Discriminative listening

Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the difference
between difference sounds is identified. If you cannot hear differences, then you
cannot make sense of the meaning that is expressed by such differences.

We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language early, and later are
unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages. This is one reason
why a person from one country finds it difficult to speak another language perfectly, as
they are unable distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language.

Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in another
person's voice will be less likely to be able to discern the emotions the other person is
experiencing.
Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much through body
language. We thus also need to be able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal
movements that signify different meanings.

Critical listening

Critical listening is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what
is being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement
and approval.
This form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the listener
analyzes what is being said, relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst
simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from the speaker.

Appreciative listening
In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for example
that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when we are
listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.

Empathetic listening

When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer understand

how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to the
nuances of emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we actually feel
what they are feeling.
In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we also need to
demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively and in a
way that encourages self-disclosure.

With every different situation, the way you listen requires a different approach. You may
be trying to learn something new, develop a relationship, build an appreciation for
something, discriminate or even make a logical evaluation. If youve never really had
success in this area, start with this course on how to become someone that people
love to talk to. Generally you need to be able to receive, focus and understand to be
able to listen, but each different type has different special skills that are needed to
master the techniques.

As follows are the five different types of listening.

Discriminative

In this listening type the objective is to focus on the sounds. At its most basic level this is
akin to distinguishing the speakers gender, or the number of people in a conversation.
This is the most important type, because it forms the basis of the other four. People who
are sensitive to the speakers tone, rate of speech, pitch and emphasis allow you to
better understand when there are differences in meaning. When considering
discriminative listening there are three key parts:

1. Ability to hear. If you lack an ability to hear well you will have difficulty when you
try to discriminate between sounds. In different people this can be more acute on
specific frequencies, where they may have more trouble picking sounds from a
bass voice than a highly pitched voice.

2. An awareness of sounds. When youre a native speaker you often recognize

the sounds of vowels and consonants that may not have been said by a speaker.
In English a listener may hear this sandal when what was actually said by the
speaker was this handle. Being attuned to the sound structure will make you a
much better discriminative listener.

3. Understanding nonverbal clues. Often a persons words do not communicate

their true feelings or emotions, which means discriminative listeners need to look
at the way a speaker acts, or how the words are said to really understand the
intended meaning of the speaker. Start here and learn the secrets of body
language in this course.

In our own language we rapidly learn to distinguish the different sounds, but it soon
forms a habit which makes it very difficult to hear the different sounds in another
language. This is the reason many people struggle to speak a second language
perfectly, because they are unable to fully distinguish all of the subtle sounds.

Comprehensive

The ultimate goal of comprehensive listening is to understand the message the speaker
is communicating. The problem is that many people often interpret the same
conversation in different ways, depending on their individual and social backgrounds. To
fully comprehend what is being said requires you to hear the words, understand the
body language and take it to the next step by extracting the key message from a long
spiel.
This listening type is found in nearly all aspects of our life, and is one of the primary
ways that we learn. In university we listen to lectures from the instructor, and what we
learn is based on how well we can listen. The same applies to your work, as you listen to
new procedures, instructions, briefings and reports, how well you can do your job is
directly related to understanding what youre being told. If you dont listen effectively,
your work will suffer.

Comprehensive listening demands that you concentrate on the message and its source,
and you can work to improve your ability by focusing on these three variables.

1. Vocabulary. Its hard to determine the precise relationship, but having a larger
vocabulary significantly increases your ability to understand whats being said.
Luckily its never too late to improve the different words you know, so make a
conscious effort to learn new words and understand the unfamiliar. This recent
post is a great start if youre trying to expand your business vocabulary. In a
pinch you can also use the context of whats being said to help you understand a
word you dont know, but this can hinder your overall understanding if you get it
wrong.

2. Concentrating. Its difficult to stay focused when youre in a lecture that isnt
exciting, or a meeting in the office that is drawn out and dancing around the
point. Weve all had times in our lives where we can admit that we havent
concentrated on what was being said to us. Sometimes this happens because
your attention is divided, or the listener is preoccupied with something else.
Sometimes the listener is simply more concerned with their own needs, and lacks
the curiosity, interest and energy to stay focused. Good concentration skills
require motivation and discipline.

