Stem Short lengths of stem that are used to clone plants artificially. If roots develop from the stem, it can become its
cuttings own plant.
440. Steroid Testosterone, progesterone, and estrogren
hormones

441. Steroids

Four fused rings

e.g. cholesterol, progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone

442. Substrate Reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. Converted into its products and released from active site.
443. Substrate- The active site matches the shape and chemical properties of the substrate, causing them to be chemically
specific attracted to each other and fit together. Other molecules do not fit or are not attracted to it.
444. Supercoiling Complex process of coiling that causes condensation (when chromosomes become shorter and fatter during
mitosis) of chromosomes
445. Surface area to As a cell grows larger, it decreases.
volume ratio
Surface area: determines rate at which substances enter or leave a cell
Volume: determines rate at which substances are used or produced by a cell
446. Surfactant A natural detergent in type 2 pneumocytes in the alveolus wall that reduces surface tension between alveoli to
prevent the sides from sticking together
447. Swamps and Have anaerobic conditions, so saprotrophs can't break down dead leaves and other organic matter (they just
bogs can't do that).

So:
- partially decomposed plant matter accumulates to become peat
- methanogenic archaeans break down the organic matter with methane as a waste product
448. Symbiosis Two organisms living together
449. Synapse A junction between 2 neurons or junction between neurons and receptor or effector cells, which are separated
by the synaptic cleft.

Messages in form of neurotransmitters are passed across

Process:
1. A nerve impulse reaches the end of the pre-synaptic neuron
2. Depolarization of the pre-synaptic membrane causes vesicles of neurotransmitters to move to the pre-
synaptic membrane and fuse with it, releasing it into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis
3. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in the post-synaptic membrane
4. The receptors are transmitter-gated sodium channels that open when the neurotransmitters bind
5. Sodium ions diffuse into the post-synaptic neuron, causing depolarizing of the post-synaptic membrane
6. The depolarization passes down the post-synaptic neuron as action potential
7. Neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is rapidly broken down to prevent continuous transmission
450. Synaptic cleft The narrow, fluid-filled gap that separate the plasma membranes of neurons
451. Synthesis of The base sequences of polypeptides is stored in a coded form in a gene
proteins
1. Transcription: Make an RNA copy of the base sequence of the gene that codes for the polypeptide
2. Translation: The copy is carried to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm to give them the information needed to
synthesize a polypeptide, so it's called mRNA

452. Synthesis of - Urea was discovering in human urine in the 18th century
urea
- The theory of vitalism predicted that urea could only be made in living organisms because it was an organic
compound, and thus needed a "vital force"

- In 1828, Friedrich Wohler synthesized urea artificially using silver isocyanate and ammonium chloride, the first time
that an organic compound had been synthesized artificially

- Falsified theory of vitalism

453. Systemic Blood circulation for other organs of the body
circulation
The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood via the aorta to all organs (other than lungs), and
deoxygenated blood is carried back to the right side of the heart via the vena cava
454. Taq DNA A heat-stable DNA polymerase obtained from Thermus aquaticus, a bacterium adapted to living in hot springs, so
polymerase its enzymes are active at temperatures that would denature proteins from other organisms

Used in PCR so that it can be carried out at higher temperatures to produce many copies more quickly
455. Taxon A group of organisms, such as species or genus
456. Taxonomists Biologists that specialized in classification
457. TDF Testis determining factor. A gene regulation protein that binds to specific DNA sites to stimulate the expression of
genes for testis development. Coded for by the SRY gene.
458. Telophase - All chromosomes have reached the poles
- Nuclear membranes form around the chromosomes
- Spindle microtubules break down

- Chromosomes uncoil and are no longer individually visible

- The cell divides (cytokinesis) to form 2 cells with genetically identical nuclei
459. Telophase I - Chromosomes arrive at each pole
- Membrane will soon be pulled in to divide the cell into 2 haploid cells
460. Telophase II - The cell membrane begins to pull inwards again to divide the 2 cells into 4 haploid cells
- Each nucleus now has only half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
461. Testing - Developed as an antibiotic by Florey and Chain in late 1930s
penicillin - First test on 8 mice, who were infected with a bacterium that causes fatal pneumonia
- All 4 treated mice recovered, 4 untreated mice died
- Tested small quantities of a relatively impure penicillin on a man close to death with a bacterial infection. He
started to recover, but the antibiotic ran out
- 5 other patients were tested, and were cured
462. Testis Produces sperm and testosterone
463. Testosterone A steroid hormone produced by developing testes in the fetus. It causes pre-natal development of male genitalia
(penis, sperm duct, and prostate gland).

