Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 28

CHEM 17 Lab Manual

Table of Contents

Content Page

Experiment 1: Colligative Properties of Solutions 2

Bonus Experiment: Ice Cream Making 5

Experiment 2: Heat Effects and Calorimetry 6

Experiment 3: Chemical Kinetics 11

Experiment 4: Chemical Equilibrium: Le Chatelier's Principle 16

Experiment 5: Ionization 19

Experiment 6: Acids and Bases 21

Experiment 7: Hydrolysis and Buffers 23

Experiment 8: Electrochemistry: How to make a Galvanic cell 25

Bonus Experiment: Blue Printing 27

Experiment 9: Qualitative Analysis of Cation and Anion 28

1
EXPERIMENT 1
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

A solution is made up of two components, namely, the solvent (dispersing medium or outer
phase), and the solute (dispersed component, or inner phase). Colligative properties of solutions
depend on the amount of solute particles.
Compared to pure solvents, a solution has lower vapor pressure, lower freezing point, and
higher boiling point. Boiling point is the temperature, at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal
to the atmospheric pressure. Since the equilibrium vapor pressure of a solution is less than that of the
pure solvent at the same temperature, the solution must be supplied with more heat (higher
temperature than the pure solvent) to equal atmospheric pressure.
The freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which the liquid and the solid phase
are at equilibrium. A pure compound would always freeze at the same temperature. If another
substance is added to the pure compound to make a solution, the freezing point is lowered.
Osmosis is the passage of water through a porous, elastic membrane known as a semi-
permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure of a solution is the difference in the vapor pressure of the
pure solvent and the solution of the solute in that solvent separated by a semi-permeable membrane.
Osmosis is a very important process in living systems.
Vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic
pressure are effects known as colligative properties because they depend on the amount of solute
particles and not on the kind of solute particles present in the solution. One of the major uses of
colligative properties is finding the molecular weight of unknown substances. The change in freezing
and boiling point are computed as follows:

where kf and kb are the freezing point lowering constant and the
boiling point elevation constant, respectively, of the solvent; m is
Tf = - kfm and Tb= kbm the molal concentration of the solvent; Tf and Tb are the
freezing point lowering and the boiling point elevation

The molecular weight (MW) is computed using the formula:

MW = or MW =

OBJECTIVES

1. To differentiate the types of dispersed systems


2. To demonstrate colligative properties of solutions such as boiling point elevation, freezing
point depression and osmotic pressure

A. TYPES OF DISPERSED SYSTEMS

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

2.5 F NaCl (29.3 g in 100 mL)


Cooked starch (1 g in 100 mL)
Uncooked starch (1 g in 100 mL)

MATERIALS

30 mL test tubes (3 pcs)


Laser pen light

2
PROCEDURE

1. Prepare 3 clean test tubes and place them side by side in a test tube rack.
2. Label each test tube from one to three.
3. Pour 25 mL of filtered NaCl solution in test tube 1; 25 mL of the cooked starch solution in test
tube 2; and 25 mL of uncooked starch solution in test tube 3.
4. Focus the beam of the pen light on each of the test tubes and note the appearance, the effect
of the beam of light, and the visibility of the particles. Do this by viewing the test tubes
perpendicular to the beam of light. (Take note the particle size)
5. Complete Table 1.1

TABLE 1.1 Types of dispersed systems

Properties True Solution Colloidal Dispersion Coarse Mixture


Appearance
Visibility of Particles
Effect of a Beam of Light
Particle Size

B. BOILING POINT ELEVATION

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

Urea
NaCl
CaCl2

MATERIALS

Iron stand with ring Graduated cylinder


Wire gauze 150 mL beaker
Bunsen burner Thermometer

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare the following solutions:


a) 30.0 g urea (H2NCONH2) in 100 mL water
b) 29.3 g NaCl in 100 mL water
c) 30.0 g CaCl2 in 100 mL water
2. Carefully clean the beaker, rinse with distilled water, and fill with 100 mL distilled water.
3. Determine the boiling point of the distilled water by placing the thermometer inside the beaker
about half-way into the water, and placing the beaker in an iron stand, above the burner.
Carefully light the burner and observe the temperature at which the water inside the beaker
boils.
4. Take two readings: the first taken after bubbling has started, and second, after around a
minute of boiling.
5. Follow the same procedure with the solutions prepared in Procedure 1.
6. Compare the boiling temperature of the prepared solutions with that of the pure distilled
water.

Note: Avoid using a very big flame in boiling the liquids. This may cause superheating which could
lead to unnecessary loss of water through steam and may cause errors in the experiment.