3. Memory. Because you cannot process information without using your memory,
its critical in comprehensive listening. It helps you to establish expectations of
what youll encounter, and gives you the background and experiences to function
in the world. Understanding at its simplest point is knowing the meaning behind
words, concepts and ideas, so you can communicate with other people. If youre
interested in harnessing all the power of your memory check out this course
and learn how to drastically increase your memory.

Relationship

Relationship listening is a therapeutic listening type, because the ultimate goal of the
listener is to be a sympathetic ear, without requiring detailed verbal responses. The best
example is helping a friend talk through a problem, and is critical as a base for building
strong interpersonal relationships. Being the person thats there for a friend when they
need to get things off their chest is what can make your friendship even stronger.
Relationship listening does require you to listen to the information, the focus you need to
have is on simply understanding the speaker. There are three key behaviors that help to
boost your abilities in this listening type:

1. Being present. You need to be paying attention to the speaker. This is critical
because they have a problem they want to tell you about, and you cant let your
focus drift. All your focus needs to support that youre listening, and be careful
because whilst you can read the speakers non-verbal behavior, they can also
read yours! Make sure you are present and pay attention to the speaker. One of
the best ways to do this is with eye contact, looking comfortably at the speaker
helps you connect much better than a frequently shifting gaze as you look all
around the room. Your body language also reinforces your attention, leaning
towards the speaker with an open posture shows your interest, while leaning
back with crossed arms shows a lack of it. Build on this with smiles, frowns,
nodding and small phrases like oh I see, uh huh and yes are all supportive,
and using a pleasant tone of voice with a genuine concern for the other party will
help your relationship immensely.

2. Being supportive. There are many responses that can have an adverse affect
on your relationship, and you should never interrupt the speaker, change the
subject or spin the conversation so you can talk about yourself. All of these prove
your lack of concern for the speaker, and in many cases giving advice and
attempting to influence the conversation will have an adverse effect on the
relationship youre trying to build. Often the best response is to remain silent,
because many speakers are simply looking for a sounding board someone to
listen while they talk through the problem they are having. To be a great
relationship listener you need to know both when to talk and when to listen, and
they generally listen much more than they actually talk. Aim to be discrete, show
a belief in the ability of the speaker and have patience as they talk it out. Master
these three and youll make great progress as a relationship listener!

3. Being empathetic. This is all about feeling and thinking with the speaker. If
youre truly an empathetic listener you can see the problem from the speakers
eyes and feel what they feel. If you can do this effectively, youll form very strong
relationships with your friends. Obviously the more experience you have in your
life allows you a better chance to do this, as an individual who has never gone
through a divorce, lost a child, or declared bankruptcy is going to have a much
more difficult time relating to their friends who are going through a similar
problem. The risk is that you cant be effective as an empathetic listener without
getting involved, and sometimes you can learn more than you really wanted to
know.

Focus on learning the most you can about the other person, and accept them even if
there are certain aspects of their behavior you dont agree with. Were all capable of
being fantastic relationship listeners, and doing it well will strengthen your interpersonal
relationships immensely.
Critical

When listeners have to evaluate a message and respond with their opinion, this is called
critical listening. You need to scrutinize what is being said, and play an active role
because it usually requires you to make a decision, form an opinion or solve a problem.
Making a judgment requires you to assess the situation, and requires you to both listen
to whats being said while analyzing it at the same time.

While practicing critical listening you need to ask yourself

What is the speaker actually trying to say?

How do I feel about their opinion?

What is the main argument that is being presented?

Does what I am hearing align or differ to my own beliefs and opinion?

Being able to listen critically is fundamental to being able to truly learn. All of the
decisions we make on a daily basis have a basis (however small) in critical listening. Its
important that you have an open mind and not let bias or stereotypes influence your
judgment, and by doing so youll become a much better listener. Focus on these three
aspects as you perfect your critical listening skills

1. Is the speaker a credible source, who is both an expert on the subject being
discussed and that I can trust to be giving honest and unbiased information?

2. Reflect on whats being said and decide for yourself if its true. Consider the
sources of information, the data used, and if it really is the right conclusion that
has been drawn.

3. Think about the speakers intent, and make sure youre not following an
emotional response. Sound critical listening skills are based on logic.