During puberty, it increases, stimulating development of secondary sex characteristics (growth of testes, penis, and
pubic hair)

After puberty, stimulates sperm production

464. Theory of - Theory that living organisms were composed of organic chemicals that could only by produced in living
vitalism organisms because a "vital force" was needed

- Falsified by a series of discoveries, including the artificial synthesis of urea

465. Thermal properties Melting point:
(water vs. methane) Methane: -182 C
Water: 0 C
Explanation: ice melts at much higher temperatures - hydrogen bonds restrict the movement of water
molecules and heat is needed to overcome this

Specific heat capacity:

Methane: 2.2 J per g per C
Water: 4.2 J per g per C
Explanation: water's heat capacity is higher - hydrogen bonds restrict the movement of water molecules
so more energy is stored by moving molecules of water than methane

Latent heat of vaporization:

Methane: 760 J/g
Water: 2257 J/g
Explanation: water has a much higher heat of vaporization - much heat energy is needed to break
hydrogen bonds and allow a water molecule to evaporate

Boiling point:
Methane: -160 C
Water: 100 C
Explanation: water's boiling point is much higher - heat energy is needed to break hydrogen bonds and
allow water to change from liquid to gas
466. Thermal property of Due to hydrogen bonding, water has high melting and boiling points, high latent heat of vaporization
water and high specific heat capacity

Helpful:
- These thermal properties cause water to be liquid in most habitats on Earth, making it suitable for living
organisms
- The high specific heat capacity makes its temperature change relatively slowly so it's a stable
environment
- The high heat of vaporization makes it an effective coolant in leaves and sweat
467. Thyroxin A hormone secreted by the thyroid gland in the neck that regulates the body's metabolic rate

Contains 4 atoms of iodine (unusual)

--> Prolonged deficiency of iodine in the diet prevents the synthesis of thyroxin

Almost all cells in the body are targets (unusual)

- It regulates the body's metabolic rate, so all cells need to respond
- The most metabolically active cells (e.g. liver, muscle, and brain) are the main targets
- Higher metabolic rate supports more protein synthesis and growth
- Higher metabolic rate increases generation of body heat (by shivering and CR in brown adipose tissue;
stimulate by cooling)

Normal body temperature

--> hypothalamus detects raised temperature
--> thyroid gland secretes less thyroxin
--> reduced metabolic rate, vasodilation of skin arterioles, reduced respiration in brown adipose tissue
--> normal body temperature

Normal body temperature

--> hypothalamus detected reduced body temperature
--> thyroid gland secretes more thyroxin
--> increased metabolic rate, vasoconstriction of skin arterioles, shivering (increased respiration in BAT)
--> normal body temperature
468. Tidal volume Volume of air taken in or out with each inhalation or exhalation
469. Transcription The copying of the base sequence of a gene by making an RNA molecule

Steps:
1. RNA polymerase binds to a site on the DNA at the start of a gene and moves along the gene, separating the
DNA into 2 single strands
2. RNA polymerase then assembles RNA nucleotides along 1 of the 2 DNA strands (it follows the same rules as
normal replication, except adds U instead of T)
3. RNA polymerase then links the RNA nucleotides together by covalent bonds between the pentose sugar
(ribose) of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next
4. The RNA strand separates from the DNA strand as it is produced and is released completely when the end
of the gene is reached
5. The DNA strands pair up against and twist back into a double helix
470. Translation The synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes using mRNA and tRNA

Steps:
1. mRNA binds to a site on the small sub-unit of the ribosome. It contains a series of codons consisting of 3
bases that each code for 1 amino acid.
2. tRNA molecules are present around the ribosome. They have anticodons that read the codons on the mRNA
and carry the amino acid corresponding to the anticodon
3. There are 3 binding sites for tRNA molecules on the large sub-unit of the ribosome, but only 2 bind at once.
The bases on the codon and its corresponding anticodon are linked by hydrogen bonds.
4. The amino acids carried by the tRNA molecules are bonded together by a peptide linkage. A dipeptide is
formed, attached to the tRNA on the right. The tRNA on the left detaches. The ribosome moves along the
mRNA to the next codon, and another tRNA binds to it. This gradually creates a chain of amino acids until a
polypeptide is formed.
471. Transmission Used to view ultra-thin sections
electron
microscope
472. Trans
unsaturated
fatty acid

hydrogen atoms are bonded to carbon atoms on OPPOSITE SIDES of a double bond in a fatty acid carbon
chain

mostly artificially produced

473. Trans- Trans-unsaturated:
unsaturated - artificially produced
fatty acids vs. - vegetable fats
saturated fatty - margarine, snack food, packaged baked goods, and frying
acids - positive correlation between trans-fats consumed and rates of coronary heart disease (patients who died,
fatty deposits in diseased arteries contained high concentrations of trans-fats)

Saturated:
- naturally occuring
- animal fats and some vegetable oils
- fatty beef, lamb, pork, butter, and cheese
- positive correlation between saturated fats and coronary heart disease, but not all populations fit the
correlation (Maasai of Kenya have a diet of foods rich in them, but CHD is rate, thus its possible CHD is
correlated to another factor of saturated fats like low of amounts of dietary fiber)
474. Triglycerides