3
C. FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

Crushed ice
1.0 m sucrose solution
1.0 m NaCl solution
Rock salt
Distilled water

MATERIALS

(3) 150 mL test tubes Thermometer


100 mL beaker Top-loading balance
500 mL beaker

PROCEDURE
1. Obtain three test tubes and label them 1, 2, and 3. Place them in the test tube rack.
2. Add distilled water to test tube 1, 1.0 m sucrose to test tube 2, and 1.0 m NaCl solution to test
tube 3 until about it is one-third full.
3. Obtain approximately 50 g salt and add it to the 500 mL beaker half-filled with crushed ice. Stir
to mix the contents.
4. Measure the temperature of the ice/salt bath, and proceed to step 5 when the temperature is
about -10C or even lower.
5. Insert a thermometer to test tube 1 and place it in the ice/salt bath. Stir constantly and
periodically lift the test tube to observe. When ice crystals are beginning to form, take the
temperature reading of the test tube contents to obtain the freezing point of water.
6. Repeat using test tube 2 and test tube 3. Record your data accordingly.

Note: When necessary, add more ice and more rock salt to your ice/ salt bath.

D. OSMOTIC PRESSURE

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

Distilled water
Rock salt

MATERIALS

250 mL beakers
Potato or carrot

PROCEDURE

1. Dissolve 50 g rock salt to about a 250 mL of distilled water.


2. Wash properly and cut your potato or carrot into two equal parts. Place each half to two
separate beakers.
3. Pour the rock salt solution to one of the beaker, and distilled water to the other until the
potatoes are fully submerged.
4. Keep the set-up inside your locker and observe the next meeting. Record your observations.

4
BONUS EXPERIMENT
ICE CREAM MAKING

OBJECTIVE:

1. To appreciate the freezing point lowering,

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

(3) 250-mL all purpose cream


rock salt
1 tsp vanilla extract
1-2 tsp gelatin powder
flavorings: cocoa, strawberry, etc.
toppings: mallows, nuts, etc.
thermometer (w/ <0 and >100 C marks)
plastic cups
plastic spoons
cup condensed milk or sugar
mixing bowl and spoon
ice cream can/metal can
distilled water
ice

PROCEDURE

1. Mix the all-purpose cream, milk or sugar, vanilla extract and gelatin extract. When the mixture
is well dispersed, add the desired flavorings.

2. Pour into each cup. Place the cup into the ice contained in metal cans. Make sure that the cup
is well submerged in the ice taking care not to contaminate the ice cream mixture.

3. Place several spoonfuls of salt into the ice, taking care not to put some in the ice cream
mixture.

4. Monitor the temperature of the ice slurry from time to time.

5
EXPERIMENT 2
HEAT EFFECTS AND CALORIMETRY

Heat flows from an object with a higher temperature to an object with a lower temperature. If
two objects are in contact, they will both reach the same temperature, given sufficient time.
Heat flow is measured with the use of a calorimeter. Calorimetry is the process of measuring
heat flow, q, which involves trapping the heat, evolved (or absorbed), producing a measurable
change in temperature.

OBJECTIVES

1. To understand concepts of heat and heat capacity and their application to calorimetry.
2. To be able to calibrate and use a calorimeter to measure thermodynamic data from actual
chemical systems.
3. To differentiate exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions.

A. CALIBRATION: DETERMINATION OF HEAT CAPACITY

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

Tap water

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Beaker
Bunsen Burner
Thermometer
Wire gauze
Styrofoam cups with covers

PROCEDURE

1. Stack two styrofoam cups by nesting one inside the other.


2. Make two holes near the center of the cover for the stirrer and thermometer. The cover should
fit the cup tightly. The assembly (Figure 1) will be used as a constant pressure calorimeter.
3. Weigh the calorimeter to the nearest 0.10 g and record the mass.
4. Fill the calorimeter with 40 mL of tap water and again weigh the set-up to the nearest 0.10 g.
Record the mass (note 1).
5. Measure the temperature of the tap water to the nearest 0.1C every 15 s for 3 min. Record
the constant temperature. DO NOT throw away the contents of the calorimeter.
6. Heat 40 mL of tap water in a beaker to about 80C. Record the constant temperature, and
immediately pour into the calorimeter.
7. Record the temperature of the water in the calorimeter to the nearest 0.1C every 15 seconds
for 3 minutes. Graph the temperature gathered vs. time to determine the highest temperature
attained.
8. Remove the thermometer, reweigh and record the mass of the cups and the water (note 2).
9. Calculate the heat lost by the hot water, heat gained by the tap water (Calculations 1). Then,
calculate the heat capacity of the calorimeter (Calculations 2).

6
Figure 1. Constant pressure calorimetry apparatus.

CALCULATIONS:

1. Heat transactions can be quantified using the following equations: (Note 3)

o
where cwater is the specific heat of water which is equal to 4.18 J/g/ C

2. The heat capacity of calorimeter can then be calculated as follows

Notes:
1. Alternatively, you may assume that the density of tap water = 1 g/mL and solve the mass of
tap water from its volume.
2. Again, you may assume that the density of the heated tap water = 1 g/mL and that there was
no significant loss during heating.
3. Check the sign of calculated q. Apply the sign convention for heat flow from the perspective of
the system, i.e. (+) for heat absorbed and () for heat released by the system.