Appreciative

The final type of listening is listening for the sake of pure enjoyment. This includes
music, theater, television, radio and films, where the ultimate response is the one from
the listener (not the speaker). Listening appreciatively differs for everyone, and the
quality of it depends on three factors.

1. Presentation. This includes the medium, the setting and who the speaker is.
Sounds can be produced in many different ways, and their presentation is key
most of us have particular ways we like to listen.

2. Perception. Your expectations play a large part in your appreciation, which is

based on your attitude. Everything we listen to has been selected by us, and is
the core of what we listen to in the first place.
 3. Past experience. Theres many reasons why we enjoy listening to certain things,
whether were an expert in the area, have positive experiences linked to the
sounds, or simply want to learn.

Being an appreciative listener is not fixed, and as you learn and discover more about
yourself, you can open your mind and appreciate more of what is out there in the world
and become a better appreciative listener.

Most people take listening for granted. They see it as something that just happens and
dont ever make an effort to develop their skills. Its only when you stop and look into the
details that you realize its one of the most important skills you can develop, and will
have a positive impact on every other aspect of your life. Not only personally, but in your
business as well. Find out in this course how you can apply all of this to really listen
to your customers. Start your journey today and build your own fantastic skill set for
every type of listening.

Chapter 4
Types of Listening
Different situations require different types of listening. We may listen to obtain
information, improve a relationship, gain appreciation for something, make
discriminations, or engage in a critical evaluation.

While certain skills are basic and necessary for all

types of listening (receiving, attending, and
understanding), each type requires some special
skills. Chapter 5 discusses those special skills and
presents guidelines to improve listening behavior
in all situations. But before we can fully appreciate
the skills and apply the guidelines, we must
understand the different types of listening.

Informative Listening

Informative listening is the name we give to the situation where the listeners
primary concern is to understand the message. Listeners are successful insofar
as the meaning they assign to messages is as close as possible to that which the
sender intended.

Informative listening, or listening to understand, is found in all areas of our

lives. Much of our learning comes from informative listening. For example, we
listen to lectures or instructions from teachersand what we learn depends on
how well we listen. In the workplace, we listen to understand new practices or
proceduresand how well we perform depends on how well we listen. We
listen to instructions, briefings, reports, and speeches; if we listen poorly, we
arent equipped with the information we need.

At times, careful informative listening is crucialremember the aircraft

landing report in chapter 1. At other times, careless listening results in only
aggravation or misunderstandingremember my misunderstanding of my
daughter, Missy, as presented in chapter 2. Whatever the case, effective
informative listening demands that you concentrate squarely on the message
and know its source.

There are three key variables related to informative listening. Knowing these
variables can help you begin to improve your informative listening skills; that
is, you will become increasingly successful in understanding what the speaker
means.

1. Vocabulary. The precise relationship between vocabulary and listening has

never been determined, but it is clear that increasing your vocabulary will
increase your potential for better understanding. And its never too late to
improve your vocabulary. Having a genuine interest in words and language,
making a conscious effort to learn new words, breaking down unfamiliar words
into their component partsall these things will help you improve your
vocabulary.

Another good way to improve your vocabulary is to be sensitive to the context

in which words are used. Sometimes, unfamiliar words appear with synonyms:
Her attractive, winsome personality won us over. At other times, a contrast is
drawn: He is usually quite energetic, but today he seemed lethargic.
Occasionally, an unfamiliar word is used to summarize a situation or quality:
He passed for over 200 yards, ran for 50 more, and his three punts averaged
over 45 yards; he turned in a stellar performance.

Look for these and other contextual clues to help you learn new words and
improve your vocabulary.

2. Concentration. Concentration is difficult. You can remember times when

another person was not concentrating on what you were sayingand you
probably can remember times when you were not concentrating on something
that someone was saying to you.

Some years ago my oldest daughter, Teri, interrupted my reading of the

newspaper to ask, Is it OK if I take your car over to a friends house to spend
the night? Ill be home before you go to work in the morning. Without
concentrating on what she was asking, I said, Sure, go ahead. Several
minutes later, I realized what she had said. She was not coming home that
night, and I had to leave the house earlier than usual the next morning. I had to
drive from Montgomery to Mobile, where I was to give a speechand all my
notes and visual aids were in my automobile. Fortunately for me, Teri had left
the telephone number of her friend, and I was able to retrieve my automobile.