3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol

Have 3 hydrocarbon tails, which are flexible and can change position

Condensation reactions make them

e.g. fats and oils

475. Trisomy After fertilization, a zygote is produced with 3 chromosomes of one type instead of 2

e.g. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) - due to non-disjunction during formation of sperm of egg
476. tRNA Molecules present around the ribosome with a special triplet of bases (anticodons) that correspond to amino
acids. When the tRNA binds with the mRNA through hydrogen bonding, the amino acids are linked together until a
polypeptide is formed.
477. Trophic An organism's position in the food chain
levels
Producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, etc
478. Type 1 Onset: during childhood
diabetes
Cause: immune system destroys beta cells in the pancreas so the amount of insulin secreted is insufficient

Treatment: blood glucose levels measured regularly; insulin injections, often before meals, control glucose levels

Control: diet alone cannot control it

479. Type 1 Extremely thin and permeable alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange. A single layer of these
pneumocytes thin cells make up most of the wall of the alveolus. Gases only have to diffuse a very short distance to pass
through them.
480. Type 2 Onset: after childhood
diabetes
Cause: target cells become insensitive to insulin

Treatment: insulin injections don't work; low carbohydrate diets control it

Risk factors: diets rich in fats, diets low in fiber, obesity due to over-eating and lack of exercise, and genetic factors
that affect fat metabolism
481. Type 2 Cells in the alveolus wall that secrete fluid to keep the inner surface of the alveolus moist and allow gases to
pneumocytes dissolve. The fluid also contains a surfactant that prevents the sides of the alveoli from sticking together by
reducing surface tension
482. Unsaturated the fatty acid carbon chain contains 1+ DOUBLE BONDS between carbon atoms in the chain, so MORE hydrogen
fatty acid CAN BE BONDED to the carbons if DOUBLE BOND REPLACED BY SINGLE BOND
483. Urethra Transfer semen during ejaculation and urine during urination
484. Uterus Provides protection, food, oxygen, and removal of waste products for the fetus during pregnancy
485. Vagina Stimulates penis to cause ejaculation, and provides a birth canal
486. Vasoconstriction The constriction of blood vessels that increases blood pressure so that more blood is carried from the core to
the skin, giving it heat (when reduced body temperature)
487. Vasodilation The dilation of blood vessels that decreases blood pressure so that less blood is carried from the core to the
skin, reducing heat loss (when raised body temperature)
488. Vector A vehicle used to transfer genetic material from a donor organism to a recipient organism

e.g. plasmid
489. Veins Collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and return it to the atria of the heart.

Structure (thin wall allows the vein to be pressed by adjacent muscles, helping to move blood):
- Wide lumen to accommodate low-pressure, slow-flowing blood. Valves are present at intervals to prevent
back-flow, too.
- Thin layers of tissue with few to no elastic fibers or muscles since blood flow is not pulsatile
- Thin outer coat since there's no danger it will burst
490. Ventilation - Bringing fresh air to the alveoli and removing stale air
- Oxygen is needed for CR and carbon dioxide is produced, so humans must take in oxygen from their
surroundings and release carbon dioxide (gas exchange)
- Happens by diffusion in the alveoli of the lungs, so it depends on concentration gradients of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries
491. Ventilation of Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to
the lungs ventilate them. Different muscles (antagonistic) are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only
do work when contracting.
492. Ventilation rate Number of inhalations and exhalations per minute
493. Venules Very small veins that collect blood from capillaries
494. Vertebrates - Bony ray-finned fish
- Amphibians
- Reptiles
- Birds
- Mammals
495. Vesicles - Fluidity of the membrane allows parts of it to be pinched off to create a vesicle containing some material
from outside the cell (endocytosis)

- Can fuse with plasma membrane and release contents outside the cell (exocytosis)

- Move materials from one part of the cell to another (move proteins from rough ER to Golgi apparatus)
496. Voltage Electrical potential
497. Vulva Protects internal parts of the female reproductive system
498. Water molecule ...
499. Water polarity (Specifically dipolarity)

Hydrogen nuclei are less attractive to nuclei than oxygen nuclei, so 2 hydrogen atoms have slight positive
charge and oxygen has slight negative charge
500. Water Cohesive
properties Adhesive
Thermal
Solvent

501. William 17th century Galen said:

Harvey - Blood was produced by the liver, pumped out by the heart, and consumed in the other organs of the body

Harvey said:
- Blood flow through vessels is unidirectional with valves to protect backflow
- The rate of flow through major vessels is far too high for blood to be consumed in the body after being pumped out
by the heart
- Heart pumps blood out in the arteries and in through veins
- Small vessels link arteries to veins in the tissues (capillaries)
502. Yeast Carbon dioxide and the baking industry:
- Used in baking bread
- Uses up all oxygen present in the dough rapidly
- Produces ethanol and CO2 by anaerobic respiration
- CO2 forms bubbles that make the dough rise, increasing volume, decreasing density, and giving it a light texture
that's more appetizing
- the ethanol evaporates when the bread is baked

Ethanol and the brewing and biofuel industries:

- used to produce ethanol by fermentation
- cultured in a liquid containing sugar and other nutrients that aren't oxygen, so that is respires anaerobically
- the ethanol concentration of the fluid around the yeast cells can rise to approximately 15% by volume before it
becomes toxic to yeast, causing fermentation to end
- most of the CO2 bubbles out into the atmosphere
- ethanol is also used as fuel