7
B. HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

1.0 M HCl
1.0 M NaOH
Phenolphthalein indicator

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Constant pressure calorimeter


Beaker

PROCEDURE
1. Measure 30 mL of 1.0 M NaOH into the improvised calorimeter. Prepare 25 mL of 1.0 M HCl
in a clean beaker. Let the solutions cool down to room temperature.
2. Monitor the temperature to the nearest 0.1C for five minutes at 1 minute intervals for 5 min.
th
Record the temperature at the 5 min as the constant initial temperature.
3. Add the 25 mL 1.0M HCl into the calorimeter, noting the time of mixing as zero. Stir the
contents of the calorimeter and continue taking readings to the nearest 0.1 C every 15 s for 4
min until the temperature remains constant.
4. Draw a graph of the data gathered showing temperature on the y-axis and time on the x-axis.
Extrapolate the data to time = 0, this temperature will be the final temperature.
5. The change in temperature is the difference between the initial and final temperature.
6. Calculate the heat capacity of the solution (Calculation 1). Then, calculate the heat evolved
from the reaction and the heat of neutralization per mole of water formed (Calculations 2 and
3). Compare your value with the theoretical value.

CALCULATIONS

1. The heat capacity of solution (NaOH(aq) (excess) and NaCl(aq) (the product)) is given by:

where and are the mass and specific heat of a solution, respectively(Note 1).

2. The heat evolved (Note 2) from the reaction is given by:

3. The enthalpy of neutralization of HCl and NaOH can be determined by using the following
equation:

where is the number of moles of the limiting reagent (Note 3).

Notes:

1. Assume that the densities of 0.50 M NaCl and 0.10M NaOH are 1.0 g/mL, and their specific
o
heats 4.18 J/g/ C.
2. Apply the sign convention mentioned previously.
3. The limiting reagent in this case is the acid.

8
C. HEAT OF SOLUTION

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

NaOH flakes
Na2S2O3 flakes

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Improvised Calorimeter
Thermometer
Stirrer

PROCEDURE

1. Measure 50.0 mL distilled water in the calorimeter and weigh to the nearest 0.1 g.
2. Record the temperature of the water to the nearest 0.1C. The temperature should be within 1
or 2 degrees of room temperature.
3. Weigh out 5.0 g of solid NaOH flakes (Note 1) in a small beaker to the nearest 0.1 g.
4. Add the solid NaOH flakes to the calorimeter and stir continuously to dissolve the solid.
5. Determine the maximum temperature reached as the solid dissolves (note 1).
6. Clean the calorimeter and repeat steps 1-5 using 5.0 g Na2S2O3 flakes. This time, note the
minimum temperature reached (Note 2).
7. Calculate the heat of solution for both solutes in water (Calculations). The highest or lowest
temperature obtained is the final temperature.

CALCULATIONS

1. Use the following data and equations to solve the heat changes:

o
Substance Specific heat (J/g/ C)
NaOH 1.49
Na2S2O35H2O 1.45
H2O 4.18

2. The enthalpy of solution, , can be determined by using the following equation

Notes:

1. NaOH is corrosive. If touched, wash immediately with ample amount of water.


2. If necessary, repeat the experiment, increasing the amount of solid used if temperature
o
change of at least 5 C is not obtained.

9
QUESTIONS

1. What is specific heat?

2. What does the heat capacity of calorimeter represent?

3. What is standard enthalpy of reaction?

4. Explain why the extrapolated temperature is used to determine the maximum temperature of the
mixture rather than the highest recorded temperature in the experiment.

5. If 150 g of lead at 100 C were placed in a calorimeter with 50 g of water at 28.8 C and the
resulting temperature of the mixture was 22 C, what are the values of qlead, qwater and qcal? The
specific heat of water is 4.184 J/gC and the specific heat of lead is 0.128 J/gC.

6. Experimental Procedure, Part B. Three student chemists measured 50.0 mL of 1.00 M NaOH in
separate Styrofoam coffee cup calorimeters (Part B). Brett added 50.0 mL of 1.10 M HCl to his
solution of NaOH; Dale added 45.5 mL of 1.10 M HCl to his NaOH solution. Lyndsay added 50.0 mL
of 1.00 M HCl to her NaOH solution. Each student recorded the temperature change and calculated
the enthalpy of neutralization. Identify the student who observes a temperature change that will be
different from that observed by the other two chemists. Explain why and how (higher or lower) the
temperature will be different.

7. The enthalpy of solution for the dissolving of a KBr sample was determined following Part C of this
experiment. Complete the following data sheet for determining the enthalpy of solution of KBr. Show
calculations.