There are many reasons people dont concentrate when listening. Sometimes
listeners try to divide their attention between two competing stimuli. At other
times, listeners are preoccupied with something other than the speaker of the
moment. Sometimes listeners are too ego-involved, or too concerned with their
own needs to concentrate on the message being delivered. Or perhaps they lack
curiosity, energy, or interest. Many people simply have not learned to
concentrate while listening. Others just refuse to discipline themselves, lacking
the motivation to accept responsibility for good listening. Concentration
requires discipline, motivation, and acceptance of responsibility.

3. Memory. Memory is an especially crucial variable to informative listening;

you cannot process information without bringing memory into play. More
specifically, memory helps your informative listening in three ways.

a. It allows you to recall experiences and information necessary to function in

the world around you. In other words, without memory you would have no
knowledge bank.

b. It establishes expectations concerning what you will encounter. You would

be unable to drive in heavy traffic, react to new situations, or make common
decisions in life without memory of your past experiences.

c. It allows you to understand what others say. Without simple memory of the
meaning of words, you could not communicate with anyone else. Without
memory of concepts and ideas, you could not understand the meaning of
messages.

Relationship Listening

The purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual or to

improve the relationship between people. Therapeutic listening is a special type
of relationship listening. Therapeutic listening brings to mind situations where
counselors, medical personnel, or other professionals allow a troubled person to
talk through a problem. But it can also be used when you listen to friends or
acquaintances and allow them to get things off their chests. Although
relationship listening requires you to listen for information, the emphasis is on
understanding the other person. Three behaviors are key to effective
relationship listening: attending, supporting, and empathizing.

1. Attending. Much has been said about the importance of paying attention,
or attending behavior. In relationship listening, attending behaviors indicate
that the listener is focusing on the speaker. Nonverbal cues are crucial in
relationship listening; that is, your nonverbal behavior indicates that you are
attending to the speaker or that you arent!

Eye contact is one of the most important attending behaviors. Looking

appropriately and comfortably at the speaker sends a message that is different
from that sent by a frequent shift of gaze, staring, or looking around the room.
Body positioning communicates acceptance or lack of it. Leaning forward,
toward the speaker, demonstrates interest; leaning away communicates lack of
interest. Head nods, smiles, frowns, and vocalized cues such as uh huh, I
see, or yesall are positive attending behaviors. A pleasant tone of voice,
gentle touching, and concern for the other persons comfort are other attending
behaviors.

2. Supporting. Many responses have a negative or nonsupportive effect; for

example, interrupting the speaker, changing the subject, turning the
conversation toward yourself, and demonstrating a lack of concern for the other
person. Giving advice, attempting to manipulate the conversation, or indicating
that you consider yourself superior are other behaviors that will have an
adverse effect on the relationship.

Sometimes the best response is silence. The speaker may need a sounding
board, not a resounding board. Wise relationship listeners know when to
talk and when to just listenand they generally listen more than they talk.

Three characteristics describe supportive listeners: (1) discretionbeing

careful about what they say and do; (2) beliefexpressing confidence in the
ability of the other person; and (3) patiencebeing willing to give others the
time they need to express themselves adequately.
3. Empathizing. What is empathy? It is not sympathy, which is a feeling for or
about another. Nor is it apathy, which is a lack of feeling. Empathy is feeling
and thinking with another person. The caring, empathic listener is able to go
into the world of anotherto see as the other sees, hear as the other hears, and
feel as the other feels.

Obviously, the person who has had more experience and lived longer stands a
better chance of being an effective empathic listener. The person who has never
been divorced, lost a child to death, been bankrupt, or lost a job may have a
more difficult time relating to people with these problems than one who has
experienced such things.

Risk is involved with being an empathic relationship listener. You cannot be an

effective empathic listener without becoming involved, which sometimes
means learning more than you really want to know. But commanders cant
command effectively, bosses cant supervise skillfully, and individuals cant
relate interpersonally without empathy. Abraham Lincoln is reported to have
said, I feel sorry for the man who cannot feel the stripes upon the back of
another. Truly, those who cannot feel with another person are at a disadvantage
in understanding that person.