Experimental data:
1. Mass of salt (g) __5.00___
2. Moles of salt (mol) _______
5. Mass of water (g) ___25.0__
6. Initial temperature of water (C) __25.0__
7. Final temperature of mixture (C) __18.1__

Calculations for Enthalpy (heat) of Solution for the Dissolution of a Salt:


1. Temperature change of solution, (C) _______
2. Heat change of water (J) _______
3. Heat change of salt (J); sp. ht. of KBr = 0.439 J/gC _______
4. Total enthalpy change (J) _______
5. sH (J/mol salt) _______

10
EXPERIMENT 3
CHEMICAL KINETICS

The study of rates and mechanisms of chemical reactions is the domain of chemical kinetics.
The rate of reaction is measured by the change in concentration per unit time of a substance,
reactant, or product.
Given a hypothetical reaction X + Y 2Z, the rate can be expressed in terms of the rate of
disappearance of X, rate of disappearance of Y, or rate of appearance of Z. In mathematical equation,
these can be expressed as

[ ] [ ] [ ]
Rate = = =

The relationship between the concentration of the reactants and the rate of a chemical
reaction is given by a simple mathematical equation known as the rate law or rate expression.
The rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentration(s) of the
reactant(s), each raised to a power which may or may not be equal to its coefficient in a balanced
chemical equation and which is experimentally determined. Thus, for a hypothetical reaction given
above, we have

[ ]
Rate = [X]a[Y]b or Rate= k[X]a[Y]b

where (a) is the order with respect to reactant (X) and (b) is the order with respect to reactant (Y). The
sum of a and b, or the exponents of the reactants, determine the overall order of the reaction. The
proportionality constant k, is the rate constant.

The rate of a chemical reaction can be influenced by:


1. nature of reactants,
2. concentration of reactants,
3. temperature,
4. surface area of solid reactants, and
5. presence of catalyst.

Two theories, namely, the Collision Theory and the Transition State Theory are used to explain
how these factors affect reaction rates.

OBJECTIVES

1. To investigate how factors such as nature of reactants, concentration, surface area,


temperature, and presence of catalyst influence chemical reaction rate.
2. To determine the order of reaction using initial rate method.

A. NATURE OF REACTANTS

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

3 M HCl
3 M Acetic Acid
Iron filings

11
MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Test Tubes (2 pcs)


Bunsen Burner
Dropper
Test tube rack
Wood splinter

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare two 15-mL test tubes. Place enough 3M Acetic acid to fill 1/3 of one test tube, and
3M HCl to the other test tube.
2. Place one spatula-full of iron fillings to test tube with HCl. Immediately, test the gas evolved
using lighted splinter.
3. Do the same to test tube containing Acetic Acid.
4. Compare the reaction rates and record your observations.

B. EFFECTS OF CONCENTRATION

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

6 M NaOH

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

5 Test tubes
Dropper
Aluminum foil
Stopwatch

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare five test tubes and label each A, B, C, D, and E, respectively. Place the test tubes in
a firm support. (e.g. test tube rack).
2. Lay a small piece of aluminum foil across the mouth of each test tube and create a basin-like
depression by forcing the foil into the test tubes using the bottom of a similar-sized test tube.
3. Prepare series of NaOH solutions of different concentrations by mixing 6 M NaOH and
distilled water (Table 3.1).

TABLE 3.1 Effects of concentration on reaction rates


Solution mL 6 M NaOH mL Distilled Water
A 5 0
B 4 1
C 3 2
D 2 3
E 1 4

4. Having your stopwatch ready, pour 1mL of Solution A into the depression in the foil and start
timing when the solution hits the foil.
5. Note the time when a hole in the foil has been formed. Either the solution will drop into the
test tube or a drop may form below the hole (note 2).

12
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 on the remaining solutions B, C, D, and E, respectively.
7. Get 1/t for each of the test solutions.

C. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.0050 M KMnO4
Saturated Oxalic Acid

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

6 15-mL test tubes


Thermometer
Water bath
Bunsen burner

PROCEDURE

1. Determine the room temperature by examining the temperature of the thermometer.


2. Obtain 5.00 mL of both 0.0050 M KMnO4 and oxalic acid into two separate test tubes.
3. Noting the time, pour the room-temperature oxalic acid to the test tube of permanganate
solution. Pour back and forth twice to mix the solution thoroughly. The moment you poured
the oxalic acid will be your initial time.
4. When the contents of the test tubes have become yellow, with no hint of pink color, stop the
time. This will be your final time.
o
5. Repeat steps 2 to 4 using oxalic acid and permanganate solutions with temperatures 20 C
o
and 40 C above the room temperature. To do this, heat a water bath using your Bunsen
burner.

D. EFFECT OF SURFACE AREA

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

3 M HCl
Mossy Zinc
Zinc dust

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

2 15-mL test tubes

PROCEDURE

1. Place 2.5 mL of 3 M HCl to two test tubes and label them A and B.
2. To one test tube, drop a piece of mossy zinc and a pinch of zinc dust to the other test tube.
3. Observe the reactions and write the balanced equation.

13
E. EFFECT OF PRESENCE OF CATALYST

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

H2O2 Solution
Detergent
Manganese oxide

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

(2) 250-mL beakers

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare two clean beakers and label them accordingly. Place about 1 mL of detergent
solution to each beaker.
2. Place 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution to each of the beaker.
3. Add about 1.0 g MnO2 to one of the two beakers and mix the contents. Compare the
reactions taking place in both beakers.
4. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.

F. ORDER OF THE REACTION

The over-all reaction in this activity is:

- - + -
6I (aq) + BrO3 (aq) + 6H (aq) 3I2 (aq) + Br (aq) + 3H2O

- x - y + z
Rate= k[I ] [BrO3 ] [H ]

- - +
where the order with respect to [I ], [BrO3 ], and [H ] are x, y, and z, respectively.

The order of the over-all reaction is equal to x + y + z. The time it takes to produce I 2 is measured
when a deep blue color with starch is produced.

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.50 M KI
0.001 M Na2S2O3
0.50 M KBrO3
0.10 M HCl
Starch Indicator Solution

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

(10) 250-mL Erlenmeyer flasks


Stopwatch
Graduated cylinder
Pipet

14
PROCEDURE

1. Put some reagents to flask A and another set of reagents to flask B (Table 3.2). Add drops of
starch indicator to flask B.
2. Pour the contents to flask B into flask A and swirl to mix them thoroughly. Note the time at
which the solution have been mixed and continue swirling until the solution turns blue.
3. Take the time at the instant the blue color appears, and also note the temperature of the blue
solution. Also, record the 1/time.
4. Repeat the procedure with the other reaction mixtures 2, 3, 4, and 5 (Table 3.2). Wash the
flasks thoroughly and rinse with distilled water every after reaction.
5. Determine the order of the reaction with respect to the reactants and the over-all order of the
reaction.

TABLE 3.2 Order of the Reaction by method of initial rates


Reagent Volume (mL)
Reaction Mixture Reagents in Flask A Reagents in Flask B
KI Na2S2O3 H2O KBrO3 HCl
1 10 10 10 10 10
2 20 10 0 10 10
3 10 20 0 10 10
4 10 10 0 20 10
5 10 10 0 10 20

15
EXPERIMENT 4
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM: LE CHATELIER'S PRINCIPLE

Some reactions proceed to completion while others do not. Precipitation reactions and those
that form gaseous products are examples of reactions that tend to go to completion. A reversible
reaction does not go to completion. The products react to reform the original reactants. Equilibrium is
reached when the rate of the formation of products is equal to the rate of the reformation of the
reactants, that is, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. Any
change in conditions of concentration, pressure, or temperature produces a corresponding change in
the system that is in equilibrium. This is explained by Le Chatelier's Principle that states if a system
at chemical equilibrium is disturbed by some stress, the system goes to a new equilibrium condition in
such a way as to relieve the stress.

OBJECTIVES

1. To describe a reversible chemical reaction.


2. To determine the effects of changing concentration, pressure, volume, and temperature on
chemical equilibrium.

A. GASEOUS EQUILIBRIUM

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

Copper wire
16 M HNO3

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Erlenmeyer flask
One-hole rubber stopper
10 mL glass syringe

PROCEDURE

1. Measure 10 mL of concentrated HNO3 in a 250mL Erlenmeyer flask.


2. Prepare a one-hole rubber stopper that will fit the mouth of the flask and fit a 10-mL glass
syringe to the hole in the rubber stopper.
3. Obtain a few pieces of copper wires cut into small pieces and drop them into the flask. Allow
the reddish brown gas to be evolved for a few seconds to displace the air inside, and plug the
rubber stopper-syringe assembly into the flask's mouth.
4. Collect around 8mL of the reddish brown gas using the syringe. Release some gas by
pushing the plunger to 5mL mark.
5. Quickly pull the syringe from the rubber stopper in the flask and put the syringe into the
improvised stopper assembly provided. Make sure the stoppered syringe can withstand a
pressure from inside the syringe.
6. Decrease the volume inside the syringe by pushing the plunger, and observe the reaction of
the gas inside. Record your observations.

In this activity, the gaseous equilibrium is:


2NO2 (g) N2O4 (g)

16
B. COMMON ION-EFFECT

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

1 M CH3COOH
Methyl red indicator
Sodium acetate

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

(2) 10-mL Test tubes


Dropper

PROCEDURE

1. Put approximately 5 mL of 1 M CH3COOH in two 10-mL test tubes.


2. Add a few drops of methyl red indicator and swirl/ stir to mix. Note change in color.
3. To one of the test tubes, add a pinch of sodium acetate and mix. Note change in color,
Compare the color of the solutions in two tubes.