Empathic behavior can be learned. First, you must learn as much as you can
about the other person. Second, you must accept the other personeven if you
cant accept some aspects of that persons behavior. Third, you must have the
desire to be an empathic listener. And you must remember that empathy is
crucial to effective relationship listening.

Appreciative Listening

Appreciative listening includes listening to music for enjoyment, to speakers

because you like their style, to your choices in theater, television, radio, or film.
It is the response of the listener, not the source of the message, that defines
appreciative listening. That which provides appreciative listening for one
person may provide something else for another. For example, hard rock music
is not a source of appreciative listening for me. I would rather listen to gospel,
country, jazz, or the golden oldies.
The quality of appreciative listening depends in large part on three factors:
presentation, perception, and previous experience.

1. Presentation. I just mentioned that I prefer gospel music to hard rock. But I
dont enjoy all gospel. For example, I dont enjoy gospel music when it is
presented in a glitzy settingor when it is performed by someone who fails
to demonstrate an understanding of the musics meaning. (I might add that I
dont usually enjoy gospel when it is off-key or poorly donebut there are
exceptions, such as the time I heard a 103-year-old man sing Amazing Grace.
Never have I enjoyed it more!)

I enjoy gospel music when I hear it in the little churches of rural Alabama. I
also enjoy it when it is presented in the large church I attend in Montgomery. I
also very much enjoy presentations of gospel music on radio, on television, or
in concert by well-known performers who understand its meaning.

I enjoy hearing good speakers, speakers whom I admire, and speakers who
have expertise. I frequently attend lectures at Air University by speakers who
have all three of these characteristics. Among the speakers I have heard there
recently: General Charles Chuck Horner, the air component commander of
Desert Storma war dominated by airpower; Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dr
John White; former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Colin
Powell; and US Ambassador to the UN, Jeanne Kirkpatrick. I have heard many
other outstanding speakers at Air University, of coursethese four simply
came to mind readily as examples of speakers who had all three of the
characteristics mentioned above: all were good speakers; all had my
admiration; and all had a great deal of expertise.

Presentation encompasses many factors: the medium, the setting, the style and
personality of the presenter, to name just a few. Sometimes it is our perception
of the presentation, rather than the actual presentation, that most influences our
listening pleasure or displeasure. Perception is an important factor in
appreciative listening.

2. Perception. For years, I did not care to listen to jazz music. I had always
believed that people like mefrom a conservative rural midwestern
backgroundwouldnt like jazz. Then I started to work for a new bossa
general officer who enjoyed jazz. I admired him very much. My mind was now
open to listen to jazz. My perception was changing, and I began to enjoy jazz
music.

Expectations play a large role in perception. If I attend a concert under duress

with no expectation of enjoying the music (perhaps my wife insists that I
attend, or my position in the community makes it the thing to do), I may be
pleasantly surprised. But I stand a lot better chance of enjoying the concert if
I expect to enjoy it.

Perceptionsand the expectations that drive them

have their basis in attitudes. Our attitudes
determine how we react to, and interact with, the
world around us. There was a time, not many years
ago, when I did not want a personal computer (PC)
in my office. I did not want to even be around a
PC. I did not enjoy working with computers.

Six years ago, I wrote a book called Speaking Effectively: A Guide for Air
Force Speakers.* The book you are now reading is a companion volume to that
one. I wrote the first book in longhand; Im composing this one on my PC.
Fortunately for me, my attitude toward computers has changed. If my attitude
had changed six years sooner, I could have written the earlier book in less time
and saved both time and effort for the publisher.

__________
*John A. Kline, Speaking Effectively (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,
1989).

Perceptions influence all areas of our lives. Certainly, they are crucial
determinants as to whether or not we enjoy or appreciate the things we listen to.
Obviously, perceptions also determine what we listen to in the first place. As
we said earlier, listening is selective.

3. Previous experience. The discussion of perception makes it clear that

previous experience influences whether we enjoy listening to something. In
some cases, we enjoy listening to things because we are experts in the area.
Sometimes, however, expertise or previous experience prevents us from
enjoying a presentation because we are too sensitive to imperfections. Previous
experience plays a large role in appreciative listening.

Many people enjoy the sounds of large-city traffic. Perhaps their growing up in
a large city was a happy experience for them. The blare of horns honking, the
sound of roaring engines accelerating, even the shrill shriek of sirens piercing
the airall these things may remind them of pleasant times in their lives. They
appreciate hearing these sounds.