For this activity, the reversible equation is:


- +
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O CH3COO (aq) + H3O (aq)

C. COMPLEX-ION EQUILIBRIUM

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.1 M FeCl3 solution


0.1 M KSCN solution
FeNO3
NH4SCN
KCl
Na2HPO4

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

250 mL Beaker
4 Test tubes
Pipet

PROCEDURE

1. Mix approximately 1 mL of 0.1 M FeCl3 and 0.1 M KSCN solutions to 250-mL beaker, and
dilute the mixture to 100 mL with distilled water. Divide the resulting solution into four test
tubes.
2. Place a pinch of ferric nitrate into the first test tubes, ammonium thiocyanate into the second,
KCl into the third test tube, and, disodium hydrogen phosphate to the last test tube.
3. Write down the observations in each test tube.

The complex ion equilibrium is:


3+ - 2+
Fe (aq) + SCN (aq) FeSCN (aq)

17
D. CHROMATE-DICHROMATE EQUILIBRIUM

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.1 M K2CrO4
0.1 M K2Cr2O7
1.0 M HCl
1.0 M NaOH

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

4 Test tubes
Droppers

PROCEDURE
1. Observe the colors of K2Cr2O7 and K2CrO4 solutions.
2. Put approximately 1 mL of 0.1 M K2CrO4 into two test tubes (1 and 2), and the same amount
of 0.1 M K2Cr2O7 into another pair of test tubes (3 and 4).
3. Add 1 M NaOH dropwise to test tubes 1 and 3 and continue adding until an obvious change in
color is noticed. Set these solutions aside for comparison.
4. Repeat the previous step with test tubes 2 and 4, but using HCl instead of NaOH. Record
your observations.

18
EXPERIMENT 5
IONIZATION

Electrolytes have aqueous solutions that conduct electricity. They produce cations (positively
charged) and anions (negatively charged) particles in solution. Weak electrolytes produce fewer ions
in the solution compared to strong electrolytes.
The extent of ionization is measured by the power of various solutions to conduct electricity.
The lamp of the conductivity apparatus will glow brightly if a strong electrolyte (or a conductor) is
tested. The lamp will not glow if the substance tested is a non-electrolyte (or a non-conductor).

OBJECTIVES

1. Determine whether a substance is a conductor or a non-conductor of electricity.


2. Determine the extent of ionization of different types of substances.
3. Test the conductivity of samples using an improvised conductivity apparatus.

A. EXTENT OF IONIZATION

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

Dry crystalline NaCl HCl solution


Distilled water NH4Cl solution
Tap water NH4OH solution
NaCl solution H2SO4 solution
NaOH solution Sucrose solution
CH3COOH solution

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Conductivity apparatus

PROCEDURE

1. Test the conductivity of the materials listed above using the conductivity apparatus.
2. The apparatus uses light bulb that lights up when the circuit is closed using an electrolyte.
3. Remember to wash the electrodes before dipping in another solution/ substance to be tested.
4. List all your observations, and classify the substances as weak, strong electrolyte, or non-
electrolyte.

B. IDENTIFICATION OF IONS

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.1 M solutions of:


KOH CuSO4
HCl FeCl3
H2SO4 Co(NO3)2
K2CrO4 HNO3

19
PROCEDURE

Try to deduce the colors of the ions listed in the table below from the actual colors of the
solutions studied.

TABLE 5.1 Colors of ions

ION NAME COLOR


+
K
+
H
-
OH
-
Cl
2-
SO4
2-
CrO4
2+
Cu
3+
Fe
-
NO3
2+
Co

20
EXPERIMENT 6
ACIDS AND BASES

According to Svante Arrhenius, the only recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903, an
acid is an electrolyte that yields hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions while the base yields the hydroxyl
ions. His theory was further refined and modified until at about the same time in the early 1920's, J. N.
Bronsted, a chemist from Denmark, and TM Lowry, a chemist from England, proposed the idea that
acids were proton donors, while bases were proton acceptors.
The German chemist Friedrich Mohr coined the term titration in 1855 to mean weighing
without the use of a scale. This laboratory method is used to determine the concentration of a known
reactant.
Titration is a process by which a standard solution is gradually added to a volume of a
solution whose concentration is being determined. An indicator that changes color in the pH region of
the equivalence point of the reactants is selected. Acid-base neutralization occurs when equivalent
quantities of an acid and a base are mixed (equivalents acid equals equivalents base).

OBJECTIVES

1. To prepare pH indicator from local plants.


2. To determine the amount of acid present in a sample using titration.
3. To learn to calculate pH of strong and weak acids and bases.

A. PLANT INDICATOR

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.1 M HCl Lemonade


0.1 M NaOH Milk of magnesia
Baking Soda Any other solution you want to test
Seawater Buffer solution (pH 1-13)
Orange juice

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Leaves of red kamote, baston ni San Jose, crotons, labog or gumamela flowers, or any
other plants with highly-colored leaves or flower
Amber colored bottles
test tubes
pH paper

PROCEDURE
1. Soak the chopped leaves (or flower) of your choice in methanol overnight.
2. Decant the chopped leaves, transferring the liquid inside the amber bottle.
3. A set of solutions with pH ranging from 1 to 13 will be used to observe the color range of the
plant indicator.
4. To determine the color of the plant indicator, place 10 drops of the solution in a test tube, and
add one or two drops of the indicator. Look for any change in color by looking down the mouth
of the test tube. You may also want to take a picture for more convenient comparison.
5. Tabulate the colors of the plant indicators with their corresponding pH values.
6. Prepare solutions you want to test using your plant indicator (e.g. listed in materials section),
as well as 0.1 M HCl and 0.1 M NaOH.
7. Determine the approximate pH of the solutions using your plant indicator.
8. Compare your results with values obtained using a pH paper.

21
B. ANALYSIS OF COMMERCIAL VINEGAR

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

1.0 M NaOH
Commercial Vinegar
Phenolphthalein indicator

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

pH paper
(2) 250-mL Erlenmeyer flasks
Top loading balance
Buret

PROCEDURE
1. Mark 2 pre-weighed, 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask 1 and 2, and pour 20 mL commercial vinegar
into each flask.
2. Determine the new masses of the flasks and derive the mass of the vinegar added.
3. Add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator into each flask.
4. Fill the buret with 1.0 M NaOH up to the mark slightly below zero. Note the initial volume of
NaOH in the buret. Then, slowly add the NaOH from the buret into the flasks with vinegar,
gently swirling the flask during addition. Continue adding until the faintest pink color of
solution is obtained.
5. Record the final volume of the NaOH, and calculate the total volume of NaOH used. Perform
another trial.
6. Calculate the amount (in g) of acid as acetic acid in the vinegar.

22
EXPERIMENT 7
HYDROLYSIS AND BUFFERS

The following are the four types of salts produced by the neutralization of an acid with a base and
their reactions with each other:
1. Strong acid and Strong base: Neutral, no hydrolysis
2. Strong acid and Weak Acid: Acidic, only cations hydrolyze
3. Weak acid and Weak Base: Both ions hydrolyze, the pH depending on the extent of
hydrolysis of each ion
4. Weak acid and Strong Base: Basic, only anions hydrolyze
A buffer solution contains a weak acid or a weak base and their respective ions. They are able to
resist large changes in pH upon addition of small amounts of strong acids or bases. Henderson-
Hasselbalch equation shows the following relations:

-
pH = pKa + log [A ]/[HA]
In order for a buffer to have maximum buffering capacity, the ratio of the concentrations of
conjugate acid to conjugate base should be close to 1.0 and the pH of the solution will be close to the
pKa of the weak acid.

OBJECTIVES

1. To predict the relations of different types of salts with water.


2. To show how buffers work when small amounts of strong acid and bases are added.

A. DETERMINATION OF ACIDITY

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.1 M NH4OAc 0.1 M NaCl


0.1 M NaOAc 0.1 M Na2CO3
0.1 M NaHCO3 0.1 M HCl
0.1 M CH3COOH 0.1 M NaOH
0.1 M NH3 0.1 M NH3 + 0.1 M NH4Cl
0.1 M NH4Cl Methyl orange
0.1 M CH3COOH + 0.1 M CH3COONa Phenolphthalein

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Test tubes
pH paper strips
droppers

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the pH of the solutions listed on Table 7.1 below using a pH paper. Also, predict the
hydrolysis reaction of each salt (if there's any).
2. Add, to 1 mL of each solution listed on Table 7.2, one to two drops of methyl orange and
phenolphthalein indicator in separate test tubes. Note the color of the solutions, and record in
Table.
3. To the solutions in step 2, add two drops of the HCl solution and note the color of the
solutions. Record your observations accordingly in Table.

23
4. Repeat steps 2-3 with another set of solutions. This time, add two drops of NaOH solution
instead of HCl. Record your observations accordingly in Table 7.3.

TABLE 7.1 Hydrolysis of reaction salts

Salt Solutions Hydrolysis Reaction pH

0.1 M NH4OAc

0.1 M NaCl

0.1 M NaOAc

0.1 M NH4Cl

0.1 M NaHCO3

0.1 M Na2CO3

TABLE 7.2 Weak electrolytes and their buffers


Color with 1 drop of Color with 1 drop of
Solutions
Methyl Orange Phenolphthalein

0.1 M CH3COOH

0.1 M CH3COOH + 0.1 M


CH3COONa

0.1 M NH3

0.1 M NH3 + 0.1 M NH4Cl

TABLE 7.3 Color changes upon addition of strong acid and base
Color with 1 Drop Color with 1 Drop
Solutions
Methyl Orange Phenolphthalein