Others, having grown up on a farm or in a small town, have learned to enjoy

the sounds of nature. For them, a walk in the country produces sounds of
enjoyment: the rustle of leaves in the breeze, the song of a robin, the babble of
a brook.

Usually, if we associate a sound or other experience with pleasant memories,

then we appreciate or enjoy it. However, if the sound or experience is
associated with unpleasant memories, we probably will not appreciate or enjoy
it.

But we can change! Lets return to the example of how I learned to enjoy
listening to jazz. I did not enjoy jazz music when I first heard it. Then I worked
for a man who enjoyed it. More than once when we were TDY, I sat with him
in the evenings listening to jazz combos or jazz pianists . . . and I learned to like
jazz. We should not shut our minds to the fact that we can learn to like, enjoy,
and appreciate new and different things. We can learn to be better appreciative
listeners.

Critical Listening

The ability to listen critically is essential in a

democracy. On the job, in the community, at
service clubs, in places of worship, in the family
there is practically no place you can go where
critical listening is unimportant. Politicians, the
media, salesmen, advocates of policies and
procedures, and our own financial, emotional, intellectual, physical, and
spiritual needs require us to place a premium on critical listening and the
thinking that accompanies it.

The subject of critical listening deserves much more attention than we can
afford it here. But there are three things to keep in mind. These three things
were outlined by Aristotle, the classical Greek rhetorician, more than 2,000
years ago in his treatise, The Rhetoric.* They are as follows: ethos, or speaker
credibility; logos, or logical arguments; and pathos, or psychological appeals.

__________
*Aristotle, Art of Rhetoric (NEW YORK: Viking Penguin, 1992).

1. Ethos. Credibility of the speaker is important. The two critical factors of

speaker credibility are expertness and trustworthiness. A speaker may be expert
or competent and still not be trustworthy. For example, an autocratic dictator of
a certain third world country might be an expert on the question of his countrys
possession of nuclear arms; but I would not trust him to tell me. On the other
hand a person might be trustworthy, but not be an expert on the subject. I trust
my best friend; he would tell me the truth about nuclear arms in that third world
country, if he knew and I asked him. But his information would be of
questionable validity since he is simply not an expert in such things.

When listening to a message that requires a critical judgment or response, ask

yourself, Is the speaker a credible source, one who is both an expert on the
subject and one who can be trusted to be honest, unbiased, straightforward?
Remember that a person may have personality or charisma. But these do not
take the place of credibility. A person may even be highly competent and an
expert in one area and simply not be informed in another.

Returning to the example of speakers at Air University, I trust General Horner.

He is an expert on the use of airpower, and he is trustworthy. I listen intently
when he speaks on the subject. But I would not expect him to be an expert on
buying used cars, knitting, or nutrition. He may be an expert on any or all of
these things, but I would want to check it out before I put too much stock in
his ideas on these subjects.
Effective critical listening requires careful judgment about the expertness and
trustworthiness of the speaker. In fact, ethos or speaker credibility may be the
most important single factor in critical listening and thinking. However, ethos
without logos is not enough.

2. Logos. Even speakers with high ethos often make errors in logic, not by
intention, but by accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of analysis.
Critical listeners have a right to expect well supported arguments from
speakers, arguments that contain both true propositions and valid inferences or
conclusions.

When evaluating arguments, listeners should ask several questions about the
proposition or statements made:

a. Are the statements true?

b. Are the data the best that can be obtained?

c. Are the sources of the data known to the listeners? In other words do listeners
know where the information came from?

d. Is the data accurately portrayed?

e. Is the data representative? That is, would all the data, or at least a
preponderance of it show the same thing?

The above questions may all be answered to your satisfaction, yet the logic may
be faulty. For perhaps the data do not lead to or justify the inferences or
conclusions drawn. Listeners should ask themselves the following questions:

a. Is the conclusion a certainty or are exceptions possible?

b. Were all cause-effect relationships established beyond doubt?

c. Does the data justify the inference drawn or the conclusion given?

d. Does the inference or conclusion follow from the data, or is there a non
sequitur, which means literally, it does not necessarily follow?
e. Is there evidence of strong logical thinking by the speaker?*

__________
*In Speaking Effectively (Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1989), I
discuss the concept of logical thinking in more detail than is given here.

Both ethos and logos are crucial elements of critical listening. But reliance on
just these two elements without consideration of pathos would be akin to
attempting to sit on a three-legged stool with one leg missing. Pathos is the
third leg.

3. Pathos. The psychological or emotional element of communication is often

misunderstood and misused. Simply said, speakers often use psychological
appeals to gain an emotional response from listeners. Effective critical listeners
carefully determine the focus of the speakers message.

Speakers may appeal to any one or several needs, desires, or values that are
important to us including: adventure, thrift, curiosity, fear, creativity,
companionship, guilt, independence, loyalty, power, pride, sympathy, altruism.
There are many others, of course; the list is a long one.

There are several questions critical listeners should ask themselves when
assessing the pathos element:

a. Is the speaker attempting to manipulate rather than persuade me?

b. What is the speakers intent?

c. Is the speaker combining logos with pathos?

d. Am I responding merely to the pathos?

e. Next week or next year will I be satisfied with the decision I am making
today?

Effective critical listening depends on the listener keeping all three elements of
the message in the analysis and in perspective: ethos, or source credibility;
logos, or logical argument; and pathos, or psychological appeals.
 Discriminative Listening

The final type of listening is discriminative listening. It may be the most

important type, for it is basic to the other four. By being sensitive to changes in
the speakers rate, volume, force, pitch, and emphasis, the informative listener
can detect even nuances of difference in meaning. By sensing the impact of
certain responses, such as uh huh, or I see, relationship listening can be
strengthened. Detection of differences between sounds made by certain
instruments in the orchestra, or parts sung by the a cappella vocal group,
enhances appreciative listening. Finally, sensitivity to pauses, and other vocal
and nonverbal cues, allows critical listeners to more accurately judge not only
the speakers message, but his intentions as well.

Obviously, many people have good discriminatory listening ability in some

areas but not in others. Our middle daughter, Nanette, has always been very
adept at picking up minute differences in a persons voice that might signal
feelings. She has a gift for discriminating and applying what she hears to
relationship listening. But her ability to discriminate among the different
sounds that come from an automobile engine is practically nil. One weekend
she pulled into the driveway, fan belt squealing. I said, Nanette, cant you hear
that? Youre wearing out a belt. Youre lucky you got home. Oh that, she
said. I wondered what that was. I had no idea.

Although discriminative listening cuts across the other four types of listening,
there are three things to consider about this type of listening.

1. Hearing ability. Obviously, people who lack the ability to hear well will have
greater difficulty in discriminating among sounds. Often this problem is more
acute for some frequencies, or pitches, than others. For example, a person may
be less able to discriminate when the sound is coming from a bass voice than
from a higher pitched one.

2. Awareness of sound structure. Native speakers become quite proficient at

recognizing vowel and consonant sounds that do or do not appear at the
beginning, middle, or end of words. For example, a listener might hear this
sandal when what the speaker said was this handle; but since English words
do not begin with sb, one would not mistake this bean for this sbean.
Attention to the sound structure of the language will lead to more proficient
discriminatory listening. A person who pays attention to sound structure would
recognize that a rapidly spoken Idrankitfirst could mean either I drank it
first or Id rank it first. Recognition of the two meanings would cause the
listener to seek clarification.*

__________
*I am indebted for these examples and other ideas to Andrew Wolvin and
Carolyn Gwynn Coakley, Listening (Madison, Wis.: Brown and Benchmark,
1996).Gen John M. Loh, What It Takes to Be a Commander, Air Force
Times, 17 October 1994, 41.

3. Integration of nonverbal cues. The previous chapter pointed out how action,
nonaction, and vocal factors were important in understanding messages.
Nowhere is attention to these factors more important than in effective
discriminative listening. Words dont always communicate true feelings. The
way they are said, or the way the speaker acts, may be the key to understanding
the true or intended meaning.

Effective listening, whether informative, relational, appreciative, critical, or

discriminative, requires skill. In some cases, the skills are the same for the
various types of listening; in some cases, they are quite different. The next
chapter will give you guidelines for better listening. It will also tell you which
skills are especially critical for each type of listening.