0.1 M CH3COOH

0.1 M CH3COOH + 0.1 M CH3COONa

0.1 M NH3

0.1 M NH3 + 0.1 M NH4Cl

24
EXPERIMENT 8
ELECTROCHEMISTRY: HOW TO MAKE A GALVANIC CELL

Electrochemistry is the science of reactions that can take place at the interface of an
electronic conductor (the electrode, which can be a metal or a semiconductor including graphite) and
an ionic conductor (the electrolyte). There are two types of electrochemical cells, the galvanic or
voltaic cells, where spontaneous reactions occur, and the electrolytic cell where the reactions are non-
spontaneous.
To produce electricity, galvanic cells use redox reaction; hence galvanic cells are referred to
as primary cells. Electrolytic cells, on the other hand, use electricity to cause decomposition reaction
and therefore referred to as secondary cells.
Both types of electrochemical cells have electrodes, namely the anode where oxidation
occurs, and cathode where reduction occurs. Electrons of the more active metal, which forms the
anode, are led through an external circuit to the less active metal, the cathode, where cations are
deposited as a plating. In this way, the anode is consumed or corroded and loses weight while
cathode gains weight when the cell is allowed to operate for some time.
Electricity is harnessed by situating the oxidation and reduction reactions in separate
containers, joined by a salt bridge. A common galvanic cell, is the Daniel cell (see illustration below).

OBJECTIVES

1. To demonstrate how a galvanic cell produces electricity.


2. To learn how to calculate the cell potential of a given redox reaction.

A. MAKING A GALVANIC CELL

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

0.10 M solutions of:


a. FeSO4
b. SnCl2
c. Zn(NO3)2
d. CuSO4
e. Pb(NO3)2
Saturated KNO3 solution
Strips of Cu, Zn, Fe, Sn, and Pb

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Digital voltmeters
2 25-mL Beakers
Alligator clips
U-shaped tubes

PROCEDURE

1. Take two clean and dry 25-mL beakers. Pour 20 mL of 0.10M CuSO4 into one, and 20mL of
Zn(NO3)2 into the other.
2. Prepare strips of copper and zinc. Make sure to clean them with sandpaper first. Place the
copper strip to the beaker with the copper solution and the zinc strip to the zinc solution. Make
sure the entire length of the strip is submerged in the solution.

25
3. Fill a U-shaped glass tubing with saturated KNO3 and plug both ends with cotton plug. This
will serve as the salt bridge.
4. Connect the solutions in the two beakers with the salt bridge. Clip the red test lead from the
voltmeter to the copper strip, and the black test lead to the zinc strip. Take the voltage reading
as soon as it gets stable. If the reading is negative, reverse the connection.
5. Disconnect the voltmeter and remove the electrodes and rinse with distilled water. Discard the
solutions in the beakers into proper waste containers and rinse the beakers with distilled
water.
6. The cell you have just made is: Zn 0.10M Zn(NO3)2 0.10M CuSO4 | Cu
7. Repeat the same procedure but change the cotton plugs of the salt bridge with fresh ones.
Replace the strips and solutions to construct the following cells:

Fe | 0.10 M FeSO4 0.10 M CuSO4 | Cu

Sn | 0.10 M SnCl2 0.10 M CuSO4 | Cu

Pb | 0.10 M Pb(NO3)2 0.10 M CuSO4 | Cu

26
BONUS EXPERIMENT
BLUE PRINTING

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

FeCl3 solution
H2C2O4 solution
K3[Fe[CN]6]2 solution

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Filter paper
Drawing or design to be produced
Latex gloves

PROCEDURE

1. Mix the solutions in a place where there is reduced light.

2. Wet all parts of the filter paper with the resulting mixture, and drain off the excess solution.

3. Put the design to be reproduced over the filter paper and expose to strong sunlight until the
exposed area of the filter paper turns blue.

4. Remove the design and wash the filter paper with ample amount of running water.

5. Allow to dry, mount and display.

27
EXPERIMENT 9
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF CATIONS AND ANIONS

OBJECTIVES

1. To apply various concepts on chemical equilibrium to the analysis of cations and anions.
2. To elucidate the ionic composition of unknown salts.

REAGENTS AND CHEMICALS

Dil. NaOH solution


Dil. NH4OH solution
Dil. H2SO4 solution
Dil. KSCN solution
Dil. HCl solution
Dil. AgNO3 solution
Dil. Ba(NO3)2 solution
Conc. H2SO4 solution
FeSO4 solution
Unknown salts

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

10 mL Test tubes
Red Litmus paper

PROCEDURE:

1. Before the laboratory period, construct flow diagrams for the separation and identification of
common anions and Group I, Group II, Group III, and Group IV cations (Note). Indicate the
references of your flow diagrams.

2. Obtain an unknown salt from the instructor and carry out the procedures in the flow diagrams
that you prepared to identify the cations and anions composing the salt. Record the results of
all the tests that you performed.

Note:
The grouping here refers to classification of cations based on their qualitative analysis, not to
the group numbers of their corresponding element in the periodic table.

28

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi