NQ 50201

Seismic Analysis of Lattice Towers
by
Mohamed Abdel Halim Khedr
October 1998
Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics

McGill University
Montreal, Canada
A thesis subsnitted to
the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
in partiai fuisument of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Phosophy
O Mohamed Abdel Halim Khedr, 1998

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permission. autorisation.
in the absence of s p d c guidelines for the seismic anaiysis of ~ s u p p o r t i n g
telecomrnunication towers, designen may be tempted to apply simplified building code
approaches to these stmctures. However, these towas respond to earthquake~in a
different fashion than that of shear buildings. The objective of this research is to propose
simplified mahods for the seisrnic analysis of self-supporting telecommunication towers.
The author studied the specific problem of self-supporthg lattice
telecornmunication towers ushg numerical simulations and applying the modal
superposition method and the response spectnun technique on ten existing towers, typical
of rnicrowave towers usualy erected in Canada. The analyses are carrieci out using a set of
45 strong motion horizontal accelerograms to snidy the horizontal effects. Vertical
dynamic effcts are studied using two approaches: the f

ht considering the same
horizontal accelerograms in the vertical direction &er reducing their amplitudes to 75%,
the second using a distinct set of 55 vertical accelerogtams.
As a fim stage, simple regression analyses are paformed on the results to yield
eanhquake amplification factors for the base shear and the total vertical reaction. These
factors are presmted as functions of the tower's largest flexura period or largest axid
period of vibration as appropriate and peek ground 8cccleration at tower site. They can be
used by designers to estirnate the expected lm1 of dynamic forces in seKsupporting
telecommunication towen due to an emhquakc.
As a second *e, a simplified rcnic method is proposeci to estimate the membcr
forces in self'-supportmg tdecommuniuuion lanice towm due to both horizontai and

verticai earthquake excitations. It is assumed that the lowest thnt fluemi modes of
vibration in sufnciem to estmiffe the structure's respoase to horizontai excitation
accurstely, whe ody the first axial mode wiii reflect the actwl behavior of towem in
response to vertical excitation. An acceleration profile dong the hdght of the tower is
defked using the spectral acceleration values correspondhg to the lowest three flexural
mode shapes or the lowest axial mode as appropriate. The mass of the tower is calculateci
and then lumped at the leg joints. A set of equivalent static l a t d or vertical loads can be
determined by simply multiplying the mass by the acceleration. The tower is then analyzed
staticaliy under the &kt of these forces to evaluate the member forces. The maximum
error associated with the proposed simplified static method is found to be 25% in the
e x t m m cases 4
th an average enor of &7%.
The effe* of incluing antennae clusters is also addressed in the d y s i s and
findings are summMsed in the thesis.
h e study is extended to include transmission line towers in order to ohplfi the
nspoase of coupled tower-cable system by replacing the cables with an equivalent mass.
Seved frrquency analyses were perfoxmed on the system in order to acbieve a better
understanding of the behavior of the coupleci system, however, it was not possible to
simplify this interaction in the way desired. Several obstrvations are presemed which may
help in frther saidies.

SO,-
Fate de directives spccl6ques a l'andyse sismique des pylnes de
tlcommunications, les concepteurs peuvent tre tents d'appliquer les approches

SimpMes proposes dans codes pour les structures de btiments aux pylnes de type
autoporteur. Une mise en garde s'impose toutefois car ces pylnes ne prment pas le
mme type de rponse Pismique que le modle simplifi de btiment lev avec
dformation latrale en cisaillement. L'objectif de cette recherche est de fournir aw
concepteurs de pylnes de tlcommunications des outils appropris l'analyse sismique
simplifie.
L'auteur a tudi le problme spcifique aux pyldnes de ttlcomrnunications
autoponairs a treillis en acier l'aide de simulations numriques par superposition modale
et par analyse spectrale sur dix modles daaills de pylnes txistmts, typiques de
l'exprience canadienne. Ces structures prdsanent un comportement essentiellement
linaire et lastique dans la gamme des efforts considrs. Les analyses ont utilis les
accelrogrammes de 45 tremblements de terre rels pour les effas horizontaux. Pour les
effts verticawc, dew sries de soIlicitations ont t considres : la premire consiste
utiser les mmes acclrograrnmes que pour les effets horizontaux mais avec une
amplitude ruite 75%, et la seconde est compose de 55 acclrogrammes verticaux
rels.
Dans une premire tape, l'analyse des rsultats des ractions la base des pylnes
a pennis d'tablir des facteurs d'amplification du cioailement la base et de la
composante dynamique de la raction verticale. Ces d c w fctcurs sont exprims en
fonction de la priode naturelle de vibration du pylne m modes t r a n s v d et axhi, et en
fonction de l'arrilration maximaie la base de la stnichirr. L'auteur propose l'utisition
de ces &eus comme des indicateurs de rponse seulement, i.e. pour estimer le niveau
probable des effets dynamiques d'ensemble sur la stnicturc.
En seconde tape, I'adyse des rsultats s'est fate au niveau dtaill des efforts
daas les membrures principales, soit les montants, les diagonales principales ainsi que les
contreventements horizontaux. L'auteur propose maintenant une mthode &pline, par

analyse statique avec forces quivalentes aw effets d'inertie, pour estimer les effons dans
les membrures individueiles. Une courbe enveloppe des acclrations maximaies le long du
pylne est dfinie partir des acclrations spectrales correspondant aux friquences des
trois premiers modes de vibration transversaux, pour les effas latraux. a du premier
mode de vibration axial, pour les effts verticaux. La mthode propose prsuppose donc
la comiaismce de ces frquences naturelles. La masse de la structure est discrtise sur
les noeuds des montants principaux et un profil de charges quivalentes aux eEas d'inertie
est obtenu en multipliant diredement le profil de masse avec le profil d'acclration.
L'analyse statique usuelle sous charges quivaientes permet ensuite d'obtenir les forces
dans les membrures. La comparaison des rsultats de l'analyse simplifie avec ceux de
l'analyse des dailie des da pylnes tudis indique des variations dans l'valuation des
forces internes de l'ordre de * 7% en moyenne avec des carts aiiant jusqu' 25%.
L'tude a gpiement considr l'effet de la masse de groupes d'antennes sur la
rponse sismique des pylnes et les principales conclusions sont rsumes dans la thse.
L'auteur a tent d'tendre l'application de sa mthode simpiifie au problme des
pylnes de lignes ariennes de transport d'ha&, mais en vain. L'ide de base consistait
valua s'il tait possible de remplacer l'effet des cbles de la ligne par une masse
quivalente m pylne. Aprs avoir f i t plusieurs anaiysts de Wqumcm sur des modles
coupls &les-pylnes, l'auteur n'a pu gnraliser ses rtaihau. Qudques obsawtions
prtscntdes dans la th- pourront servir de point de dCput pour des recherches finues.
The author is indebted to Professor Ghyslaine McClure for her valuable
suggestions, long discussions, support, encouragement, and understanding to the -dent
persod life and feelings. This work wodd have never been completed in such a way
without such supervision. It is near impossible to describe how luclcy 1 am for having her
as my supervisor, many thanks.
The financial assistance provided by the Natural Science and E n g h e e ~ gResearch
Council of Canada (NSERC) in the form of post graduate scholarship to the author and
research gant is greatiy appreciated.
The hancial assistance provided by Le Fonds pour la Formation de Chercheurs et
l'Aide la Recherche (Fonds FCAR)in the form of post graduate scholmhip to the author
is greatiy appreciated .
The author appreciates the contribution of both Hydro-Quebec and Marioni, Cyr
and Associates in this work by providing the drawings and' daailed data for the
telecommunication and transmission towers used in this snidy.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
SOMMAIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
ACKNOW LEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................. vi
LlST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x k
LIST OF SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
CHAPTER t
INTRODUCTiON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Organization of T u t .............................................. 4

cHAPTER2
-RATURE REWEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Introduction ..................................................... 6

2.2 Dynrmic Raponse of =supportin& Littice Towen ................. 6
2.2.1 Respome(owhd ............................................ 6
2.2.2Sas~rclspollse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Dynamic Response of Trinsmission Line Structures .................. 14
2.4 Seirmic Response of Towe~hapedStructuru ...................... 21

2 . 4 l S c t s n c ~ l l ~ ~ o f o ~ h 0 r............................
tt0~~1~ 21
L 4 . 2 S c i s m r * c r # p o l l ~ e o f i ~ t l ~ t o n r........................
rs 23
2.5 Design Code Approaches for Sdsmic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 . 5 ~ 1 ~ 4 p p r 0 0 ~ h c s f o r d i f f ~ r t n t ~ p e s o................
f~cl~m 25
2mS.2StondordscmdcodaofprOctjce
fort- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.1 Telecommunication Towers Used in the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Numerid Modeling of Tdecommuniution Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 Classification of Tekcommunication Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4 Transmission Line Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.5 Modeling and Analysis o f Transmission Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6 Earthquake Records Used in The Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
CHAPTER 4
EARTHQUAKE AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR
TELECOMMUNICATION TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1 Introduction .................................................... 58
4.2 Method of Analysis .............................................. 59
4.3 The Use of NBCC 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4 Horhontd Earthquake Excitation ................................. 63
4.5 Vertical Earthquake Excitation .................................... 77
4.6 Discussion ...................................................... 90
4.7 Conclosions ..................................................... 93
vii
CHAPTER 5
PROPOSED STATIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.1 Thwmtk.l Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
.
5.I I Equation of motiou and rc~ponsespectnrm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.1.2 Modal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
.
5 1.3 Seismic rtsponse of MlWF systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2 Proposed Metbod for Horizontal Earthquake Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.3 Verification of the Proposed Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1
5.4 Vertical Earthquake Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.5 Verification of The Proposed Vertical Acceleration Proffie . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.6 Effect of Concentrated Mass of Antennae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
CEIAPTER 6
SEISMIC CONSIDERATION FOR TRANSMISSION TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.2 Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
62.1 M o d d ~ g o f t o w a s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
62.2 Modeling of cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6-3 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
63.1 Nonlinear static analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
63.2 Frcqvencyanolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.4 Parametric Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 Equivrknt Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.6 Conclusions ................................................... 146

C-R 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.1 Summry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.2 Earthquake Ampli&rtioa Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.3 Simplified Methods of Analysb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.4 Anaiysis of Transmission Liae Touen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.5 Rtcommeodations for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Statement of Originality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
REFERENCES ............................................. 154
EARTEiQU-AKE RECORDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
APPENDIX B
VERlFlCATION OF TEE PROfOSED EXPRESSIONS FOR TEE

205
EARTEiQUAKE AMPLIFICATION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX C
VERTICAL EARTHQUAKE AMPLIFKATION FACTORS FOR
TELECOMMUNICATION TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
.
C 1 Intmductioa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
C.2 Vertid Earthquake Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
C.3 Verticai Earthquakc Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
C.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
APPENDIX D
VEIUFICATION OF THE PROPOSED STATlC METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 3.1 Layout of tower TC1 (dimensions are in m)
Fige3.2 Layout of tower TC2 (dimensions are in m)
Fig. 3*7 Layout of tower TC7 (dimensions are in m)
Fige3.9 Layout of tower TC9 (dimensions are in m)
Fig. 3.10 Layout of tower TC 10 (dimensions are in rn)
Fig. 3.1 1 Definition of the mein symbols used in categorizing the lanice towers
Fig. 3.12 Layout o f tower TR 1 (dimensions are in m)
Fig. 3.13 Layout of tower TR2 (cimensions are in m)
Fig. 3.14 Layout of tower TR3 (dimensions are in m)
Fig. 3.16 Layout of tower TRS (dimensions are in m)
Fige4.1 NBCC 1995 acceleration design spectrum evaluated for 5% damping
Fig. 4.2 Maximum base shear values for tower TC 1
Fig. 4.3 Maximum base shear values for tower TC2
Fig. 4.4 Maximum base sbear velues for tower TC3

Fjg. 4.6 Maximum base shear values for tower TC5 69
Fig. 4.7 Maximum base shear values for tower TC6 70
Fig. 4.1 1 hdaximum base shear values for tower TC l O 74
Fb. 4.12 Base shear amplification factors 76
Fig. 4.13 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC I 78
Fig. 4.14 Total vertical dynarnic reaction for tower TC2 79
Fig. 4.15 Total vertical dynaMc reaction for tower TC3 80
Fig. 4.16 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC4 81
Fig. 4.21 Totd vertical dynamic ration for tower TC9 86
Fig. 4.22 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC 10 87
Fig. 4.23 Vertical reaction ampLificationfactors 89
Fig. 4.24 Acceleration response specva evaiuated for 3% damping 91
Fig. 4.25 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground acceleration in TC3 92
Fig. 4.26 Maximum dyiwiic vertical reaction vs. peak ground d e r a t i o n in TC3 92
Fig. 5.1 Concept of the proposeci method 100
Fig. 5.2 Acceleration profiles for towa TC9 103
xi
Fig. 5.3 Cornparison between member forces obtained fiom dynamic analysis and the
proposed metho IO3
Fig. 5.4 Lateral mode shapes and mass distribution for Group A l 106
Fig. 5.5 Lateral mode shapes and mass distribution for Group A2 106
Fig. 5.6 Lateral mode shapes and mass distribution for Group B 107
Fig. 5.7 The a, coefficients for Group A l 108
Fig. 5.8 The a, coefficients for Group A2 109
Fig. 5.9 The a, coefficients for Group B 110
Fig. 5.10 Member forces for tower TC I 113
Fig. 5.1 1 Member forces in tower TC I using NBCC specuwn 115
Fig. 5.12 Proposed vertical acceleration profile 118
Fig. 5.13 Member forces in tower TC 1 under vertical excitation 120
Fig. S. 14 Tower TC3 with antemae 122
Fig. 5.15 Member forces including the effct of antenna mass for tower TC3 using
NBCC 1995 for Z,<Z, ratio in the horizontal direction 122
Fig. 5.16 Mernber forces including the effea of antenna mass for tower TC3 using
NBCC 1995 for Z,<Z, ratio in the vertical direction 123
Fig: 5.17 Effixt of including heavy antennae on tower TC 1 124
Fig. 5.18 Effect of includhg heavy antennae on tower TC2 125
Fig. 5.19 Effect of includhg heavy antennae on tower TC3 125
Fig. 5.20 Wct of including heavy antennae on tower TC5 126
Fig. 5.21 Wkct of including heavy antennae on tower TC6 126
Fig. 5.22 E f f i of inchidhg heavy antennae on towa TC7 127

Fig. 5.23 EEct of including heavy antennae on tower TC8 127
Fig, 5.24 Effect of including heavy antennae on tower TC9 128
Fig. 5.25 Effct of including heavy antennae on tower TC 10 128
Fig. 6.1 Components o f transmission line section on double-circuit lattice towers 133
Fig. 6.2 Mesh convergence for the lowest transversal mode 134
Fig, 6.3 Ratio between calculatecl naturai penods of the cwpled line system and the
bare tower for tower TR2 with Condor 139
Fig. 6.4 Ratio between dculated natural penods of the coupled line system and the
bue tower for tower TR2 with Curlew 140
Fig. 6.5 Ratio between dculated natural penods of the coupled Iine system and the
bare tower for tower TR2 with Bersfon 141
Fig. 6.6 Ratio between calculated natural penods of the coupled line system and the
bare tower for tower TR6 with Condor 142
Fig. 6.7 Ratio between calculated naturai periods of the coupled Line system and the
bue tower for tower TR6 with Curlew i43
Fig. 6.8 The lowest two dculated longitudinal modes of tower TR6 144
Fig. A 1.1 Earthquake record Long Beach, NS 1W (L1) 160
Fig. Al.2 Earthquake record Long Beach N39E (L2) 161
Fig. Al.3 Earthquake record Lower Cafomia SOOW (L3) 162
Fig. A1.4 Earthquake record San Femando N61W (L4) 163
Fig. A1.5 Earthquake record San Femando West (LS) 164
Fig. A1.6 Earthquake record San Feniando S37W (L6) 165
Fig. A1.7 Earthquake record San Feniando S90W (L7) 166
zri
Fig. A 1.8 Earthquake record San Fernando N 1 5E (L8)
F~B.AL9 Earthquake record San Fernando S38W (L9)
Fig. ALI0 Earthquake record San Fernando SOOW (L10)
Fig. Al. 11 Earthquake record Near E. Cost of Honshu NS (L1 1 )
Fig. Al.12 Earthquake record Near E. Coast of Honshu (L12)
Fige A 1.13 Earthquake record Michoacan SOOE (L13)
Fig. A1.14 Earthquake record Michoacan NOOE (L14)
FigoA 1.15 Earthquake record Michoacan N90W (L 1 5 )
Fig. A2.1 Earthquake record Imperia1 Vaiiey SOOE (NI)
Fig. A23 Eanhquake record Kem County S69E (N2)
Fig. A2.3 Earthquake record Kem County N21E (N3)
Fig. A2.4 Eanhquake record Borrego Mountain N S W (34)
Fig. A2.5 Earthquake record Borrego Mountain N33E (NS)
Fig. A2.6 Earthquake record San Fernando S90W (N6)
Fig. A2.7 Earthquake record San Femando N90E (N7)
FigeA2.8 Earthquake record San Feniando N90E (N8)
Fig. A2.9 Earthquake record San Femando SOOW (N9)
Fig. M.IO Earthquake record San Fernando N3 7E (N10)
Fig. M.11 Earihquake record Near E. Coast of Honshu NS (N11)
Fige At. 12 Eanhquake record Near S. Coast of Honshu EW (N12)
Fig. AZ.13 Earthquake record Monte Negro NOOW (N13)
Fig. A2.14 Earthquake remrd Michoacan SOOE (N14)
Fig. A2.15 Earthquake remrd Michoacan NWE (NI 5)

Fig. A3.1 Earthquake record Parkfield N65W (H1)
Fig. A 3 3 Earthquake record Parffield NUE (H2)
Fig. A3*3Earthquake record San Francisco S80E (H3)
Fig. A3.4 Earthquake record San Francisco S09E (H4)
Fig. A3.S Earthquake record Helena Montana SOOW (H5)
Fig. A3.6 Earihquake record Lytle Creek S25W (H6)
Fig. A3.7 Earthquake record Oroville N53W (H7)
Fig. A3.8 Eanhquake record San Fernando S74W (Hg)
Fig. A3.9 Earthquake record San Fernando S21W (Hg)
Fig. A3.10 Eanhquake record Nahanni Longitudinal (H10)
Fig. A3. I 1 Earthquake record Centeral Honshu TR (H1 1)
Fig. A3.12 Earthquake record Near E.Coast of Honshu NS (H1 2)
Fig. A3.13 Earthquake record Honshu NS (H13)
Fig. A3.14 Earthquake record Monte Negro NOOW (H14)
Fig. A3.1 S Earthquake record Banja Luka N90W (H15)
Fig. B.1 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground acceleration in TC1
Fig. B.4 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground acceleration Ui TC5
Fig. BOSMaximum base sheer vs. peak ground acce1emtion in TC6
Fig. B.6 Maximum base shear vs. Peak gound acceleration ia TC7
Fig. B-7Maximum base shear vs. peaic grouad accelerafion in TC1
FigoB-8 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground -leration in TC9

Fig. B.9 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground acceleration in TC 1 O 208
Fig. B.10 Maximum dywnic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC 1 209
Fig. B. 11 Maximum dynarnic verticai reaction vs. peek ground acceleration in TC2 209
Fig. B.12 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC4 209
Fig. B. 13 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC 5 2 10
Fig. B.14 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC6 2 10
Fig. B. 15 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC7 2 10
Fig. B. 16 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC8 21 1
Fig. B.17 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC9 21 1
Fig. B. 18 Maximum dynarnic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC 1O 2 1 1
Fig. C. 1 Total vertical dynarnic reaction for tower TC 1 215
Fig. C.2 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC2 215
Fig. C.3 Totai vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC3 215
Fig. C.4 Total vertical dynamic reaaion for tower TC4 216
Fig. C I Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC8 217
Fig. C.9 Total vertical dynamic r d o n for tower TC9 217
Fig. C. 10 Total vertical dynarnic reaction for tower TC 1O 218
Fig. C.11 Vertical r d o n amplification factors 220
Fig. C l 2 Maximum dynaniic vertical reaction vs. peaL ground d e r a t i o n in TC3 220
Fig4C.13 Maximm dynamic vertical reaction w. peak gnwid accdaation in TC l O 220

Fig. C.14 Cornparison between the expressions for vertical amplification factor
Fig. D.1 Member forces in tower TC2
Fig. D.9 Member forces in tower TC2 using NBCC spectrum
Fig. D.10 Member forces in tower TC3 using NBCC s p m m
Fig. D.11 Member forces in tower TC5 ushg NBCC spectrum
Fig. D.13 Member forces in tower TC7 using NBCC spectnirn
Fig. D.14 Member forces in tower TC8 using NBCC spectrum
Fig. D.15 Member forces in tower TC9 using NBCC spe*n>m
Fig. D. 16 Member forces in tower TC 10 using NBCC spectm
Fig. D.17 Member forces in tower TC2 under vertical excitation
Fig. D.18 Member forces in tower TC3 under venical excitation
Fig. D.19 Member forces in tower TC5 under vertid excitation
Fig. D.20 Member forces in tower TC6 under vertid excitation
Fig. D.22 Member forces in tower TC8 under verticai excitation

Fig. D.23 Member forces in tower TC9 under venical excitation
Fig. D.24 Member forces in tower TC 10 under vertical excitation

LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Characteristics o f the telecommu~cationtowers studied
Table 3.2 Classification of towen according to Sackmann (1996)
Table 3.3 Prediction of the lowest three flexural modes
Table 3.4 Characteristics of the transmission towers studied
Table 3.5 Earthquake records used in the study
Table 4.1 Base shear values using the NBCC 1995 design spectrum
Table 4.2 Base shear values (in kN) using the NBCC 1995 static approach
Table 4.3 Linear regression analysis for the maximum base shear
Table 4.4 Linear regression analysis for the maximum vertical reaction
Table 6.1 Cable data
Table 6.2 Cases used in the parametric snidy
Table C.1 Earthquake records used as vertical input
Table C.2 Linear regression analysis for the total vertical reaction
LIST OF SYMBOLS
length of tmss pane1
peak horizontal ground acceleration
cross sectional ana of diagonals
coeflicientsused in evaluating the horizontal acceleration profile (i=

1,6)
cross sectional area of main legs
peak vertical ground acceleration
viscous damping constant
equivdent taper ratio
foudation factor
conductor horizontal tension
second moment of atea of the main leg sections at the top
second moment of area of the main Leg sections at the base
!smhess
generalized m e s s
shear codcient at the tower base
tower height
excitation factor for mode i
mass
total mass of the tower
generaiized rnaw
tower mass at position x
intemal bending moment at position x

Mi genenlwd mass for mode i
MW Japan meteorological agency scale
ML local magnitude
Ms surface wave magnitude
R coefficient of correlation
S dimensionless seismic response factor
Sa spectral amleration value correspondhg to the fndamental axial penod
Sm pseudo-acceleration corresponding to flexural natural period i
Ta bdamental axial period of vibration
r, fundamental flexural period of vibration
u relative displacement
u relative velocity
z relative acceleration
v zona1 velocity ratio
V peak ground velocity
v(x) intemal sheer force at position x
VI elastic base shear
yh base shear
Y' total maximum vertical reaction
W dead load
w d conductor's weight per unit leagth
woaaii: overhead ground wire weight per unit length
x relative position
the base acce1eration
acceleration-related seismic zone
velocity-related seismic zone
sbear parameta
mode shape i
undamped circulas fiequency of vibration
damped circular fiequency of vibration
viscous damping ratio

CHAPTER 1
mTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Lattice towen are widely used today as supporthg stmctures, nmely in
telecommunication network systems and in overhead power lines. They are classified into
two main uttegories: guyed towers, also called guyed masts or sirnply masts, and
self-supporthg towers. The present study focuses on the latter.
Self-supporting telecommunication towers are three-legged or four-legged space-
trussed structures with usual maximum height of 120 m to 160 m. These towers consist of
main legs and horizontal and transverse bracings. Main legs are typically composed of 90
angles (in four-legged towers), 60' xhifflerized or cold-formed angles (in three-legged
towers), or tubular round sections. Vaxious bracing patterns are used but the most
common ones are the chevron and the cross bracing. Classical steel transmission towers
are four-legged selfkupporting lattice structures. Their main legs are also usudy
composed of 90" angles and tubular sections whiie built-up composite sections are less
fiequent. The bracing patterns used in these towers are s d a r to those used in
self-supporthg telecommunication lattice towers.
Self-supporting telecommunication towers are designeci to resia environmentai
loads such as wind and ice accretion on their componmts (in cold cmates), usually
without considering earthquakes. However, some of these towers rnay be crucial
structures in a telecommunication mtwork and th& owner rnay requin tbrt t h y remain
operatiod or at least h v e a severe earthquake, especidy for towers focated in high

risk seismic areas. The 1994 edition of the Canadian standard CSA S37 Antennar. Towers
and Antenm-Supprting Sn~cmres(CSA 1994) introduced a new appendix (Appendk
M) titled "Seisrnic Analysis of Towers", in order to raise the awareness of the
telecornmunication inctustxy on this important issue. Specific recommendatioas for lattice
selfisupporthg telecommunication towers are that, whenever necessary, a somewhat
detailed dynamic anaiysis is io be perfomed using modal superposition. The base
acceleration shouid correspond to the values prescribed by the National Building Code of
Canada (NBCC 1995) for the tower site. These recommendations are very general,
however, and the tower designer is lefl without any specific guidance to assess whether or
not a detailed dynamic d y s i s is mly necessary. It would therefore be desirable to rely
on a shplified, static rnethod of analysis to get an estimate of the relative importance of
the seismic response of the tower. if the accuracy of such a method can be proven,
detailed dynamic analysis may even become unnecessary in the rnajonty of cases. The
design procedure would then include a relatively simple additional step to estimate seismic
effects, which could then be compared to extreme wind or combined wind and ice effcts.
The main design loads of overhead transmission line towers are conductors weight
and environmental loads such as wind and ice or a combination of bo& acting on the
cables and directly on the towers. Severai exceptional loads such as cable breekages and
ice-shedding effms are also comidered in some cases, using equivalent static loads
w
methods. However, earthquake effcts are not considered in tower design, even in high
nsk seismic areas. Nonetheless, thae are a few reports (Pierre, 1995 and Kempner, 19%)
of some transmission tower damages during recent earthquakes. Ahhough in most cases
damages were due to laree movements of the tower foundation, it remains relevant to
d e t e d e the level of dynamic forces these structures are subjected to during earthquakes.
It is noted that the niain difference between the seisrnic behavior of classical transmission
line towers and self-supporting telecornmunication towers arises from the dynamic
interaction between the tower and the cables suppotted. If it is possible to shpliQ this
interaction, aseisrnic design of transmission towers could be based on analysis methods
similar to those for self-supporting telecommunication towers.
1.2 Objectiva
The aim of this study is to achieve the foliowing objectives:
1. To propose a simplifiai static method that can be used in evaluating the member
forces in self-supponing telecommunication towers due to both vertical and horizontal
earthquake excitations. This is done by proposing a representative acceleration profile,
which is combined to the rnass profile dong the height of the towers. The produa of these
two profiles yields a profile of lateral inertia forces. The structure is then analyzed
aatically under the effect of these forces.
2. To assess the sensitivity of the towers to the vemcal wmponent of the
earthquake accelerations.
3. To evaluate the relative importance of the dynamic interaction between the
cables and their supporthg towers in uansmislon I i systems.
4. To adapt the proposed srnplified static method for transmission line towers, if
feasible.
1.3 Orynization of T u t
Chapter Two: A literature review is presentecl, which includes the work concernai with
gened dynamic anaiysis of both telecommunication and transmission towers as
well as seismic analysis of such structures. The review also covers seisrnic analysis
of other tower-shaped structures (such as offshore towers and intake outlet
towers), and relevant code approaches and design recommendations.
Chapter Three: A brief description of the essential structural chacteristics of the
telecommunication and transmission towen used in the study is presented. The
main recornmendations and conclusions reached in a prelimlliary investigation
(Sackmann 1996) on teiecommunication towers are presented as these results are
integrated with the m e n t work. The data base of the eanhquake records used in
the current study is also briefly discussed.
Chapter Four: Earthquake amplification factors for telecommunication towers are
presented for both horizontal and vertical excitations. Thea factors are meant to
be a first step in assessing the global level of forces expected to develop in
telecornmunication towers as a resdt of earthquake ground motions.
Chapter Five: In this chapter the scientific background of the proposed simplifieci method
is briefly reviewe, after which the basic concept of the proposed methoci is
explained. The simplified method's coefficients for the horizontal earthquake
excitation are then given based on the classification explained in Chapter 3. The
applicability of the proposed static method is then verifid through numerical
cornparison baween tower member forces obtained using dynamic ruialysis and
those using the propose rnetho. Selected earthquake inputs are used in this
comparison in addition to the NBCC response spectrum (NBCC 1995). Coefficients
for the vertical earthquake excitations are dso presented, which are used to
calculate the member forces due to vedcal excitation. A comparison between the
forces obtained firom dynamic analysis and those obtained using these coefficients
is also presented for selected earthquake records. The presence of antennae is also
studied to show the change in tower behavior when heavy antenna clusters are
added. The addition of these antemae is accounted for through two generic cases.
Chapter Sv<:This chapter deds with transmission line towers. The study provides more
insight in the relative effect of the cables and the towers on the dynamic behavior
of the iine system.
Chapter Seven: In this chapter the findings and conclusions of this research are highlighted
in addition to the limitations of the work. Suggestions for relevant funre work are
also included.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE: REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Earthquake loads are not routinely considered in the design of telecommunication
and transmission line structures even in high seismicity regions. This neglect is tolerated
without proper justification or complete understanding of the issue. in areas with IOW
seismicity this may be justified as wind effects will kely govem member design. However,
in areas with high seismicity, stresses in tower members or connections and tower
movements due to earthquake loading may indeed exceed the effects of other environ-
mental loads.
Most of the published work on lattice towers is devoted to the analysis of these
structures under wind. For transmission lines, some exceptional loading cases were dso
studied including cable breakage, ice shedding and galloping conductors. A review of the
relevant publications on dynamic wind and earthquake effects on lattice towers and tower-
shaped structures is presented in the following sections. Design code approaches are also
reviewed which pertain to buildings and safety-related nuclear structures.
2.2 Dyoamic Responr o f SelC-supporthgLatticc Towm
2.2.1 Response tu wind
Chiu and Taoka (1973) were among the nrst to present a rational experimental and
theoretical shidy on the dynamic response of self-supporthg lanice towers under r d and
simulatecl wind forces. A thne-legged, 46 m t d sdf-supportecl lanice tower was inSrni-
mented to study its dyaunic respnse to win forces. The tower was also ideazed as a
space tmss with masses lumpe at the horizontai panel points. Cornpuison of the
measured dynamic properties of the tower indicated agreement with the calculateci values.
The validity of tbe cornmon assumption of uncoupled motion between the two principal
horizontal directions was also conirmed. The study showed that the tower response to
wind is essentially govemed by the hdamental mode of vibration. The average damping
for the fundamentai period was fond to be 0.5?6 of the critical viscous damping value,
which is considered very low.
More recently, Venkateswarlu et al. (1994) conducteci a numencal study of the
response of microwave lattice towers to random wind loads. The dyiamic response was
predicted using a stochastic approach, and a spectral analysis method (fhquency-domain)
was proposed for calculathg the dong-wind nsponse and the resulting gust response
factor. The gust response factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum expected wind
load effect in a specifd time period to the corresponding mean value in the same t h e
period. A fiee-standing four-legged tower of 101 m height was used as a case study. The
variation of the gust response factor dong tower height was calculateci with and without
the contribution of the second and higher laterai modes of vibration of the tower, and it
was found that the maximum contribution of these higher modes to the p s t response
f a o r was only about 2%. The gust response &or obtained using the proposed stochas-
tic method varied between 1.55 and 1 S8 dong the height. Vdws dculated using the
formulae recornrnended by the Indian (IS1875-1987), Australian (AS 1 l70-2-1989),
British (BS 8100-1986) and American (ASCE 7-88-1990) standards, were found to be
2.03,2.21, 1-93 and 1.89, respectively. Cornparhg these r d t s , it was concluded that the
standards values are consemative with Merence in the order of 2CE-4 to 40%, at least for
the case study considered.
In two very inportant papen on the dong-wind response of lanice towers,
Holmes (1994,1996) proposed closed-form expressions for the gus response factor for
both the shearing force and the bending moment dong tower height. The genenc tower
used in this study was idealized with linear taper and d o m solidity ratio u, that the drag
coefficient was kept constant. The mass per unit height of the tower, m(r), was assumed
to Vary with the tower elevation, z, according to the foliowing exponential relation:
nt@) = m O ( l - &@y) (2-1)
where
m.= rnass per unit length of the tower at the base
h = total height of the tower
k and y are empincal constants determineci so that m(z) best fits the actual mass
distribution of the tower.
In this study, only the effect of the lowest flexural natural mode of the tower was consid-
ered, which was assumed to take the following exponential shape, pi(s):
m(r>=($Y (2.2)
where p is al= a constant determined so that pi(=)best fits the calculated mode shspe.
Using the previous assumptions, expressions for the gust response factors for the shearing
force and the bending moment were obtained in a closed forrn.

It should be noted that three response components were hcluded in the denvation of the
previous expressions namely, mean, background and resonant response. The reader may
refer to Holmes (1994,1995) for a complete explmation of the tms used.
These expressions wae then compare to those rccommended in the Australian standard
AS 1170.2-1989 and were found to be in agreement. The advantage of the proposed
expressions over the currentiy used is the inclusion of more factors to account for the
effects of various parameters associateci with characteristics of the wind and the structure.
An expression for the aerodynamic damping of the tower, due to the relative motion
between the tower and the surrounding air, was also derived as a ratio of critical viscous
damping. In addition, a closed-form expression for the deflection of the top of the tower
was proposed combining three components of deflections (namely the mean, background
and resonant components). The effects of the tower height, taper ratio, and mean velocity
on the gust response factors were also studied. Finaily, the work was extende and simpii-
fied to predict an &ective static load distribution, including the mean, background fluctu-
ating and resonant components of the wind.
2.2.2 Seismr'c raiporue
One of the nrst publications discussing earthquake effects on antenna-supporthg
lanice towers was authored by KOMOand K i m m (1973). The study aimeci maidy at
colecting information on tower vibration mode shapes, n a t d equencies and darnping
properties. A r d case study of a tower that was instrumentai wben the 1%8 Off-Tokachi
earthquake occurred was presented. The coiiected data was analyzc and compand with
numerically sinilulateci resuhs obtained Born a simplined stick mode1 of the tower with
lumped masses and a viscous damping ratio of 1% in di modes. In some members, it is
interesting to note that the earthquake forces were found to exceed those due to wind.
This was confhed by observation of local damage and pemment deformations at the
tower base &a the emthquake.
More rezently, Milnis (1994) studied the seismic response of self-supporthg
telecommunication t o m ushg modal superposition analysis. The aim of this prrliminary
study was to improve understanding of the response of these towers to euthquakes. Six
towers with height ranging ffom 20 m to 90 m were modeled: bare towers only, i.e.
without antennae, attachmmts, anciliary components etc. Three earthquake records were
selected as the base excitation. A detaied iinear dynarnic analysis was performe using
modal superposition, and it was concluded that the use of the lowea four lateral modes of
vibration provided suflicient accuracy. The f'requency of the fbst axial mode of the towers
was found to be in the range of 11 to 43 Hz, which was either not present in the ffequency
content of the earthquake records used or corresponded to smail amplitudes of input
accelerations. As a resdt, the effects of the vertical component of the earthquakes proved
negligible.
A bst attempt to propose an equivaient static method for the adysis of lattice
seif-supporting telecornmunication towers was made by Mvez (1995). The method was
based on modal superposition, conside~gthe &ect of the lowest three flacural modes of
vibration of the tower. As self-supporthg towers behave essentially as cantilever beams,
Wvez suggested the use of naturai fiepuencies and mode shapes expressions deveiopc
for prismatic d e v e r s . The &e*s of taper ratio and shear deformations were included
by means of correction factors to the classical solution for prismatic Euler cantilevers. The
proposed expression for the naturai frequency of mode i, J,is:
where
L = tower height
Ho=flexural rigidity at the tower base
m.= mass per unit length at the tower base
The parameter L (essentially a dimensionless fiequency) is defined as:
1 = bFc,Fc,
where
hb= freguency parameter for prismatic cantilever

F* taper correction factor
Fa= shear correction factor.
The expression for the corresponding flexural mode shapes, +,(x), is
4,(x) = cosh((A,XIA!)
- cos(A,xIL) - a,[sinh(lx/L)- sin(rl,x/L)]
where
The base excitation simulated by Galvez was a sinuraidai wave with maximum amplitude,
e quai to the peak ground acceleration defined by the National Building Code of Canada
(NBCC 1995) for the tower site. The acceleration profile of the tower response, u(r, t), for
a sinusoida1ground motion is given by:
0 = g
~(1, z:, #I(~)~(&Mn,
a,,
t) (2-7)
where
y(L,) = 2o,/,
R = forcing fiequency of the sinusoidal input wave

CO, = 2nJ
ci(S2, al,t)= dynamic amplification bction for mode i
For R t o,and using the frequency ratio #?,

= au,.
0(R, O,, t ) = -
h (sin w ,t - 8, sin W)
1 -Bf
At resonance in mode i, R = o,,
a(C2, cul,t ) = +(sincu,t+ o i tcos w l t ) (2.1 1)
The base excitation is assumed to be in resonance with each of the lowest three flexural
modes considered, and the modal accelerations for i=l, 2, 3 are calculated. Using the
Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS) method, these relative modal accelerations are
combine and the acceleration profle dong the tower is eslimateci with eq. (2.7). D d e d
dynamic analysis using a total of 45 base accelerograms was used to validate the method
for three existing towers with heights of 90, 103 and 121m. Based on these results, simpli-
fied acceleration profiles were proposecl depending on the AN ratio (peak ground accel-
eration to velocity ratio) of the accelerograms. The inertia force distribution was simply
found by multiplying the acceleration profile by the mass profile. The structure was then
analyze under the eEct of these quivalent "static" inertia forces. Although simple, the
method did not always give good esthates for the intenial forces. For the main legs in
genera, the metho yielded consemative values accurate enough for prelimlliary design.
However, the results were not systematicllly reliabie and conse~8tivefor other chgona1
and horizontal members. The range of Merences baween the force predictions and the
dynamic d y s i s rewihs for horizontal members was betwan -70% and +45%, and for
cross bracings it was in the range of -35% to +25%. The method was M e r iimited to the
tower geomey used in the study, Le. a taper ratio (change in width dindeci by taper
height) less than 1:14.5, a d a total length to tapered length ratio less than 1.15.
A draft of the Amencan TS 13 National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program
(NEHRP) for non-building structures was released for comments in 1996, whae a simple
design equation (eq. 2.12) for seKsupporting telecommunication towers was suggested. It
was recommended that seKsupporting telecommunication towers be designed to resist an
earthquake lateral force, Y, appiied at the centroid of the tower and calculatecl using the
followhg equation:
where
V= Iateral force
Sal= site specific design spectrai acceleration at nominal penod of 1 second

I = importance &or (I=1.O for standard towers, 1.25 for essential or post-critical
towers)
W=total weight of tower including aii attacbments

R = response modification b o t
T= hdamentai pend of the tower in seconds.

This equation was meant to resemble the maximum base shear equation used in most
building codes. Howmr, the bais on which the equation was developed is not clear. Ale0
ody the bdamental mode of vibration is considerd in this approach, which is not
accurate for this type of structure: it was first demonstrateci in Mihis (1994) and later
verified in Galvez (1995) and a v e z and McClure (1995) that the contributions of both
the second and third f l e d modes are usually significant.
2.3 Dynamk Response o f Transmission Line Structures
The study of the wmplex dynarnic problem arising fiom the coupled behavior of
the tower-cable syaem attracted several researchers. Some of them investigated the
dynamic loads on transmission towers due to galloping of the conductors (Baenziger et al.
1994). conductor breakage (McClure and Tinawi 1987 and McClure 1989), ice shedhg
from the cables (Jamaleddine et al. 1993) and the fiee vibration of the coupled system
(Ozono et al. 1988 and Ozono and Maeda 1992). However, moa of the published work
on seismic analysis of transmission lines involves either the tower or the cable alone
without considering the coupled tower-cable problem.
Long (1974) was among the first to publish on the seisMc response of transmis-
sion towers. more or less at the same period as the pioneering midies on the d y d c
response of telecommunication towers to wind and earthquakes (Section 2.2). Long
neglected completely the effcts of the overhead conducton. The study was later extendeci
to evaluate the forces exerted by the conductors on the tower. The lanice transmission
tower mode1 was divided into two parts: The top part consistecl of the prismatic part and
the cross anns supporting the conducton, and was ideaiize as a flexible unifonn cantiie-
ver. while the bottom part was simply assumed to be a rigid body. The absolute
displacement of the fl&e cantilever p d o q u ( ~ t ) ,was then appronmited by the
foliowhg equation:
where
z(t) = gound displacement
hdx) = deflection curve for n o 4 mode of vibration k
/dt) = displacement response to the ground motion of a simple osclatory system

in mode R
rn = rmiss per unit length
1 = length of flexibie cantilever portion
E = flexurai rigidity
qt)= ground acceleration
c&) = deflection due to static uniform looding =k(f)'- + ( f ) 3 + +(fl2
AL = dimensioniess fiequency, positive root of the equation 1 +cosh A cosl = O
for mode k
k = mode nwnber.
Eq. (2.13) is therefore the summation of the horizontal ground displacexnent, the displace-
ment nsponse of the structure to the ground motion using modal aipaposition, and a
correction to the defieaion d t i n g Born the diffrcnce of acceIdon loadin8s of
ground motion and fia niration. The defiedon at the top of the towa was evaluated
using eq. (2.13), assuming that the maximum values of cach of the thne tams in the
quation ocarncd sim-usiy. A nspoiw spectrum was used to cvaluate the
&um value of the response f'unction At), and the rnaxhurn values of the ground
displacements, *t), and accelerations, a),

were obtained Eom the earthqualce records.
M e r ail these caiculations for a case study of a 43 m transmission tower, it was concluded
that the entire tower moved rigidly with the ground and that no amplification of stresses
was produced by the ground motion. The second part of the study aimed at caiculating the
force exened by the conductors on the tower due to the earthquake excitation, assurning
compatibility of tower motions with conductors motions. Three orthogonal earthquake
directions were considered namely, transverse, longitudinai and vertical. The forces calcu-
lated in the three cases were found to be very small and could be resisted safely. It should
be noted that the tower used in the study was a relatively rigid one havhg a lowest
fiequency of vibration of about 5 Hz.
Kotsubo et al. (1985) perfonned dynamic rneasurements on three transmission
towen before and after installation of the conductors. The purpose of their study was to
determine the effkcts of the conduaon on the dynarnic characteristics of the towen. The
three towers used were two strain towers (with conducton directly anchored to the
tower) with heights of 92.5m and 68.5111,

and a suspension tower with height of 92.2m.
The results were published for the case of the suspension tower only. The natural frequen-
cies and modes of vibration of the tower were calculated using both a plane tmss model
and a space truss model. Ambient vibration measurements for the tower were taken kfore
the installation of the cables. The naturai frequencies, modes of vibration and damping
prophes were extracted from these rneasufernents using FFT anaysis. M e r the Unrlla-
tion of the ables, forced vibration tests ushg an exciter were carried out. The exater was
set up on the third ann from the top of the tower. It was obsemd t h t then wae no
signincant changes in the natural fkquencies and the modes of vibration of the tower
before and &er the cable suinging, which suggested that the dyhamic interaction between
the cables and towers is uisignificant for suspension towers. The damping ratio of the
tower was found to be in the range of 0.2 to 2.096 of the critical viscous damping. The
eanhquake responses were then calculated using the plane truss model and the space truss
model ignoring the presence of the cables. For the plane uss model. the responses were
calculated for both the longitudinal and the transverse direction to the transmission be.It
was concluded that it is sufficient to model the tower as a plane truss.
In a more recent study conduaed by Li et al. (1991) models for long-span trans-
mission line systems under earthquake effects were presented. The study included the
derivation of mass and aifiess matrices for the tower-cable coupled syaem for the Ion@-
tudinai and transverse directions. For the vertical direction the mass of the conductors was
calculated and lumped at the appropriate joints. For each of the three principal directions a
dynamic analysis was carried out using three earthquake records namely Qian'an (China),
El Centro (USA) and Ninghe (China). The analyses were done for the foiiowing t h e
cases for cornparison:
I- The discretized model of the tower without the conductors;
11- The discretized model of the tower with the mass of the conductors lumped at relevant
tower joints;
III- The coupled tower-conduaor model.

It was found that for the venical ground motion the seismic response of mode! is -ta
than that of model 1. For both the lated and longitudinal ground motions, the r-nse of
mode1 was pater than that of modd , which in nirn was gr- thea that of modd 1.
It was concluded that the & i s of the conductors on the seismic responx of their
nipponing tower are not negligible and should be taken into consideration.
Li a al. (1994) studied the seismic response of high voltage overhead transmission
liaes. In the study the tower was discretized as a lurnped rnass multi-degne-of-fidom
system in the horizontal direction and assumed rigid in the vertical direction. It was Mer
assumed that the supporthg towers vibrate in phase with each other. Each cable span was
divided into five equal straight segments, the mass of each being lumped at its ends. The
ground motion was assumed acting in the longitudinal direction of the line. The equation
of motion of the coupled tower-conductor system was presented using the previous
assumptions. A numerical example was presented in which a 55 m height tower with
conducton spannuig 400 m was analyzed under the effe* of horizontal earthquake excita-
tion. Three earthquake records were used in the study, namely El Centro (1940) repre-
senting a sofi site, San Femando/Pacoima Dam (1971) representing a medium-st3f site
and Olympia (1965) representing a stiff site. Two models were used in the analyses: one
conside~gthe presence of the conductor (model 1) and one negiecting the presence of
the conductors (model II). However, for model II it was not mentioned whether or not
the mass of the conductors was included in the analysis. Displacements and shear forces
were compared for the two models and it was found that neglecting the presence of the
cables could resuit in an underestimation of up to 66% (in case of the P a c o h Dam earth-
quake) in the shear force evaluated at the tower base. It was -ore concluded that the
tower cable interaction greatly affects the seismic response of the towers and neglcaiDg
their presence may lead to unde prediction of intemai forces in the tower membas.
In a pretimuisry study, El Attar et al. (1995) investigated the respoIlSe of

transmission h e s under the effect of vertical seismic forces. The tower used in the study
was modeled by plane mss elements while the cables were modeled ushg two-node
straight elements taking geomeaic non-linearities Uito consideration. Damping of the
supporthg towers was assumed to be 2% of the critical viscous damping (h ali modes)
while that of the cables was taken as only 1%. The tower done was subjected to a
horizontal sinusoida1 ground acceleration of 0.28 g representing Viaona (Canada) in
accordance to the NBCC 1990 recommendatiom. From this analysis the maximum
displacement of the tower at the top level was determined, which resulted mainly fiom the
contribution of the first mode of vibration. However, this conclusion should not be gener-
alized as it contradicts most of the published work in this area of interest (Mikus 1994,
a v e z 1995 and a v e z and McClure 19951, which suggests that at least the lowea tfuee
modes of vibration should be inciuded in the analysis. This conclusion might be suitable
for short and stiff towers in which the higher modes are not likely to be triggered by an
earthquake. The cable was subjected to the vertical component of two earthquakes, San
Fernando for low A N ratio and Parkfeld for high A N ratio, after being scaled to a peak
ground acceleration of 0.21 g representing of the horizontal component prescribed for
Victoria. The vertical displacement of the cable at mid span was cdculated and it was
found that the displacement resuiting from the low A N earthquake was more than four
Urnes the response due to the high AN eenhquake. The e f f i of the change in the
damphg ratio of the cable on its response was also investigated and it wes found more
pronounced in records with low AN ratio as a change in the damping value fom L% to
4% resulted in a decrease of 32% in the displacement at mid span in cornparison to a 22%

decrease for the high AN ratio. The study did not report any anaiysis of on the wupled
tower-conductor system.
Ghobara a al. (1996) proposed a simpliiied technique to investigate the effca of
rnultiplasupport excitation on the response of transmission lines. In this study, the towers
were modeled as space tmsses wMe the conductors were modeled using linkages of
two-node straight elementq duly accounting for geometric non-hearities. In modehg the
ground motion dong the transmission line three factors were identified namely, wave
travel effkct resulting from finite sped of seismic wave, incoherency effect redting fiom
refldon and refhction of seismic waves and finaily site effect. However, only the first
two factors were accounted for stochastidy in the study. A numerical example illustrated
the suggested technique in which the maximum lateral displacements of the cable dong the
span, maximum force in tower members and maximum tension in cables were evaluated
for different wave velocities and considering incoherency and wave travel effects. Three
conclusions were drawn fiom the study: Firstly, conside~gthe same ground motion for
all supporting towers does not produce the worst case for design. Secondly, although the
velocity of wave propagation has a signifcant effect on the lateral displacement of trans-
mission lines, the incoherency of seisnic wave is more significarit. Thirdly, the increase in
cable tension due to lateral gound motion is sma.
As a veq aude approximation, Kempner (1996) aiggested d y z i n g transmission
towers staticay under the efct of a single lateral force acting at the tower's center of
u s , using the same equation as presented in the case of oelf-supporthg telecornrnunica-
tion tower (eq. 2.12).

The definitions of the t m s are the same as for the case of seKsupporting towers (see
section 2.2.2), except that W is the tower dead load without including the weight of the
supported wires. The same lateral force is applied in both the longitudinal and transverse
directions. If it is found that eaIthquake loading is kely to govern the design, a more
detailed laterai force disibution or modal anaiysis is suggested.
2.4 Seismic Response o f Tower-shaped Structuns
Due to the scarce information available in the terature available on seismic analy-
sis of lattice seW=supportingtowers, the search is duected towards other srnichires that
behave essentidy as cantiievers, namely offshore towers and intake-outlet towers. The
a h of this search is to gain insight of the apptoaches used in anaiyzing such structures
under seismic excitation and to h d if a simplified method for anaiysis is avdable.
2.4.1 S h * c rrsponse of offshore t a w e r ~
P e ~ e and
n Kaul(1972) studied the response of offshore towers to strong motion
earthquakes. In their work, the response spehun method of d y s i s was use and
comparai with th& proposed stochastic method. In this proposed method, a mean
ergodic Gaussian proass of finite duration was used as the stochastic model for the
horizontal ground acceleration. The a h of the study was to detmnine the transverse shear
distribution and the ovaturning moment dong the height of the tower without investigat-
h g the individual member forces. The towers wae idealhi as stick models with seven
joints dong the height on which the mess of the tower was lumped. A wndaised stifFiiess
ma& comsponduig to the laterai dispacements of the model was cvaluate, and firom
the mass and &ess matrices of the model, the eigenproperties of the towers (fiquen-
cies and mode shapes) were predicted. The distributions of the transverse shear and
overturning moment were then calcuiated using the response spe- of the eanhquake
excitation considering the contribution of the lowest three flemal modes. The results
were found to be comparable to those obtained with the more ngorous aochastic random
vibration analysis.
Anagonstopoulos (1982), in his work on modal solutions for the earthquake
response of offshore towers, concluded that modal superposition gives good eshates of
the overaii response of the towers. For some members, however, the estimated value of
the bending moment was in an error by about 6%, yet the dinerence in total stress was
less than 13% which can be reduced by increasing the number of modes in the summation.
Due to the uncertainties in the earthquake loadiig, it was suggested to use more e h -
quake excitations instead of increasing the number of modes in the analysis. It was also
concluded that the inclusion of the lowest three modes in each of the three principal struc-
tural directions would be adequate for design purposes.
In the work reported by Chan (1987), response spectnim techniques for multi-
component seismic andysis of offshore platfonns were evaluated. Two plaorms were
modded taking into account the added mass of water. Thee components of earthquake
input were considered, two horizontal components with the ratio 0.67 : 1.O and a vertical
component with 0.5. The study aimed at evaluating the techniques used for modal combi-
nation as weU as seisrnic component combination des. The member forces and stresses
calcuiated using Merent combination niles for both the modal ammation and DEsmic
components were cornparcd with those obtained using d*ailed direct intwtion d y s i s .
The different modal combination d e s studied were the Square Root of Sum of Squms
(SRSS), the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC), and the American Petroleum insti-
Nte (API) method. For difEerent directional seismic inputs, the SRSS and the Multi
Component Quadratic Combination (MCQC)d e s were used. It was concluded that ail of
these combination d e s gave comparable results, and the CQC-SRSS rule was recom-
mended because of its conservatism. As part of this study, Chan aiso checked the error
resulting frorn neglecthg the effea of higher modes (above the eleventh mode) in the
analysis. He concluded that because al1 lower modes are horizontal, the vertical forces
could be underestimated by a tnincated analysis which in m m would Sct the support
design.
2.4.2 SeiSmic rsponsr of intokeiutlet towm
Valliappan et al. (1980) inveaigated the e f f i of earthquakes on the intake tower
of Magrove Creek dam in Australia, using both dynamic and pseudo-static analyses. The
design spectrum approach was uscd as a bais of the pseudo-static analysis considering
only the lowest flexural mode of vibration. The mode shape used was that reported in
(1993) in the form of a cosine hction. The structure was analyreci

Clough and P e ~ e n
aatically under the effe* of inertia forces resuiting fiom multiplying the acceleiation
profile due to the kst mode shape by the mass. Detailed dynamic analysis was also
perfonned and the results obtained fiom both analyses were comparcd. From this
cornparison, it was concluded that the pseudo-static d y s i s conside~gthe lowest
flmiral mode is only an approximate solution. Howmr, this conclusion rnight change if
higher modes were included.

A simplifieci metho for seismic analysis of iatake-outlet towers was later devel-
oped by Chopra and Goyal (1991). The rnethod was used to estimate the maximum forces
in these towers using the design earthquake spectrum. A sirnplified stepby-step procedure
based on the Stodola and Rayleigh methods for the caldation of the lowest two natural
penods was suggested. It was demonstrateci that eonside~gthe lowest two f l e d
modes of vibration is accurate enough for the prelirninary design phase. The procedure cm
be summarized in the following six steps:
1 . Definition of a smooth design spectnun suitable for the site of the tower.
2. Calcuiation of the added mass associated with both the inside and outside water.
3. Definition of the anictwal properties of the tower:
a. Mass per unit height, m&)
b. Flexural rigidity, E&) and shear rigidity, GX(z)A(z)
c. Modal damping ratio, 5.
4. Calculation of the lowest two natural periods of the tower using the proposed sirnplified
procedure.
5. Caiculation of the lateral force distribution for each mode of vibration using a general-
ized singe-de-of-fieedo approach as follows:
a. Detemine the pseudo-acceleration ordinate S. from the design spectnun com-
spondii to period T. and damping ratio 5. .
b. Calculate the gmeralized mass M. and the generalized excitation tem Lmusing
where
H,= tower height

#.(z) = lateral displacements of the tower in the nb vibration mode.
c. Caldate the equivaent lated foras&') using the foiiowing expression:
6. Calculation of the umxhum shear and bending moment at any section dong the tower
height using the SRSS modal combination method.
It is noted that the method for estimating the lowen two natural periods is accurate if the
variation in the tower cross-sectionai properties cm be expressed in a closed form. Since
self-supporthg lanice towers u d y have irregular changes in their cross-sectional
propenies, the use of this method will only give crude estimates for the natural periods.
Also, a cornputer program was suggested for the implementation of the propod proce-
dure, which means that it is not such a "simplified" procedure.
2.5 Design Code Approaches for Seismic Anilysis
Merent design code approaches for the aaalysis of structures under h q u a k e
loads need to be reviewed. In addition to the few avdable approaches for the analysis of
towers under seismic effects, the recommendations for two other types of structures
m e l y Safi-related nuclear structures and buildings are presented.
2.5.1 Co& appr0lu:h.e~for iffmwnt ypcs ufslnictum

The ASCE 1986 standard on seisniic anaysis of Safi-relatecl nuclear structures
suggests acceptable anaiysis mthods and provides the mahodology and the input ground
25
motion to be used in calculating the response of such structures. The standard defines two
methods for specifyuig the seismic input, nameIy design spehun and input ground
motion time history. The horizontal component of the earthquake spectral ordinates
(absolute acceleration Sa, spectrai velocity S, and spectral displacement S d ) are obtained
by applying dynamic amplification factors to the corresponding maximum values of
ground motion (acceleration a, velocity v, and displacement d)obtained from the response
spectmm. These amplification factors depend on the amount of damping and are given as
ratios of &,a, S;v, and Sdd. The standard requires the use of two equal horizontal earth-
quake components in orthogonal directions. Two thirds of the horizontal component value
is used as the vertical cornponent of the input. If tirne histories are used. three different
earthquake records should be used in three orthogonal directions. These records must be
selected so as to represent the site conditions.
The standard recognizes four methods for the analysis of such structures: the direct t h e
integration method the response spectrum method, the wmplex frequency method and
the equivalent static method. The first tiuee methods are weU documented in textbooks
(Bathe 1982, Gupta 1992. and Clough and Penzen 1993) and need not be reviewed here.
As for the equivalent static method, the standard resvias its use to cantilever models with
uniform mass distribution. Multidegree-of-fieedom models (MDOF) of cantilevers with
non uniform mass disuibution can be analyze using the static method only if they have a
dominant lowest mode of vibration. In this case, the equivaient static load is detennined by
multiplying the structure's mass profile by a unifonn acceleration profile of magnitude
equal to 1.5 times the peok accekration of the response specmm. For cantilever m c -
nues with uniform mas6 values of 1.O and 1-1 applied to the peak specarl aderation rn
used to determine the tower base shear and base moment respectively. The justification of
these values is not presented in the standard. The total response for the thm components
of seismic input is then calculated using the SRSS combination d e .
The usual approach suggested in building codes for seismic anaiysis of regdar
builduigs is to evaluate a global base shear value (Paz 1994). The base shear is then
distributed dong the height of the structure assuming that the lowest mode of vibration is
dominant and that the lateral displacement varies linearly with height. The National Build-
hg Code of Canada (NBCC 1995) specifies the minimum design base shear by the foiiow-
ing equation:
where
R = force modification factor
U = calibration factor = 0.6

V,= equivalent lateral seismic force.
The value of V. is given by the oUowing equation:
Y,= v s m
where
v = zona1 velocity ratio derived fiom the probabilistic study of the ground motion
S = seismic response factor which is a bction of the fuadamental penod of the
structure and the relative values of the velocity zone, Z, and the acccleration
zone, 2,
I = importance fctor
F = foundation factor, which depeads on the soi1 conditions at the site.
This base shear force is assumed to wunteract distributecl seismic forces dong the height
of the structure, given by:
where Fi is a concentrateci force applied to the top of the building to acwunt for the effct
of higher modes and can be calailateci using the fouowing equation:
wMe W and h are the floor weight and elevation, respectively and n is the number of
stories.
It should be noted that the code recornrnends dynarnic analysis using the response
spectrum method and modal techniques for buildings with imguiar stiffness andior mass
distributions.
2.5.2 Smdords and c& of piwctice for lmvcrs
It is important to review the approaches folowed and the recornmendatious set
forth in the M i n t standards for earthquake design of towers to stand at the level of
knowledge available to the designers.
in its 1994 edition, the Canad'i Standard Antenms, Tawers and Antemvl
s S37-94 has introduced a n m appendix (Appendix M, not a

Suppomng S ~ t n r c ~ eCSA
mandatory part) which addressed the issue of seismic anaiysis of lattice telecommunication
towers, both &supporthg and guyed. In this appendix it is statcd that since most
self-supporting telecommullication towers are typicaliy of high fiequaicy cornpand to
dominant fiequencies of earthqualces, s e h i c effects are not likely to be signifiant. The
appendix therefore recommends that a fiequency analysis of the tower be perfomed to
allow for the identification of the tower's sensitive equency range. If this range coincides
with the fkquency content of the dynemic loading, detailed dynamic analysis should be
performed. If seismic analysis is required, modal superposition should be used for self-
supporthg towers only with modal viscous damping ratios between 1% to 3%. It also
suggests to use accelerograrns or earthquake spectra based on the seismicity levels
prescribed by the NBCC for the tower site.
The Australian Standard AS 3995-1995 Design of steel lanice towers and m a s

also contains an informative appendix (Appendix C) which includes geaerd guidelines for
earthquake design of such structures. In this appendix it is stated that seKsupportiag
lanice towers with height up to 100 m with no significant mass concentrations need not be
designed for earthquake effects. For towers with signifiant mass and height of more than
100 m or lesser height but with significant mass concentrations, it is suggested that they
may be exposed to base shears and overtumhg moments approaching ultimate wind
actions. However,this standard does not offer any guidance as to how to estimate the
tower response.
The Eurocode 8 Design Provisionsfor Earth~uakResistunce ofStmctures ENV
1998-3 (1995 draft) devotes a wmplete pari to towers, mas& and chimeys (Part 3). This
part comains a description of basic design rcquirements, seismic action, modehg consid-
erations and methds of aiialysis. It is emphasized that the design pbosophy of this code
is O! maintain the fhction of the structure a

d to prevmt any anger to nearby b d d i n g
or fadites. However, the code does not provide protection against damage of nonstnic,
tural components. The code suggests several methods to describe seismic input: elastic
response spectnrm, smoothed design spectrum and tirne history representations using
either amficial accelerograms or recorded strong motions. A complee section is devoted
to mathematical rnodeling which hcludes the rocking and translation stifhess of the
foundation. For e l d e a l transmission towers, the code sptcifidy rquires that the
mode1 include a line section of at ieast thra towers (four spans) in order to obtain an
acceptable evaluation of the coupled tower-cable systun.
The code also provides a simplified method of analysis using design spectra in which the
base shear is calculated using the folowing expression:
Ft = sd(7)xk,w, (2.21)
this value is then istributed dong the tower height using the following expression:
where
K= weight of the P mass

h l elevation
~ of the i* mass fiom the base
S s design spectrum ordinate conesponding to the hdamental period
T= fndamental period of the tower.

However, the code clearly stipulates that this approach is limited to unimportant structures
with height less than 60 m. The code also ailows the use of both modal superposition
analysis and non-linear analysis.
The Unifonn Building Code UBC 1997 devotes a specific section (No. 1632) to
earthquake resistant design of non-building structures. Howeva, for telecomm~cation
towers, tbis section does not speafy any procedure different nom the one used for build-
ing structures. It is suggested that when an approved national standard provides a seismic
design procedure for a certain type of non-buiiding structure, such procedure may be used
under the foiiowhg conditions: the seismic zones and occupancy categones must wnfonn
with the UBC, and the total base shear and overtuming moment calculated must be
gram than 8% of the values obtahed using the UBC approach. At this point it hould
be noted that the philosophy of the UBC is to Meguard u@mt major structural failrres
and loss of Ive, not to l h i t h a g e or mazntainfunctiun, wwch is completely different
than the philosophy b e h d the provisions for seismic design of towers in which the main
concern is to maintain the towers' hctionaiity.
In a recent report (EU,1998) released by the seismic cornmittee of the Electronic
industry Alliance / Telecommunication Industry Association EIA/TIA several recomrnen-
dations about the seismic d y s i s of steel antenna towers are made. The objectives of the
cornmittee were as follows: To define a methodology for use in seismic analysis of towers,
to identiS, simple but conservative assumptions to maLe the analysis easier, to provide
acceptable methods for more ngorous anaiysis techniques and to identifytower chanicter-
istics which inicate if seismic analysis shodd be performed. At present, however, these
objectives are not al met in a satisfactory way. The cornmittee recommends to follow the
same approach as used in the Uniform Building Code UBC 1997, which is htended for
bding structures and is not suitable for towers. The total design base shear value is
caldatesi using the foliowing expression:

where
V= total design base shear
Z=seismic zone factor

I= importance factor equal to 1.25 for important or hazardous facilities and 1.O for
special or standard fadities
W=total dead load

S= site coefficient
T= fiindamental period of the tower in seconds.

Mer obtaining the base shear it is distributeci dong the tower height in the same manner
as prescribed in the UBC 1997. The EIA/TIA report dso contains a study performed in
order to obtain a threshold criterion that can be used to determine whether a seismic
analysis is vuly needed or not. To this end, a cornparison between base shear values
obtained from wind efkcts and seismic effects was done. From this study it was concluded
that it is unlikely for seismic effects to control over wind. It shouid be noted, however,
that seismic calculations were &ed out using the UBC base shear equation which makes
this approach questionable.
2.6 Concl\isions
From this literature review it can be sem thrit seisrnic analysis of self-supporthg
telecommu.nicationtowers has received linle attention. Also, the work done in other fields
cannot be applied diredy to sessupporting lattice towers. Since the designers are left
without much guidance to assess if a detailed dynamic anaiysis is requked, earthquake

effbcts are usualiy ignored. For short towers and low ri& scismic a m this may be accept-
able. However, in high ri& areas and for taIl towers the designer should be able to
perfonn at least a simple -tic anaiysis as a quick design check. Therefore, a shplified
static method is proposed in this thesis. The method is based on modal superposition and
the response spectrum approach. It is anticipatecl that the proposed method will give
reliable estimates of the member forces and in most cases pedomiing a detaiied dynamic
analysis wiii become unnecessary.
Analyses of transmission towen under seismic excitation were conducted for
paninilar systems such as very @id towers, suspension towers with relatively light
conductors and very long spans with heavy conductors. The researchers were divided
among themselves into two groups. The first one neglected the tower-wnductor imerac-
tion effects, and even went further by not including the mass of the conductors. The
second group recommended the performance of a detailed anaiysis of the towa-conductor
syaem. As lanice transmission towers are similu to self-supportingla& telecommunica-
tion towers part of this work is devoted to vying to h d an equivalem added mas to
replace the effect of the conductors. If this proved feasible, the work could be extendeci to
investigate the applicabiity of the proposed simplified mahod for telecommunication
towen to transmission towers. if not, this work could suggest oome novel approach
tailored to overhead iine systems.

3.1 Teleconmunication Towm Used in the Study
Ten existing three-legged self-supporthg lanice steel telecornmunication towers
are used in this mdy with heights ranging from 30 m to 120 m: they are representative of
the range of towers usually erected in Canada. Table 1 lias some important charactens-
tics of these towers including their total mass and calculated natural periods corre-
sponding to their fundamental flexural and axial modes of vibration in ail1 air. It should
also be noted that these values are based on caiculations made for the bare conditions,
without including the mass of the antennae and other non-structural attachments.
The geometric layouts of the ten towers are illustrateci in Figs. 3.1 to 3.10; it
should be noted that secondary or redundant memben are not shown on the figures,
however their mass are included in the analysis.
Table 3.1 - Characteristics of the telecommunication towers studied
Base Top Fundamental Fundamental

Tower Height Width Width Totai Mass Flexural Penod Axial Perid
(m) (m) (m) [kg) (s) (s)
TC 1 30 5.0 1.2 3,400 0.23 0.029
TC2 42 7.8 1.8 9,900 0.33 0.047
TC3 66 10.8 1.8 27,000 0.54 0.071
TC4 103 21.8 1.5 48,000 0.55 0.085
TC5 76 12.1 1.6 32,200 0.59 0.070
TC6 90 14.8 1.8 42,300 0.67 0.088
TC7 83 10.4 2.4 27,000 0.69 0.073
TC8 90 11.9 1.8 36,000 O.76 0.081
TC9 55 6-1 1.2 10,800 0.79 0.064
TC10 121 14.4 2.0 66,200 1.20 O. 122
Fig. 3.1 Layout of towa TC 1 (dimensions ire in m)
Fig. 3.2Layout of tower TC2 (dimensions are in m)
36
39
Fig. 3 -6 Layout of tower TC6 (dixnemiionsare in m)
Fig. 3.7Layout of tower TC7 (dimensions an in m)
41
43
Fig. 3.1O Layout of tower TC 1O (dimensions are in m)
3.2 Numerid Modding of Telecommunication Towm
The towm are modelai as hear elastic three-dimensional structures with beam
elements for the main legs and truss elements for the diagonal and horizontal members.
The supports are idealized as pinned on rigid foundation. The mass of the main legs and
their tributary members (bracing members spannhg between the legs without any interne-
diate joint) are lumped at the corresponding leg joints. For tniss memben spanning
between the legs with intemediate joints, the mass is lumped at the appropriate leg joints
so that the member itself is assumed massless. Al1 secondary or redundant mernbers are
removed fiom the &ess mode1 since they do not take any load in a Ihear analysis.
However, the$ mass is calculated and lumped at the C O K ~ S Q leg

O ~joints.
~ ~ ~
3.3 Classificatioa of Tclecommunicrtion Towtn
In this study the classification of the towers adopted by Sackmann (1996) is
followed, where the towers are classified with respect to three main characteristics
namely, the quivalent taper ratio D, the shear coefficient at the base K, and the a/L
(length of truss paneYtower height) ratio of the largest panel.
Fig. 3.1 1 Deihition of the main symbols used in categoriPn8 the lanice towers
The equivalent taper ratio is given by:
where
Ir= second moment of area of the main leg sections at the top
Io= second moment of a r a of the main leg sections at the base.
In calculathg the second moment of area of the main leg section either at the base or at
the top, the following expression can be used:
I= i~~
x&
the symbols used are defined Fig. 3.1 1.
The shear coefficient of the tower at the base is caculated using the shear coeffi-
cient for prismatic beams caldated for the elements of the tower at the base and using the
foiiowing expression:
in the previous expression the shear parameter depends on the ratio of the cross-
sectional areas of the leg and diagonal memben and the length and depth of the tniss
element, as foiiows:
z(a)- 1
9 = 2Ar for cross-braced trusses, and
AL
= SAD(=)
C 3
for chevron-braced tasses
Two groups of towers were identified (labele as A and B) for which a predictor
of the lowest three Bexural modes of vibration was proposeci. The most important
parameter used in classi@mgthe groups was the a/Lratio of the largest element. From the
tower data used in the study a k t of dL = 0.1 is the bounary ktweai the two groups.
Group A was m e r subdivided into two subgroups Al and A 2 Subgroup Al has an
equivalent taper ratio D = 0.1 to 0.2, while subgroup A2 has an equivalent taper ratio D =
0.2 to 0.3. The prediction of the mode shapes is presented in a polynomial fom. Tables
3.2 and 3.3 show the different classification parameters and the mode shapes suggestcd for
the two groups. It shodd be noted that tower TC4 was not included in this prediaion as it
has a profound taper ratio (width at the top to width at the base ratio) of 14.5 which is
higher than that of the remaining nine towers considerd in this study having taper ratios in
the range of 4.2 to 8.2.
Table 3.2 - Classifcation of towers according to Saclmiann (1996)
Table 3.3 - Prediction of the lowest three flexural modes

x2.2
91
Group Al k -2.9x2 + 3.v+ .7x4
b- .&r + 5 . 4 -~21.99
~ +1 6 . 7 ~ ~
41 x23
G ~ o A2
u~ k - 4 . 4 ~+~5 . 1 9 + .3x4
-
1.Sx + 7.3x2 3 1.2x3 + 23.4x4
41 xU
Group B k -2. lx + 1.4x2+ 1.7x3
3.&+ 1.Q-51x3 +81x4-34xs
In the m e n t study, the classification adopted by Sackmann (1996) is followed but
some modifications were made for the lowest flexufal mode shape. This is done because
Sackmann's prediction of the lowest mode is an average for the two groups and it was
found beneficial to use a specific prdction for each group as will be dimssed later.
3.4 Transmission Line Towen
An investigation is carrieci out to assess the appiicaiiity of the proposed simpli-
fied static method to transmission towers, focusing on the effea of the conductors on
tower bebavior. This study aims at h d i q an equivalent mass that can replace the mass of
the conducton in order to reflect the r

d behavior of the tower-conductor coupled
system. To this end, a fraluency anaiysis of the tower-conductor system is perfonned
using the wmputer progr&n ADINA. A frequency andysis of the tower alone is perfomed
and the equivaimt mass of conductor is determineci. Potential dynamic interactions
between the cables and the tower are evaluated. Six existing transmission towers are
studied for power lines of voltage level rmging from 120 kV to 450 kV.Table 3.4 shows
the basic dimensions and the lowest flexural periods of vibration in both the longituciinal
and transverse directions for the six towers.
-
Table 3.4 Characteristics of the transmission towers studied
Height Base Top Total Fundamental Fundamental

Tower Width Width Mass FIexural Period Flexural Period
(m) (m) (m) (kg) Transverse (s) Longitudinal (s)
TRI 48.15 16.50 2.00 13,500 0.298 0.287
TR2 41.60 7.50 1.35 5,500 0.300 O.298
TR3 48.50 10.50 1.50 6,500 0.42 1 0.416
TR4 34.90 2.00 1.30 5,ooo 0.462 0.461
TR5 58.00 11.60 2.00 13,000 0.472 0.464
TR6 36.50 1.95 1.30 4,500 0.482 0.48 1
Fig. 3.12 Layout of tower TRI (dimensions m in m)
49
Fig. 3.13 Layout of tower TR2 (dllnensiom are in m)
10.3

Fig. 3.16 Loyout oftower TRS ( M o n s are in m)
Fig. 3.17 Layout of tower Ta6 (dimensions are in m)
The layouts of the six towers includiag the basic dimensions, section categories are
iuustrated in Figs. 3.12 through 3.17. It should be noted bat member subdivisions and
other attachments are not shown in these figures.
3.5 Modding and Anaiyds of Transmission Tonen
Transmission towers are modeled as three-dimensional lanice structures, in the
sarne way as the telecommunication towers (discussed in seaion 3.2). The main legs are
modeled as m e elements while al1 other elements an modeled using tmss elements. In
modeling the cable, however, two-node tensionsnly uss elements with prestresshg
force are used. The tower main legs are assumed to be pinned on rigid foundation. The
mass and that of their tributary members are lurnped at the corresponding leg joints includ-
ing the mass of truss members having intermediate joints. When modeling the coupled
tower-conductor system, the mass of each cable element is cdcdated and divided equally
on its two end nodes. However, when replacing the conductor with an equivalent mass,
this rnass is lwnped at the appropriate cross-am joint or at the top of the tower for the
case of the overhead ground wire.

The coupled towerconductor system problem involves geometric non-Linearity
due to large displacements of cable joints and therefore requins mon computation effort
than the tower alone. The modal rnethod of analysis is no longer vad and a stepby-step
procedure is used. However, after removhg the cables, the tower alone is treated in the
sarne mamer as telecornmunication towets.

3.6 Earthquake Records Used in The Study
A set of 45 strong motion earthquake records obtained om 23 different events, as
listed in Table 3.5. is used in the present study. This set of accelerograms was previously
used by Tso et al. (1992) in an investigation of the importance of the peak ground accel-
eration to the peak ground velocity ratio (AN) as an indicator of the dynamic characteris-
tics of an earthquake.
The data set was compiled from earthquakes that occurred in many places in the
world to include a vast range of seismological conditions. The effect of localized soi1
conditions is not included in the present audy as ail sdected accelerograms were recorded
on rock or stiff soil sites. It should also be noted that both near-field and far-field records
were included in this set, and dl records have a peak ground acceleration equal to or
p a t e r than 0.04 g.
Three groups of records were identified in accordance with their maximum AN
ratio, namely low, for records with AN < 0.8 @/S. intermediate, for records with 0.8 g 5
AN <1.2 g/rn/s and high, for records with A N > 1.2 gWs. A complete description of the
earthquake component, magnitude, maximum ground acceleration, maximum ground
velocity, source distance and soil conditions can be found in Too et al. (1992). A graphi-
cal representation of the 45 accelerograms together with their response spaxra (evaluated
for 3% damping) is presented in Appendix A.
These records are used as both horizontal and v e r t i d base accelerations. The
records are not scaled or adjusted in any way in the analyses. Howwer, in the case of
vertical aderations, the a c c e l d o n values are reduced to 75% of th& originai values
to be consistent with the recommendations set forth by muiy design codes for
safety-related nuclear structures and building codes (ASCE 4-86 and NBCC 1995). A
distinct set of 55 vertical earthquake components coilected from 17 different events is alw
used in this study, a list of earthquake names, magnitudes and dates can be found in
Appendix C.
Table 3.5 - Earthquake records used in the shidy
Earthquake Mapitude No. of records Date

Long Beach, California Md.3 2 10/03/1933
Lower Califoda M L 6~ . 1 30/12/1934
Helena, Montana M~4.0 1 3 1/10/1935
Imperia1 Vailey, California M~4.6 1 18/05/1940
Kem County, California Mp7.6
San Francisco, Cafornia ML=S.4
Honshu, Japan M ~ 4 . 4
Parkfield, Califomia ML=S.6
Bonego M a , California ML+. 5
Near E. Coast of Honshu Japan MU=7.9
Lytle Creek, CalSomkt M L 44.
San Fernando, California Mt4.6
Central Honshu, Japan Mw=5. 5
Near S. Coast of Honshu Japan M d 7 . 0
9
Near E. Coast of Honshu, Iapan &=S. 8 1 11/05/1972

Near E. Coast of Honshu, Japan MM=7.4 1 17/06/1973
Near E. Coast of Honshu, Iapan &=6.1 1 1611111974
Oroviile, Caiif'omia ML=S.7 1 1/08/1975
Monte Negro, Yugoslavia M&. 4 1 9/04/ 1979
Monte Negro, Yugoslavia ML=7.O 1 1 5/04/1979
Banja Luka, Yugoslavia Mp6.1 1 1310811981
Michoacan, Mexico -8.1 5 19/09/1985
Na)ianni N.W.T., Canada Nk6.9 1 23/12/1985
MJMA = lapan mctcOrologicai a g a q scdc
ML= I d magnitude
Ms = surfact wave magnitude
CHAPTER 4
EARTHQUAKE AMPLCFlCA'MON FACTORS FOR
TELECOMMUNICATION TOWERS
4.1 Introduction
Earthquake amplification factors for self-supporting lattice telecommunication
towers are suggested based on a numerical modeling study perfomed on the ten towers
useci, each being subjected to the set of 45 accelerograms. The dynamic analysis is carried
out using modal superposition method with a unifonn damping ratio of 3% of the critical
viscous damping for al1 modes considered in the analyses as mentioned before. Each towa
is analyzed twice under the effect of the same earthquake, once applying the accelerogram
in one of the two principal horizontal directions, and then considering 75% of the same
accelerogram acting in the vertical direction to be consistent with the NBCC 1995. From
these simulations the value of the base shear and total vertical reaction are obtained.
Simple regression analyses are performed on the results nom which horizontal and vertical
amplification factors are found.
These factors are presented as fnctions of the tower's largest flacutal period or
liugest axial period of vibration as appropriate. When multiped by the tower mas, these
factors can be used by designers to estimate the expected level of base shear and vertical
telecommunication towers due to an earthquake

reaaion developbd in ~e~supporting
event. Vertical earthquake amplification factors are presented in Appendix C using a
distinct set of 55 vertical eaRhqMke records.

4.2 Metbod of Andysis
The modal superposition method is used for the analysis, as irnplmented in the
commercial software SAP90. The number of modes considered varied with each tower, the
main concem being to ensure that at least 90% of the total mass is panicipating in the
horizontal direction and 85% of the total mass is participating in the vertical direction. The
damping ratio is taken as 3% of the critical viscous damping and kept constant in al1
modes included in the analysis. It is important to note that the results reported in this
chapter are those of the dynamic analysis without including the static response due to
seKweight .
4.3 The Use of NBCC 1995
It is paramount to realize that there are important differences between the behavior
of buildings and that of self-supporting telecommunication towen. While mon buildings
respond to horizontal earthquakes essentially in their lowest lateral mode of vibration, it is
not the case for self-supporthg towers whose lowest three flexural modes are usually
significantiy excited.
To illustrate this point, the ten towers used in the study were dynamically analyzed
for their base shear values ushg the NBCC 1995 design speanim shown in Fig. 4.1, which
has three zones Za<Z, Z.=Z and Zt>ZY, where 2. is the acceleration-related seismic zone
and 2, is the velocity-related seismic zone. The modal superposition method was used in
these analyses and two sets of base shear values were dcuated, the f
h c o n s i d e ~ gody
the lowest flexura mode while the second included the effects of the lowest three flexural
n
modes. It shouid be noted that although the NBCC design speanun is giwn for 5%
damping, it was used in this study for illustration purposes ody. The base shear values
obtained tiom these analyses are given in Table 4.1 for a peak horizontal ground velocity v
= 1 mis. As expected, including only the lowest flemal mode greatly underestimates the
maximum base shear, the percentage of error ranging from 14% to 70h . This confirms
that it is essential to include at least the lowest thm flexural modes in the analyses in
order to capture the response of these structures under horizontal excitation.
t
O
O 0.5 1 1.5 7
Penod, s
Fig. 4.1 NBCC 1995 acceleration design specvum evaiuated for 5% damping
-
Table 4.1 Base shear values using the NBCC 1995 design spectnim
Base shear @cNl Base shear [kNl

considering thne f i e d modes conside~gthe lowest flexufal mode
Tower Z A ~ V ZA=Zv ZA>ZV ZAC& &=ZV ZA>&
To fiirther prove the inability of static methods used in builcihg codes to predict
the seisrnic response of towers. the base shear values were also calcuiated for the ten
towers ushg the static approach of the NBCC 1995. The lateral elastic seisrnic force, Y,, is
given by the foilowing expression:
Y, = VSIFW
where
V,= elsstic base shear in N
v = zona1 velocity ratio
S = dimensionless seismic response factor
F = foudation factor
W = dead load in N.
In these caicuiatioas the importaace factor, foudation factor and zonai velocity ratio were
taken as Umty. The results are given in Table 4.2. Comparing these base shear values with
the resuits obtained fiom the response spectmm analysis presented in Table 4.1, it is clear
that the static code expression consistently overestimates the tower base shear values.
Table 4.2 - Base shear values (in kN)using the NBCC 1995 static approach
ZA<& ZA=Zv ZA>ZV

Tower W S VI S Ys S v'
TC1 3.3E+04 2.100 70 3 .O00 100 4.200 140
From the previous discussion it is conclude that it is necessary to perfom
dynamic analysis in order to hclude the lowest thme flexural modes as the base shear
expressions recornmended by building codes consider the fbdarnental lateral mode only.
It is dso evident that the building code static approach is not suitable for
tdecommunication towers. Moreonr, most building codes do not account for the effects
of the vertical ground motion, which may be important for telecommunication towen.
Therdore, it is necessary and useful to derive earthquake ampfication fctors spaaficaiiy
for seKsupporting tel~~~mrnunication

towers.
4.4 Horizontai Earthquake Excitation
in order to study horizontal force ampiification factors, each tower is subjected to
each of the 45 earthquake records selected. From this anaiysis, the resulting shear force at
the base of each tower is recordeci. The base shear vaiues are then plotted versus the peak
ground acceleration, peak ground velocity ancl W y A N ratio. The purpose is to tuld the
correlation, if any, between the base shear and each of these characteristics of the ground
motion.
The results obtained for the ten towers are shown in Figs. 4.2 to 4.11. It is seen
that the ten towers follow the same trend and that strong correlation exists between the
base shear values and the peak ground acceleration of the earthquake. Furthemore, the
relation follows a bear trend. Therefore, linear regression anaiyses were petformeci on the
results obtained for each tower in order to find a relation between the base shear values
and the peak ground acceleration. It is observed, however, that the correlation of the base
shear does not seem to be as good with the peak ground velocity (Figs. 4.2.b to 4.1 1.b)
and that practidy no correlation is found with the AN ratio (Figs. 4.2.c to 4.1 1.c).
For each tower, the value of the maximum base shear is divided by the tower mass
to obtain a dimensionless factor relating the peak ground acceleration and the dynamic
magnification values. Regession analyses an then performed on each of the three
predefined groups of accelerograms narnely, low, intermediate and hi& A N ratios, as
weli as on the entire set. The resuhs of these analyses are !ummuhd in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 - Linear repsion analysis for the maximum base shear
Low A N Inter. A N Hi& A N Entire Set

Tower Slope R2 Slope R' Slope R' Slope R'
1.71 0.67 1.63 0.69 1.40 0.70
1.84 0.91 1.67 0.84 1.37 0.96
1.58 0.67 1.48 0.89 1.00 0.70
1.59 0.55 1.61 0.80 1.45 0.93
1.44 0.70 1.58 0.83 1.00 0.78
1.3 1 0.70 1.36 0.93 0.86 0.56
1.69 0.80 1.47 0.85 0.96 0.87
1.21 0.63 1.21 0.87 0.80 0.81
1.08 0.86 1.07 0.87 0.76 0.67
1.20 0.89 1.04 0.83 0.67 0.92
R value: d c i e n t of correlation
Fig. 4.2 Maximum base shear values for tower TC 1
Fig.4.3 Ibximum base shear values for tower TC2
Fig. 4.4 Maximum base shear vahies for towa TC3
67
Fig. 4.5 hdaximum base shtar vaiues for tower TC4
Fig. 4.7 Maximum base shear vaiues for towa TC6
Fig. 4.8 Maximum base s h w vaiues for tower TC7
Fig. 4.9 Mhxhum base shear values for tower TC^
AN. pimls
Fig. 4.10 Maximum base stiear vaiues for towa TC9

Fig. 4.11 M d w n base shear values for tower TC 10
For each group of r e d t s the horizontal force amplification factor (maMmum base
shear / tower mass x peak ground acceleration) is plotted versus the fundamental flewral
period of vibration of the corresponding tower, as s h o w in Fig. 4.12. It is noticed that the
plotted data foUows a descending trend in which the tower with srnallest fundamental
flexural period bas the largest amplification factor. Penomiing h e u regression analysis
once again, relations between the horizontal force amplification factors and the
fundamental flexural period of vibration are obtallied. Multiplying these factors by the
mass, M,and the peak ground acceleration, A, the following expressions are obtained for
estimating the maximum base shear:
Vh= M x A x ( 1 . 9 4 - 0 . 7 4 ~ T f ) forlow ANratio,
C ; i = M x A x ( 1 . 9 0 - 0 . 7 7 x T f ) forintemediate ANratio,
C i , = M x A x ( 1 . 6 0 - 0 . 9 0 x T f ) forhigh ANratioand,
V h = M x A x ( 1 . 7 8 - 0 . 8 2 x T f ) fortheentiresa
where
= base shear, N
M = total mas of the tower, kg
A = peak horizontal ground acceleration, m/s2
7 j = fundamental Bexurai period of vibratioq S.
More discussion of these results follows in section 4.6.

(a) low A N A
(b) Intermediate AN
Lowest flexural period, s
(d) Entire set
L
3 1.6
--.. - Eq.(4.5)
Y - +- Eq.(4.10)
.s -
12 - .-
3
2 0.8 -
a
O 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4
Lowest fiexu~alpcrio, s Lowest flcxurai pcriod, s
Fig. 4.12 Base shear ampfication factors

4.5 Vertid Eirthquake Excitation
The towers are also analyzed considering the 45 earthquakes acting in the vertical
direction. The values of rnaxhnurn vertical r a d o n at the tower base are plotted versus
the peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity and A N ratio as before. Figs. 4.13 to
4.22 show the results obtained for the ten towers, and it is seen that a similar trend is
followed by al1 towers. As in the case of maximum base shear the correlation between the
maximum vertical reaction and both the peak ground velocity and AN ratio does not
appear very strong. However, excludhg the results obtained for the record with peak
ground acceleration 1.05 g (Nahanni earthquake), the relation between the vertical
reaction and the peak ground acceleration follows a straight line.
Linear regression analyses are then performed and Table 4.4 swnmarizes the
results for the ten towers. Similar to the maximum base shear, the maximum verticd
reaction is dividex by the pr0hCt of the tower mass by peak ground acceleration in order
to yield a dimensionless factor representing the importance of the dynamic ampiification of
the response.
Table 4.4 - Linear regression analysis for the maximum vertical reaction
Low A N Inter. A N Hipsi A N Ente Set

Tower Slope R2 Slope R' Slope R2 Slope R2
TC1 0.60 0.99 0.61 0.99 0.55 0.97 0.58 0.97
TC2 0.70 0.96 0.65 0.99 0.66 0.98 0.67 0.98
TC3 0.79 0.94 0.82 0.93 0.84 0.92 0.82 0.93
TC4 0.88 0.90 0.91 0.88 0.90 0.93 0.90 0.91
TC5 0.83 0.92 0.80 0.86 0.89 0.88 0.84 0.88
TC6 0.95 0.82 1.00 0.75 1-04 0.89 1.01 0.84
TC7 0.93 0.79 0.90 0.81 0.92 0.84 0.91 0.83
TC8 0.88 0.89 0.92 0.85 0.86 0.86 0.88 0.86
TC9 0.73 0.96 0.76 O.% 0.77 0.94 0.76 0.95
TC10 1.25 0.58 1.29 0.72 1.27 0.66 1.27 0.70
R value: coefficient af corrclaition
Fig. 4.13 Total verticai dynarnic reaction for towa TC 1
Fig. 4.14 Totai vertical dyaamic reaction for tower TC2
i
-a 300 1
f :
I
g zoo
.LI
-
6
> 1
si-
.a 300 -
g
@
Fig. 4.15 Total vaticai dynamic reaction for tower TC3

Fig. 4.16 Total vertid dynemic readon for tower TC4
Fig. 4.17 Total vatical dynsmic reaction for tower TC5
C
l
I mw@& , ""A
O O, &, l 1
Fig. 4.18 Toul vertical dynsmic rcaction for tower TC6

100 t n n
Fig-4.19 Total vertical dyManc reaction for tower TC7

- zoo
.-
6
>
Acc. cmiS"2
Fig. 4.20 Total verticai d y d c r d o n for tower TC8

Fig. 4.2 1 Totnl venicai dyniimic reaction for towa TC9
Fig. 4.22 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC10
The vertical force amplification factor is plotted versus the fundamental axial
period of the tower, for each of the four einhquake record groups, in Fig. 4.23. Contrary
to the maximum base shear response (see Fig. 4.13), the data foiiows an ascending trend
in which the tower with lowen fundamental axial period of vibration has the smallest
amplification factor. Linear regression analyses are perfomed folowing the same
reasoning as in the base shear case, in order to define relations between the vertical force
amplification factor and the fiindamental axial period of vibration of the tower. Mer
multiplying these factors by the tower mass, M,and the peak ground acceleration, A, the
following expressions are obtained for estimating the maximum vertical reaction:
Vv = M x A x (0.36 + 6.76 x T a ) for low AN ratio.
:b = M x A x (0.3 1 + 7.58 x T a ) for intemediate A/V ratio.
Z\=MxA x(0.31 + 7 . 6 8 x T a ) forhighrnratioand,
Vv = M x A x (0.32 + 7.45 x T a ) for the entire set
where
Vv= total maximum vertical reaction, N
A = peak horizontal ground acceleration in m/t?
Ta= fundamentai axial period of vibration, S.
It should be noted that when applying these expressions to calculate Y , the peak
ground acceleration should not be multiplied by 75% as this constant is aiready included in
the results. A M e r discussion of these results is presented in d o n 4.6.

(a) Low A N (b) Intermediate A N
1.4 ! 1
1.3 - a 1.3
I
-3 --
J 1.2
1.1
/-
,
'
/
,'
1
Q-
L
0 1.2 L
1.1 b /=
/-
1
E 1 - y' . 5 I L J
= 0.9 -
8 .
i
.
C. . -0
a 0.9 1
*=0.8 -
O
f 0.8 !-
I
E 0.7 -
.O
C) ,y+
< 0.6 1 */s" -4 Eq. (4.9)

Eq.(4.1 1) 1
0.5 * 1 0.5 L
First Avial Period. s First Axial Period, s
Fig. 4.23 Vertical reaction amplification factors

4.6 Dbcussisn
From the previous redts it is seen that dyaaaric force amplifications foUow
opposite trends for vertical and horizontal excitations, as a bction of hdamental period
of vibration. This point is clarifieci by studying the average acceleration response spectrum
evaluated for the four series of records for 3% damping ratio, and normaiized with respect
to the peak ground acceleration (Fig 4.24). This figure shows three distinct regions. The
first one is characterized by increasing spectral accelerations in the short period (h~gh
fiequency) range of 0.05 to approximately 0.15 s (4 to 20 Hz). The second one covas a
range of periods of 0.15 to 0.33 s (3 to 6 Hz) for which the spectral accelerations are
maximum and rem& more or less constant. F W y , the third region shows decreasing
spectral accelerations for longer periods of 0.33 to 1.25 s (lower frequencies 0.8 to 3 Hz).
This is in agreement with the kdings for the total dynamic vertical reaction resulthg fkom
the excitation of the fundamental axial modes of the tower, and the base shear resuiting
tiom the fhdmenta! flexurai modes of the towers respectively. It should be noted that
several design spectra follow the sarne ascending-descending trends around approximately
a period of 0.25 s (4 Hz), as reportai by Gupta (1992).
In general, the results indicate that ciass@ing the accelerograms with respect to
their AN ratio does not contribute to improve the accuracy of the estimateci values of
maximum base shear or vertical reaction. As these expressions are oniy for estimating the
level of the dynamic forces developed in towers due to horizontal and vertical earthquake
excitation, it is recommended that only the expressions for the entire set be used. The
d u e s of the maximum base b a r and totai vertical reaction estimatd using eqs. (4.5)
and (4.9) are dram in Figs. 4.25 an 4.26, respectively, with the vahies obtaimd fkom
Fig. 4.24 Acceleration response spectra evaiuated for 3% damping
detailed dynamic analyses for TC3. Similar graphs are presented Ui Appendix B for the
nine remaining towers. in order to obtain an upper bound to the expected level of dynamic
forces, one standard deviation is added to the numerical factors of eqs. (4.5) and (4.9) to
yield the following expressions:
Vh= M XA x (1.91 -0.66~7") (4.10)
V, =Mx A x (0.36+8.01 x Ta) (4.11)
These upper bound values of the amplification &ors obtained are drawn in Figs. 4.25
and 4.26, for comp~soawith those obtained using the average parameters of the
regressions in eqs. (4.5) and (4.9), respectively.

Fig. 4.25 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground acceleration in TC3
Fig. 4.26 Maximum dyMmic vertical reaction vs. pet& ground acceleration in TC3
4.7 Conclusions
In this chapter two expressions were proposed to estimate the values of the
maximum base shear and total verticai reaction of self-supporting telecommunication
lattice towers, baseci on the tower mass and fundamentai periods (lateral and axial) and on
the peak horizontal acceleration at the tower site. These expressions are valid for towers
with regular geometry and heights up to 120 m. They have not been vedied for taer
towers but it is expected that the trends should be similar. Furthemore, it is important to
realize that these expressions are not proposed for detailed member design purposes but
only as an approxirnate method to assess the seisrnic sensitivity of towen in the
preliminas, design phase.
These simple seismic response ndicators may help tower designers decide whether
dynamic loads are ikely to infiuence the 6na design and consequently whether more
refined anaiysis (either static or dynamic) is necessary.
As a fiirther aep in the seismic analysis of telecornmunication towers, the next
chapter proposes a simplified equivaient static method of analysis. The method will deal
with both horizontal and vertical eanhquake excitations.

CHAPTER 5
PROPOSED STATIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS
5.1 Thcoretid Background
As was mentioned in Chapter 1, this study is based on the modal analysis method
and the response spectrum approach. A quick review of the equation of motion, the
response spectrum approach and modal analysis theory is presented hereafter for
completeness.
5.1.1 Equatio~of d o n and m o n s e spectmm
The equation of motion of a discrete parameter single-degree-of-fieedom system
(SDOF)under the effect of base excitation is given by:
mt(t) + cti(t) +ku(t) = -rny,(t) (5.1)
where
s = the base acceleration
m = rnass
k = stifhess
c = viscous darnping constant
4u and u = relative acceleration, velocity and displacement respeaively, with
respect to the moving base, and are bctions of t h e t.
This equation can be solved using Duhamel's integrai, and the solution is given by:
= -1-1:
*)
ma, -m)$(*-C-)gin~)~(t -~)df (5.2)
where
C
is the viscous damping ratio =
cu and c u =~ undamped and damped circular fiequency of vibration respectively, in
rads.
For small darnping ratios (ECO.10, cuo = a>), this equation can be written in the fom:
u(t) = 1 y,(r)e)e-C@")sin o(t - r)& (5.3)
Taking the first derivative of (5.3) with respect to tirne:
ii(l)= Io,(r)e<MY cos* - s)dr - < J;j,(r)e-CNw) s i n w - r)dz (5.4)

Substituting the previous two equations into the forced equation of motion given by:
f(t) = - W u ( t ) - cu2#(t) (5.5)

The expression for the absolute acceleration, rit, is then given as:
The absolute maximum values of the quantities given by (5.3), (5.4) and (5.6) are the
spectral relative displacement S&,T), the spectral relative velocity S,,(c,), and the
spectral absolute acceleration S&,T), respectively. It is now beneficiary to introduce a
new spectral value, the s p d pseudo-velocity S ' i ,2):
S&, ?) = I1; y,(z)e-Ce) sin CO(t - r)dZ

, 1
The relative spectral displacement is gben by:
tams of the pseudo-velocity as:

Sa(& 0 = SP(Y n (5.9)
which is called the pseudo-acceleration and is denoted as Sp(&!'). The pseudo-
acceleration caa be used to estimate the maximum elastic force, f,developed d u ~ the
g
earthquake using the relation k = a h :
fs = k Sd(CY9= m Spa(. I) (5.10)
5.1.2 Modor anaysis
The total displacement, u, of any linear system can be evaluated using the sum of
the modal components as follows:
U(X, t ) = u&, t ) + u&, t ) + .....

t ) + UJ(X, (5.11)
One can rewrite the previous equation so as to separate the two variables in the following
fonn:
where &) is a fnction of position only, while Hi) is a fiindon of t h e only. The main
objective of this separation of variables is to tnuisform the continuous or the muiti-degree-
of-fieedom (MDOF) system to a set of uncoupled algebraif quations reprrsentiPg SDF
systems. The total response of the system can be obtained by solving these equations using
the mode shapes of the total structure. Throughout the course of this work the cantilever
models were assumed to be continuous rather than lurnped parameter systems which
meaus that the mode shapes and mass distributions are given in c l o d form expressions.
Therefore, it is oniy necessary to frther discuss the seismic response of continuous
system.
5. 1.3 S&mk mpollse of conbiutoussystems
The equation of motion of a continuous system cari be expressed in the following
fonn:
fdx, t) +f~(x,1) +fs@, 1) = 0 (5.13)
The t e m in the previous expression are inertia force, damping force and elastic force
respectively. Restrictiag the displacement of this system tc a single shape, mode shape i
for instance, as describeci in section 5.1.2, and applying a Wtual displacement of the form:
du = i) @y& (5.14)
equation (5.13) is reduce to:
fi,6y +/D& +f~.&= 0

where
f~j = I;fi(~t)#i(x)rfc (5.16)
~ D =J!;fo(x,t)#i(xw (5.17)
fss = Jifs(x, t)h(x)mc (5.18)

are the generalized inertia force, the generalired damping force and the generalwd elestic
force for mode i respectively. Both damping and elastic forces depend only on the relative
motion of the systern. However, imrtia forces depend on the total accelerstion and are
given by:
fi& 11 = m(xM i W ! O+m(x)ys(t) (5.19)
Substituting (5.19) into (5.16) the generalized inertia forces can be expresscd as follows:
fi, =fit) 1; #i(x)n,(x)#i(xW +y&)jk m(x)#i(xm =$(tWi+jJs(t)Li (5.20)

in which Mi and Li are the generalized mass and the excitation factor for mode i. The
expressions for the generaiized damping force and generaiized elastic force c m be written
in the foliowing foxms:
f~~= Cd (5.2 1 )
~ S =J K a (5.22)
where
Cl= generalized dampiug of mode i
K= generazed stiffness of mode i.

Substituthg (5.20), (5.2 1) and (5.22) into (5.19, the equation of motion of the general-
ized SDOF representhg mode i can be expressed as:
M,y(r) + C d t )+ KA!)= -L&(t) (5.23)
dividing by Ml,
substituthg Ci = 2o1(,A4,and neglesting the sign of the right-hand side,
the equation of motion of the SDF system can be written in the foilowing form:
Using the response spectmm technique, the maximum acceleration profle of mode i is
given by:
and the contribution of mode i to the maximum elastic force acting on the structure is
given by:
It should be noted that the previous discussion is me for both discrete and continuow
systems with djustments in definitions For disrete systans the mass, StifFness, and moe
shapes are given Ui ma& and vector fom, while in continuous systems they are
expressed as hctions of the coordinate qstem used.
For continuous cantilevers, the modal shear force (Y,) and bending moment (Mfi)
at any
relative position x are given by:

L,
VI&)= I; m(x) O&) M; Spo(Cr,Ti) d~ ( 5 -27)
and
These modal contributions can be combined using the SRSS method to yield an
estimate of the total maximum response. Considering the three lowea f l d modes, the
total response can be expressed as follows:
and
MAX)= v f ~ pM, ~ ( x ) ~
w here
V(x) = intemal shear force
MAX)=internai bending moment.
5.2 Propose Method For HorizonW Euthquake Excitation
The proposed method is based on the definition of a horizontai acceleration profile
that c m give the same value of shear or bendhg moment at each tower seaion as the
value obtained tiom the SRSS combination of the thne lowest f l d modes. Fig. 5.1 is
a schematic representationof the concept of the proposed method.

For the evaluation of the acceleration profile, the self-supporthg tower is assumed to be a
continuous pismatic cantilever systmi with rigid base^ The mass profile and the lowest
three flexural modes of the tower are therefore assumed to be known in closed form. The
prediction of the fiexwal mode shapes and the mass profile is presented in the work done
by Sackmann (1996).
Using eqs. (5.29) and (5.30) the transverse shear and the bending moment can be written
in the fonn:
and
from which the expression for the acceleration profile a(x) can be extracteci. Mer investi-
gating several towers, it was found that using the acceleration profle obtained fkom
matching values of the bending moment, eq. (5.32), rather than the shear force, eq. (5.3 1).
gives better preictions for the leg member forces. However, eq. (5.3 1) is more accurate
for diagonals and horizontah. Since the seismic forces developed in horizontals and diago-
nals are usually low and therefore not Uely to govern th& design, it was decided to use
a@)obtained fiom eq. (5.32). Accordingly, the expression for the acceleration profile a(x)
is given by:
where the arefiicients al to a6 depend on the lowest three flexurai mode shapes and the
mess profile of the tower. The values suggested for these coefficients are disaissed in
detaii later.
In order to dernonstrate the potential of the proposed methoci, results obtained for
Tower TC9 are reported hereafler. It should be noted that the coefficients al to as of eq.
(5.33) were caicuiated using the actuai mode shapes and mass proiiie of the tower.
The tower is analyzed using three differeat earthquake accelerograms acting
horizontaiy dong one p ~ c i p a direction.

l The earthquake records used are San Fernando
(1971) N61W for low AN ratio, California (1952) S69E for intemediate AN ratio, and
Parkfield (1966) N65W for high A N ratio. The tower was fkst analyzed using the
sohare SAP90 utiiizing the response spectnun option and including the lowest thra
flexural modes of vibration.
The acceleration profiles were then calculated ushg eq. (5.33) for each eanhquake
record and are given in Fig. 5.2. An examination of this figure shows that the resulting
acceleration profiles do not have the same shape for ail accelerognuns. For the San
Fernando and Cafomia earthquakes (low and intemediate A N ratio) the acceleration
profile does not change sign dong the tower height. However, the acceleration profile of
the Parkfield earthquake (high AN ratio) is characterized by a change in sign. The values
of the equivdent lateral forces are obtairied by multiplying the maos and the acceleration
profiles. The tower is then analyzed statidy under the effect of these lateral forces. A
cornparison between the member forces obtained using response spectnim d y s i s and the
proposed method is given in Fig. 5.3. It should be noted that for Tower TC9, mernbers 63
through 69 are leg members. Mer m e m h cire typicai horizontais and diagonals.
E San Fernando
Height, m
Fig. 5.2 Acceleration profiles for tower TC9
100 ! iFcmindo.
San
M
Mernber index
Fig. 5.3 Cornparison between member forces obtained from dywnic analysis
and the proposed rnethod

These resuks show that the forces predicted in the main legs by the proposed method are
in agreement with those obtained using dynamic anaiysis. For some of the lightly loaded
members (other tban the leg members) the dinirence in the two sets of predicted forces is
as high as 30h.However, the design of these members is not iikely to be govemed by this
load-
To generalize the procedure, the coefficients a, to ab which are fnctions of both
the mode shapes and the mass distribution of the tower, should be assigned values based
on the general configuration of the towers. To do so, it is suggested that the mode shapes
proposed by Sackmann (1996) for the Merent tower categories be used in calailahg
these coefficients, except that some modifications are made to the lowest flexural mode.
These changes are made because of the fact that Sackmann (1 996) used the same predic-
tion for the lowest flexural mode of the three groups. In order to obtain the maximum
possible accwacy it was found beneficiary to use a Merent prediction for each group,
which is still within the bounds suggested by Sackmann (1996). The lowest flexural mode
of the three categories defined in Tables 3.2 and 3-3 is as foilows:
((x) = x2.* for group Al (5.34)
#(x) = xU for group A2 (5.35)
#(x) = xZoforgroup B (5.36)
A clos&-form expression for the mass distribution is also necessary to evaluate the
aicoefficients for each category. The mass distribution profiles are found from curve
fitting the mass distributions of the ten towers used in this study taking into acwit oniy
the shspe of the maps distribution, i.e. ushg normaiized fuictions. The following expres-
sions are used to evaluate the ai coefficients:
m(x) = 1- 1.24 x + 0.37 x2 for group Al (5.37)
m(x) = 1 - 1.54 x + 0.87 x2 for group A2 (5.38)
m(x) = 1 - 0.94 x + 0.24 x2 for group B (5.39)
Figs. 5.4 to 5.6 show the lowest three flexural modes of the three categones on the lefi
ordinate while the mess dimibution used in the analysis is plotted versus the right
ordinate. The abscissa represents the relative height x (considering total height equals
unW.
Using the above expressions and equating the bending moment, MAX)of eq. (5.32), at
dEerent levels of the cantilever model, the ai coefficients were evaluated ushg the Mathe-
matica software. The coefficients are plotted in Figs. 5.7 to 5.9.
In summary the following seven seps are suggested to find the equivalent member forces:
1. Calcuiate the lowest three flexural penods of vibration of the tower.
2. Evaluate the mass distribution dong the tower's height and lump the mass at leg
joints.
3. Define a design spectrum suitable for the tower site.
4. Determine the corresponding pseudo-acceleration values for each of the three
lowest f l e d naturai penods and damping ratio ( S',, S' and Sm).
5. Calculate the acceleration profde a@)using eq. (5.33) and the appropnate a,
coefficients using Figs. 5.7 to 5.9.

m & 1 a d 3
+ made 2 f mass
I l
4-5 -0.5
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Relative height, x
Fig. 5.4 Laterd mode shapes and mas distribution for Group Al
Relative height, x
Fig. 5.5 Laterd mode shapes and rnass distriion for Group A2
Relative height, x
Fig. 5.6 Lateral mode shapes and mass distribution for Group B
Relative height, x
-0.2
l
I L ! 1 I l I
O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Relative height, x
Fig. 5.7 The cl, coefficients for Group A l

Relative height, x
Relative height, x
Fig. 5.8 The aid t i e n t s for Group A2

Relative height, x
a)
O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Relative height, x
b)
Fig. 5.9 he ai coefficients for Group B
110
6.Muitipiy the lumped mass at each level by the conespondhg horizontal a&
eration d u e to find the quivalent lateral hertia force profile.
7. Analyze the structure statidy using thes lateral inertia forces as external
loading.
5.3 Verification of the Proposed Metbod
The ten towers used in the study are used to v e w the proposed simplified
method. This is achieved using response specmim analyses petfomed on the towers under
the eEm of the 45 earthquake records separately. The cornputer program SAP90 is used
in this part implementing the option SPEC.The earthquakes are assumed to act dong one
of the principal horizontal directions.
Each tower is classified into groups Al, A2 or B and the corresponding set of ai
coefficients is chosen. The spectral acceleration values corresponding to the lowest three
flexural periods of the tower under investigation are obtained fiom the response spectrum
of the earthquake record used. A set of horizontal forces is then calculated foilowing seps
5 to 7.The intenial forces obtained fiom the equivalent static analysis are then compared
with those obtained using the SPEC option in SAPPO. Fig. 5.10 shows a cornparison
n results obtained Born both analyses and the percentage of error for each leg
b ~ e e the
member force. These results are for tower TC1 subjected to three selected earthquakes
&y: Michoacan, Mexico 1985, NOOE component (L14). Kern County, California
1952, N21E component (N3) and San Fanando, Cafomia 1971, S74W cornponent
(H8).It shodd be noted that these records an selected to repr*rcat the three
AN categories mmely low, intermediate and high. Sirniiar groups of figures are presented
for the other towers in Appendix D.
As it can be s e m from these figures, for the same tower, the percentage of error
Mers fiom one earthquake record to another. For the same earthquake record, the
percentage of error ciiffers fiom one tower to another. Ushg Merent earthquake records
for the same tower resulted in error due to the use of different spectral acceleration values
for the lowest three flexural modes. It was noticed that as the spectral acceleration values
corresponding to the second and third flexural penods hcreases in cornparison to that of
the first f l e x d period, the percentage of error also inaeases which is usuaiy the case for
records with high AN ratio. This is due to the faa that each of the lowest three flexurai
modes contribute to the final inertia force profile, hence the tower nsponse and the degree
of this contribution depends on the spectral acceleration values assigned to each of these
modes. As the a c m c y in predicting the second and third mode shapes is less than that of
the lowest flexural mode, assigning the former two modes higher spectral acceleration
values wiii result in an increase in the percentage of emor. For the same earthquake, the
ciifference in the percentage of error from one tower to the other is due to percentage of
error between the tower aaual mode shapes and the mode shapes predicted for its
category, the latter having been used in evaluathg the afcoefficients.

i 6
5
SPEC 1
h4
rr'
i3
s
1
-
a) Earthquake record L14
35 r 16
l
SPEC 1 5
I
Rops I4
Y
b) Earthquake record N3
200 , 10
c) Earthquake record H8
Fig. 5.1O Member forces for tower TC1

Another s w c e of error is the mas distribution used in evaluating the a,coefn-
cients. As it can be seen fiom Figs. 5.4 to 5.7, the mass distriution along the tower haght
is approxhated as a smooth average curve. However, the w a l mass distribution is
rather discontinuous with heigbt, with discontinuities at the location of horizontal panels.
As the percentage of error varies from one earthquake to another and fiom one
tower to another, it was found beneficiary to investigate the percentage of error when
considering a smoothed response speanim. To this end, the NBCC 1995 response
spectrum was used in the analysis. Each of the towers used in the study was analyzd
assuming the three regions defined in the code, namely Z.cZ,, Z.=Z, and Z,%. The
towers were analyzed using the response spearum method and the proposed static
method of analysis, and the member forces were evaluated. A comparison between the
forces calculateci using both methods was made in Fig. 5.1 1 for tower TC 1. The results
obtallied for other towers are presented in Appendix D. From this comparison it is
concluded that the maximum expected error using the proposed static method with a
smoothed response spe*rum similar to the one used in NBCC will not exceed 25% in the
extreme cases, and the average error is 17% (Figs D.9to D. 16). The maximum e m r was
found to be with tower TC9,this ciifference is due to the fact that thio tower has a mas
distribution which is not typica of the other towers studied.

Fig. 5.1 1 Member forces in tower TC1 uskg NBCC spearum
5.4 Vertid EarthquiLr Excitation
in a preLimiaary study perfonned by Mihis (1994), it was concluded that the

tower's axial modes of vibration are not likely to be excited and that vertical earthquake
accelerations have linle effa on the tower's response. In that study, however, the towen
used were subjected to only t h earthquake records. It was decided therefore to mm-
ine these hdings with the towers used in this research and the set of 45 earthquake
records after scaling them to 34 of their onguial values as mentioned in Chapter 4. From
these simulations it was found that although vertical earthquake accelerations do not
produce forces of the same order of magnitude as those due to horizontal accelerations,
the additional induced forces in the main legs rang& form 0.8 to 2.4 times the forces due
to the tower sdf-weight.
From this study it was also found that only the firn axial mode of vibration is likely
to be excited by vertical earthquake accelerations, at h a for the range of frrquency
content of the accelerograms considered.
The modal method of d y s i s and the response spearum techniques are also used
for the study of the vemcal earthquake excitation. A vertical acceleration profile is
proposed which depends on the tower's first axial mode and rnass distniution.
The fundamental axial mode shapes of the towers used in this mdy are found to
be very close to each other. Therefore an average function was selected, fiom m e
fitting, to represent the mode shape. The lowest axial mode is then given by the folowing
expression:
#(x) = 1 . 4 +~0.4&r2- 1 . + 0.28r4

~ (5 .40)
where
4 = first axial mode shape

x = dimensionless coordinate measured fiom tower base.
An average profile for the mass distribution of the towers used in this stdy was
also adopted to represent the mass distribution of typical towers. The foiiowing is the
expression used:
ni@) = 1 - 1.11~-o.21x2
+0.57x3
w here
ni@) = mass at position x.
It should be noted that contrary to the study of horizontal earthquake excitation, the
towers were not divided into three groups. This is due to the f a a that the fundamental
ouial mode shape of the towers were found to be very close to each other. Hence, eq.
(5.4 1) is simply an average for the mass distributions of the towers used in the study.
The excitation factor and generalized m a s defined in eq. (5.20) for the first axial
mode were calculate, using the previous two expressions, and found to be L = 0.25 and
M = 0.17.
The vertical acceleration profle for the tower is then evaiuated using eq. (5.25)
with the value of the generaiized rnass and excitation fmor for i=l only. The resulting
vertical acceleration profile is given by:
a(x) = S. x (2.0% + 0 . 7 0 -
~ 1~.709 + 0.41x4) (5.42)
where
a(r)= verticai acce1eration at position x
S. = spectral acceldon value.

Fig. 5.12 shows the vertical acceleration profile evaluated for a unit value of S..
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Relative height, x
Fig. 5.12 Proposed vertical acceleration profile
The vertical acceleraion profle takes the shape of the fundamental axial mode multiplied
by 1.47 (the ratio of the excitation factor to the generalized mas) as imped in its deriva-
tion. If in the funire vertical design spectra and peak vertical ground accelerations are
included in design codes, this acceieration profle should be verified as more axial modes
may be significantly excited.
The solution steps for the vertical euthquaLe excitation do not dEer much from
the horizontal case, however they are prcsented here for completeness:
1. Caldate the fundamentai al perbd of vibration of the tower.

2. Evaiuate the mass distribution dong the tower's k g h t and lump the mas at leg
joints.
3. Detemine the corresponding pseudo-acceleration value (S.) for the natural
period evaluated at step 1 and the appropnate damping ratio.
4. Calculate the venical acceleration profile a(x) using eq. (5.42) or Fig. 5.12.
S. Multiply the lumped mass at each level by the conesponding vertical accelera-
tion value to h d the equivaient inertia force profile, acting in the vertical
direction.
6. Analyre the structure staticdy using these vertical inertia forces as extemal
loading.
5.5 Verifkation of the Proposcd Vertical Acceleration Profile
To verify the proposed acceleration profile, the towers used in the study were first
analyzed dynamicdy considering the lowea axial mode of vibration and assuming a
constant spectral acceleration vaiue equal to unity. Then the towers were analyzed again
using the proposed static method of analysis and considering the spectral acceleration
equai to unity. This procedure was chosen since only the lowest axial mode is considered.
Therefore, the response of the towers to different earthquake records can simply be qua1
to the response resulting fiom the unit spectral acceleration multiplied by the correspond-
h g spearal acceleration of the earthquake record.
A cornparison between the forces developed in the main leg manbers for towa
TC 1 using both methods is presented in Fig. 5.13; s d a r figures are presented in A p p d -
ix D for the rest of the towers. From these figures it is seen that the proposed acceleration
profile yields excellent results for ail the towers with a maximum ciifference of *100/o and
an average error of 2% only.
Fig. 5.13 Member forces in towa TC 1 under vertical excitation
5.6 Eff~ctof Coaccntrated Mms of Antennae
The results presented in the previous sections were evaluated considering the bare
towers without accounting for the effkcts of antenna clusters. The coefficients a, to as
presented for the horizontai earthquake excitation as weil as the expression for the vertical
acceleration profile, eq. (5.42), were obtained ushg the mode shapes of the b a n towers.
This approach was justifid due to the fa* tht the arrangement, position, weight and
number of antennae vary sigmficantly firom one tower to mother. As the mode shapes and
mass distribution will chaage to various degrees with the addition of a new antenna it was
found i m p d c a l to consider al1 the possibilities and inchide them in the proposed
metbod. Therefore another approach was adopted to account for the presence of antennae
in the anaiysis. It is proposeci to use the a,coefficients (or eq. (5.42) for vertical excita-
tions) defned for bare towers and account for the presence of the antennae by simply
multiplying its mess by the comsponding acceleration while taking its eccentricity into
consideration.
After hcluding the antennae masses, the telecornmunicationtowers were andyzed
using the proposed approach. The member forces evaluated for towen TC3 (shown in
Fig. 5.14 with antennae arrangements) are shown in Figs. 5.1 5 and 5.16 ushg the NBCC
1995 spectrum for Z.<Z in the horizontal and vertical directions respectively. These
figures show agreement between the forces evaluated ushg the two approaches with a
difference of 7% in average in the case of horizontal excitation and only 3% in the case of
vertical excitation. It was found that using the same approach for towers with heavy
antennae, specidy if' the anteme are located at the top of the tower, will result in ovetly
consemative results. This is due to the tact that the mode shapes and mass distributions
used in evaluating the a,coefficientsand eq. (5.42) will change sigdcantly. However, this
concem should have less and less importance in the fUtm as antennae used in modem
digital transmission have a vexy srnail diameter and are lightweight comparai to conven-
tional rnicrowave d m s .
Fig. 5.14 Tower TC3 with antennae
mess for tower TC3

Fig. 5.15 Member forces incIuding the effectof a n t e n ~
ushg NBCC 1995 for ZaY ratio in the horizontal direction

Fig. 5.16 Member forces Uicluding the effect of anteana mass for tower TC3
using NBCC 1995 for Z,Z, ratio in the vertical direction
At this point it was found necessary to frther study the change in member forces
and base shear due to horizontal earthquake excitations when adding heavy antemue. As
was mentioned earlier, the location, orientation and mass of these a n t e m e depend on the
importance and the main function of the tower. Two approaches were used to account for
the presence of these antennae. The first approach is by lumping an eccentric mass with a
value rmging fiom 5% to 100/o of the tower's total mass at the tip of the tower. The
second approach involves distributhg 10% of the tower' s total mass evenly on one Ieg of
the tower's top prismatic part. The eccentricities of these added masses will ailow to study
torsional effcts. The NBCC 1995 design spectm with its tbree regions was used again in
these analyses. To this end, the four cases studied are as follows:
1. The bare tower
2. The tower with a lmped mass at the top quai to 5% ofits total mass
3. The tower with a lumped mess at the top equal to 1% of its total mass
4. The tower with a m a s quai to 100/o of its total mass distributed dong the top
prismatic part.
For each of these four cases the base shear vaiues, the main leg forces and the forces in
selected diagonal and horizontal members are caicuiated. A cornparison between these
redts and those conespondhg to the bare tower case was then pesformed. Figs. 5.17 to
.--.
5.25 show the results obtained using the NBCC spectnim for Z.<Z.
0.9 :g
2s.
l l ::::I
0.77
3
E
2 0.77
0.7
3 0.63
0.7
=E
8 0.57 0.63
-3
4 0.5 a
-3
0.57
0.5
037 0.43
0.37
0: ~ a s c 2
m-3 03
0.1 Pcru~4 023
B.S. O. 1
Fig. 5.17 Effkct of including heavy antennee on tower TC I

-
0.4 1 It
0.36
I 1
0.31 mase2 I 0.36 /
0.21 11) mase3 i 0.31 i
0.07 5 SCWJ i 0.21 ,
B.S. a 0.07
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 O 0.5 1 i -5 2
Force ratio Force ratio
Main Legs D i q d s and f-iorizoatlls
b
Fig. 5.18 Effm of includuig heavy antennae on tower TC2
Foret na0
DLgoii.LdHorEtontils
b)
Fig. 5.19 Effkct of tcIuding heavy antenaae on tower TC3
lil !
S.S.
Forcc ratio Force rab0

Main Legs Diagonds and Horizontils
b)
Fig . 5 -20 Effect of including heavy antennae on tower TC5
Fig. 5.2 1 Effct of inctuding heavy amcanie on tower TC6

0.67
B.S.
D
0.37 1
I
1)
)
O 5 1O
Force ratio
Main Legs
Bcasc2
m-3
Bca~c4
15 20
b)
0.76 1
0.55
0.13 -
-
,
O OS 1 1.5
Force d o
Diagonaisand Horiunitah
2
I
t
2.5
Fig. 5.22 E f f ' of induding heavy antennae on tower TC7
0.96
0.93
0.89
0.86
0.83
0.79
0.76
0.73
f 0.69
WJ
-6 0.66
&
u 0.63
i+
.g 0.59
=
0 0.56
0.52
0.45
0.38
0.32
025
0.18
O. 12
0.05
B.S.
Fig. 5.23 E f f i of includiag heavy antennae on towa TC8

0.94
0.87
0.8
0.72
0.65
0.57
aea 0.5
f- - 0.42
e
C
0.35
PC 3.27
02
O. 13
o. 1
0.06
0.03
B.S.
O 1 2 3 4 5 O 0.5 I 1.5 2
Force ratio Force ntio
MaiJl L q s Diqods and H o r i z o d s
Fig. 5 2 4 Effkct of including heavy antennse on tower TC9
036
0.48
0.38
028
0.18
0.08
B.S.
Force ntio
-LeOs
b)
Ag. 5.25 Effect of inchidhg heavy antennae on tower TC10

From this study it was concludeci that adding the equivdent of antennae masses of
up to 10% of the tower's total mass consistently reduces the maximum base shear value as
a global response indicator. The average reduction is about 20% when compared to the
corresponding bare tower case. This finding is contrary to the intuitive belief (and miscon-
ception) that adding mass wl necessarily increase the inertia forces and hence the base
shear. The explanation for this reduction is that the addition of sigdcant masses to the
tower, and especially near its top, will tend to increase the natural penod of the tower
which in mm wiil reduce the s p w a l acceleration values corresponding to these modined
penods, as it can be seen on the NBCC 1995 spectrurn in Fig. 4.1. When compering leg
mernber forces (Figs. 5.17a to 5.25a). it is found that members near the base carry smaller
forces than the bare tower case. This reduction in leg axial forces near the base was found
to be 15% on average. However, this reduction becomes less significant when moving up
towards the tower's prismatic part near the location of the antennae. At some elevation,
fkom 0.5 to 0.7 of the height, the memben start carrying larger forces than in the bare
case. At the top level for case 3 (a lumped mass of 1% of the tower's mass) the leg
memben carry as much as 20 times the force calculated in case 1 . The same cornparison
was camied out considering some diagonal and horizontal memben (Figs. 5.17b to 5.Zb)
but no clear trend could be identifid in the results near the base, except that the maximum
change never exceeded f10! when compared to the bare tower case. It is emphrisized
that the increase in the forces developed in the diagonal and horizontal members adjacent
to the location of the antennae is very signifiant.
From the previous discussion it foUows that including extremely heavy lilltennae
(up to 10% of the tower seSweight) to the top ptisniatic part of telecomm~c~tion
towers has two & i s : fkom a global perspective, it consistently reduces the base shear
values of the tower, but it increases the member forces l o d y near the antenna positions
and this increase tends to propagate downwards with the increase in the lumped mass
value.
The previous study shows that the proposed horizontal acceleration profile will
work well for towers having iightweigbt antemae, of mass of 5% or less of the tower
mas. However, for towers with heavy antennae (above 5%) a corrected evaluation of the
lowest three &lf modes, mass distribution and acceleration profile should take place
prior to the application of the proposed quivalent static method.
This study was not extended to cover the effects of heavy antennae clusters under
vertical excitation. The conciusions of such a case can be drawn ffom the information
available about the fundamental axial period of the towers used and the NBCC 1995
response spectmm presented in Fig. 4.1. From Table 3.1 it is seen that the fundamental
axial penod of the towers used ranges between 0.03 and 0.12 s, which corresponds to the
horizontal part of the NBCC 1995 spectmm (up to 0.2 s). This means that shifting the
tiuidamental axial penod within that range wili not nsult in a change in the comsponding
spectral acceleration value. Therefore, adding antennae to the tower and hence increasing
the total mass wi resuit in a proportional increase in the total vertical reaction of the
tower. In addition, there wiU be a proportionai increase in the forces developed in kg
memben dong the tower's height as weii as in diagonals and horizontais near the
locations of niass concentration.

cluPTER 6
SEISMIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR TRANSMISSION TOWERS
6.1 introduction
Transmission tower designers lack simpMed methods for seisinic analysis.
However, before such simplified design methods are proposed, a better understanding of
the dynamic behavior of the wupled tower-cable system should be achieved. To gain more
insight into the dynamic response of a transmission h e system and to be able to simpliQ
its response it was found important to perfonn fiequency analysis on such systerns. As
presented in Chapter 2, most of the few published works in this area are devoted to the
response of the cables only. This study, however, is also devoted to the response of the
towers in the tower-cable system. The objective is to evaluate the feasibitity of simpfyuig
the anelysis of the tower-cable system by replacing the cables by an quivalent rnass and
stifbess.
6.2 Mathematid Modeiig
The line mode1 used in this onidy consists of six spans of cables attacheci to five
suspension towers. Towen TR2 and TR6 are 6rst used in this type of anaiysis in order to
investigate the possibity of simpiifjhg the d y s i s , other towers wii be used in the
verification stage if successful. Two types of cables are inchdeci: the conducton and the
overhea grouad wires, the latter bang directiy anchored to the tower at its peak whe
the conductors are suspended to the tower cross amis with iiuulator strings. The lmgth of
the M a t o r strings varies in accordance 4 t h the voitage of the he,typidy betweetl 1.4
13 1
to 4.0 rn for voltage of 120 to 735 kV, respectively. The cable ends which are not
attache. to the suspension tower in the end spans an a s m e d to be fixed. Fig. 6.1 shows
the typical components of a transmission iine segment used in this saidy. The following
two paragraphe address in more d*ails some modeling considerations for both the towers
and the cables.
6 11 M d i n g of towur~
The transmission towers are modeled as th-dimensional structures in which the
main legs are thtee-diniensionel fiame elements, waile tmss elanents are used for
modeling al1 the other horizontal and diagonal members. This choice of elanmts is used to
simulate, as closely as possible, the acnial behavior of the towers. It should dso be noted
that the model used in the analysis of the coupled tower-cable system is, in faa, a
simplified reduced model of the tower for which a detailed three-dimensionai model was
constnicted. The insulator strings are modeled using two-node truss elements.
6.2-2 Moddng of cables
The cables in each span are rnodeled ushg 20 two-node tension-only tmss
elements with initial prestre~r.The cross section of each cable is assumed cornant. The
material used for the cable elements is assumed hear elastic tension-only. The choice of
the number of tmss elements to be used in the finite element mesh is based on a
convergence test of the lowest modes of nirations of a single span cable; this approach
was used by McClure and Tinawi (1987). Fig. 6.2 shows a cornparison between the results
obtaine for the lowest transverse mode usirig diffaent muners of elemeatq and
dcient acairacy is obtained with 20 elewats.

No. ofelements
Fig. 6.2 Mesh convergence for the lowest transversal mode
fhree types of conductors were used in the parametenc study perfomed narnely,
CONDR 54/7 ACSR (Aluminurn Conduaor Steel Reidorced), CURLEW 5417 ACSR and
BERSFORT 48/7 ACSR. Table 6.1 contains some characteristics of these conductors in
addition to those of the overhead ground wire (O.H.G.W.).

The horizontal tensions used
were 10, 15, 20 and 25 kN for CONDOR , 25, 30- 35 and 40 IrN for both CURLEW and
BERSFORT. These values are specified at OC. For the overhead ground win the
horizontal tension, H ~ K G was

. w . calcdate using the foiowing relation:
WOU.G. W.
HoH-G.~.
= L d .x
where
= conductor horizontal tension

Hcond
WOJXW = overhead ground wire weight per unit length
w- = conductoc's weight per unit length.

-
Table 6.1 Cable data
Cable Diameter, E Weight, Cross Rated

mm composite, N/m sectional teasile
MPa area,mm2 stren&kN
COWR 27.7 67,225 14.93 455 127
CURLEW 31.6 68,325 19.38 592 165
BERSFORT 35.6 67,600 23.23 747 180
O.H.G.W. 12.7 172,400 7.44 97 114
6.3 Methods OC Analysis
The computer program ADhiA (Automatic Dynamic Incremental Nonlinear
Analysis) ADINA R&D (1997), is used in the anslysis of transmission lhe systems. SAP90
could not be used as it can only perform linear analysis. in order to achieve the goai of this
study two types ofadysis are perfonned, which are:
1. A non linear static d y s i s under self weight to obtain the static equilibrium
position of the cables.
2. A frequency anaiysis in the initial configuration, to obtain the lowest flexural
modes of the towers and those of the entire cable-tower system.
more details on these analyses follow.
In this part of the simulation, the mode1 comprises five towers with six spans of
cables, and is analyzed under the action of self weight. Due to the geomehically noniinear
response of the suspendeci cables, the lanematics formulation used to obtain the stiffness
ma* of the system is that of large displacements and smai strains. The itauion mthod
used to solve the nonlinear problem is the fii-Newton 4 t h r d o d a t i o n of the stiffness
matrix at each itemion The convergence derion selected is base on the displacement
vector nom. The tolerance used was 1.0'. The t h e b a i o n used to apply the
gravitational load is lineu with 100 t h e increments of 0.01 such that at time ~ 1 . the
0
a
ui equiiibrium coafiguration of the line is reached.
l
63.2 Frequency anuiysik
Mer obtaining the cable equilibrium c o ~ ~ t i o the

n , naturd periods and mode
shapes of the towen in the tower-cable system are calculated. To detennine the number of
modes sufFcient to capture the sigdcant response of the towers, a linear dynamic
analysis of the six towers (without cables) used in the study was penomed using three
sekcted horizontal earthquake records each having a Werent A N ratio. From this
prelunurary investigation, it was concluded that only the lowest two flexural modes are
participating in the response. It is noted that these towers are generally more ngid than
telecommunication towers for which the third flexural mode of vibration was also found
significant. Therefore, it was concluded that only the lowest two flexural modes in each of
the two main orthogoaal directions (longitudinal and transverse) should be obtained for
the coupled tower-cable system. The method used in fiequency analysis is the subspace
iteration. To obtain the required eigenvdues, a small frequency interval around the
corresponding bare tower fiequency was specified in order to reduce the calculation
effort.
6.4 Pyimetric Study
Eighteen cases were considered in perfonning the fkequency anaiyses, as
summarued in Table 6.2, in which the foilowing parameters an studied: span, cable
tension and conductor type. The cable span (distance between towers) varied from 300 to
400 m, the cable tension varied from 10 to 40 kN and three conductor types were used in
the simuiations. The type of the overhead ground we was kept the same, i.e. Grade 180
galvanized steel 12.7 mm in diameter, and its tension was caldated using eq. 6.1.
Table 6.2- Cases used in the parametric study
Case Conductor Area E Span Sag Tension initial arain

no. type rn' MPa m m kN e
1 350 22.99 10 3.3E-04
2 350 15.28 15 4.9E-04
3 Condor 4.6E-04 6.7E+10 350 1 1.45 20 6.SE-04
4 350 9.15 25 8.2E-04
5 300 11.22 15 4.9E-04
6 400 19.97 15 4.9E-04
7 350 11.89 25 6.2E-O4
8 350 9.9 30 7.4E-04
9 Curlew 5.9E-04 6.8E+10 350 8.49 35 8.E-04
10 350 7.42 40 9.9E-04
11 300 7.27 30 7.4E-04
As was mentioned earlier only towers TR2 and TR6 are used in the equency
anaiysis. AU 18 cases are studied for tower TR2 wMe ody the ikst 12 (i.e. Condor and
Curlew) cases are used for tower TR6. The lowest two flexural paiods of viiration in
both the longitudinal and transverse directions are obtained and compareci to the
cotfesponding perios of the b a n suspension tower.

For each conductor type the results are pooled WOgroups: the first group for a
aven tension but with different spans (Figs. 6.3a to 6.7a), and the second group for a
given spm but with different tensions (Figs. 6.3b to 6.m).These figures show the ratio of
the naturai penods calculated in the coupled tower-able system to the corresponding
values calculateci for bare towers. It is seen from Figs. 6.3b to 6.7b that for a given span
length changing the cable tension (in the range considered) has no significant effect on the
natural period of the syaem. This can be explained as the towers considered in the study
are suspension towers with balancd longitudinal loads. Since the conduaors are attacheci
to the towers' cross arms with insulator strings that can rotate fieely, the change in the
conductor's tension is not directly felt by the tower. Only the change in the tension of the
overhead ground wire is &ecting slightly the periods of the system.
However, varying the span length while keeping the cable tension constant resuited
in a significant change in the periods, as shown in Figs. 6.3a to 6.7a. The period incressed
(in most of the cases) with the increase in span, but this effect did not follow a predictable
trend. Another obsewation is that for a given span length there is no change in the
calculate natural periods fiom one type of conductor to another. This obsenation may
not be generalized since the physical characteristics (stifhess and mas) of the conductors
used in the simulations are of the wne order, and only quai and level spans an
considered. The lowest two longitudinal mode shapes of tower TR6 in the coupled systmi
are shown in Fig. 6.8 where it can be observed that the hsulator strings suspendllig the
conductors to the tower rotate while the conduaors' position does not chnge. This
means that the mas of the conductors d w s not participate in the longitudinnl mode
shppes. This obsavation, however, is not me when examinhg the tranmcfse m d a .

a) initial tension = 15 kN
125 r
a
O
.CI
1.15
1.1
-
- I
A
II . a
'
1
1
1
I1st longitudinal
~LSttT8llsvent
2nd longindina;
A2ndmnsvcr~
5 1O 15 20 25 30
Tension, kN
b) Span length = 350 m
Fig. 6.3 Ratio between calcuiated naturai paiods of the coupled iine syotem and the bare
tower for towu TR2 with Condor

a) Mial tension = 30 kN
1
1
20 25 30 3S 40 45
Tension, kN
b) Span length = 3 50 m
Fig.6.4 Ratio between calculated naturai periods of the coupled lim system and the bue
tower for tower TR2 with Cwiew

a) initial tension = 30 kN
! ! I
1 . 1
20 25 30 35 JO 45
Tension, kN
Fig. 6.5 Ratio baween calculateci nstural periods ofthe coupled line system and the bue
tower for tower TR2 with B d o r t

a) Initial tension = IS kN
1.15 1 4
v.7 -
- -
14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Tension, kN
Fig. 6.6 Ratio between caldated natunl periods of the coupled iine system and the bore
tower for tower TR6 with Condor

a) Initial tension = 30 kN
l1 st longihidind
Istmsvsc
2nd longitudinal
A fadt~~vcrsc
20 25 30 35 40 45
Tension, kN
Fig. 6.7 Ratio between calailateci naturai penods of the coupled h e system and the bue
tower for tower TR6 with Curiew

Fig. 6.8 The lowest two ccilcuiated longitudinal modes of tower TR6
144
This conclusion canot be generalized to angle or anchor towers where the
conductors are directly connecteci to the tower. For the transverse direction there is no
clear explanation to the bebavior of the system. Therefore, it is beiieved that at this
preliminary stage only the response in the longitudinal direction can be simpfisd.
6.5 Equivaient M m
From the previous discussion, it is concluded that only the mass of the overhead
ground wire a f f i s the longitudinal modes of the suspension towers. However, Figs. 6.3
to 6.7 indicate that the trend foiiowed by the lowea two longitudinal modes is not linear.
Therefore, a single value for the participating mass will not satisfy all the cases and an
average should be obtained. The approach followed to obtain this equivalent cable mass
for the lowest longitudinal mode can be summarized in the foliowing steps:
1. Obtain the bare tower mode shape for the lowest iongitudinal mode
2. Assuming that the mode shape of the tower is not affected by the presence of
suspended cables and knowing the mass distnbution and fiequency of the bare tower,
calculate the generalized Stifbess of the tower using the foiiowing relation:
where
km= generaiized stiflness
mm= generalized mass, eq.(5.20).
3. Assuming that the genaalllsd &ess of the tower in the system is uacbanged
and knowing the new fiequency of the system in the same longitudinal mode, cildate the
generalized mass of the tower in the system.

4. Knowing the generalited mass and the period, daJite the paricipating mass
of the overhead ground wire using eq. (6.2).
This approach was applied to the 30 cases considered in the parametric study, 18 for
tower TR2 and 12 for TR6, nom which it was wncluded that about 25 to 35 % of the
overhead ground wUe mass is panicipating in the longitudinal direction. Performing a
frcquency analysis of the tower alone afler replacing the overhead gound wke by 25 to
35% of its mass and neglecting the presence of the conducton showed that for ail the
cases considered this percentage range yielded acceptable results specialiy for the lowest
mode.
6.6 Conclusions
For the cases studied it can be seen that for suspension towen with level and qua1
spans the change in the cable tension had no significant effects on the period of the system.
It is also seen that only the mass of the overhead ground wire affects the longitudinal
modes of vibration of the tower. It is found that 25 to 35% of the overhead ground wire
mass contributes in the longitudinal modes of the system. In the transverse direction,
however, there is no trend foUowed that can enable us to assess the contribution of the
cables' mass to the transverse modes of the system.
At this point it was concludeci thai the response of the coupled tower-cable system
cannot be simpiified in such a mamer that wouid d o w the extension of the proposecl
simplified method for ~e~supportiag towas to transmission line

te~ecommur~ication
towers.
It should be noted that these conclusions do not mean that the system is uncoupleci
or has only little coupiing. Therefore, in the case of seismic effects it could be m e that
there is oniy little coupling between the cables and the towers if the tower displacements
are smai,however, this need to be quaiifid in mother study.

CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
7.1 Summriry
The aim of this study was to provide tower designers with suitable tools to
evaluate the overail seismic response of self-supporthg lattice telecommunication towers
without perfonning detailed dynamic analysis. Ten existing three-legged seif-supporthg
steel telecommunication towers with height ranghg from 30 to 120 m were used, which
cowr the usual range of such towers erecte in Canada. A set of 45 earthquake records
categorized with respect to th& maximum A N (peak ground acceleration 1 peak ground
velocity) ratio in three categories narnely: low, intermediate and h;gh was used as
horizontal seismic input. The same set of records was also used as vertical input after
reducing its amplitudes to % when studying the vertical response of telecornmunication
towers. The main findings and contributions can be SUM18fiZed in the following points:
Seismic amplification factors for base shear, eq. (4. IO), and total vertical
reaction, eq. (4.1 l), for self-supporthg lanice telecommunication towers are
proposed in a closed fom.
A simplifiecl quivalent static method is propo~edto estimate tower member
forces due to horizontal and vertical earthquake excitation.
The effect of including heavy antenna clusters on the base shear and member
forces in self-supporthgtelecommuniation towers is investigated.

An investigation of the eequency characteristics of transmission line towers is
d e d out. The objective was to investigate the fe8~1iilityof simplifjhg the
response of transmission towers in the coupled tower-cable system and then to
extend the proposed simplified quasi-static method of analysis to cover this
application. Several obsewations are made from this study, but the main
conclusion is that the naturai fnquencies of the towers couici not be simplified
in a manner suitable for the direct application of the proposed equivalent static
method to transmission line towers.
The following sections recapitulate in some detail the major findings and
contributions of this research. Suggestions of fture work and a statement of origuiality
are also presented.
7.2 Earthquake Amplification Factors
It is demonstrateci that the seismic behavior of self-supporthg lattice
telecommunication towers ciiffers signiticantiy from that of buildings. This is illustrateci
through a cornparison between the maximum base shear values obtained ushg the NBCC
1995 static approach and those obtained using the response spectrum method with the
NBCC earthquake speca~m.The building code static approach consistently overesthtes
the base shear values.
New simple expressions are proposed to estimate the maximum base shear, eq.
(4.10), and vertical r d 0 9 q. (4.11), due to horizontal and vertical earthquake
excitations. These expressions are based on the totaJ msss of the tower, the lowest flaniral
(or axial, as appropriate) pcriod of the tower and the peak ground acceleration spscified
for the tower site. The base reactions obtained fiom these expressions are not meant to be
redistributed dong the tower beight, as in the building code static approach. They are
dsmic response parameters that should indicate whether or not earthquake effcts may
govem the design. if seismic effects are likely to be significant based on these maximum
base reaaions, a more detailed, yet still simple methocl is proposed tu approximate these
effects on member forces.
7.3 Simplifieci Mcthods of Andysh
The research resulted in proposing two simple equivalent static methods for
seismic analysis of self-supporthg lattice telecommunication towers subjeaed to base
excitations in the horizontal and vertical directions.
In the first method, a horizontal acceleration profile is defined based on both the
response spectrum approach and modal d y s i s method, including the effect of the lowest
three fiexural modes of vibration of the tower. The main idea is to define an acceleration
profde which wiU produce the same e f k t on the tower as the combined effect of the
lowest three flexural modes. The proposed acceleration profiie has yielded very g o 4
results in estimating member forces with an average error of *7% and a maximum error
of es%when compared to results obtaiaed fiom nsponse specum analysis.
In the second method, a verticai acceleration profle is proposed which ody
inciudes the lowest axial mode of vibration of the tower. The use of this acceleration
profile has dso produced very good resuits with a maximum enor of ody f1% and an
average error of f2% ody.

The & k t s of the presence of heavy antenna clusters near the top of the towers are
also investigated both locally, on individual member forces, and globally on base ractions.
The main hdings are as follows:
Added mass consistently reduces the base shear (within the range of values
considered) with an average reduction of 22% compareci to the corresponding
bare tower case.

Leg member forces near the base are also reduced by 15% on average.
At relative heights of 0.5 to 0.7, force amplifications begin to appear in the leg
members.
Diagonal and horizontal members close to the antenna attachments experience
very large force amplifications. A factor of 20 is cainilated when 1% of the
tower mass (a very large value meant to be an upper bound) was lumped at the
top.
* Diagonals and horizontais near the base experience a change in intemal force
which does not exceed MY??

when wmpared to the bare tower case.
The proposed equivalent static method was verified on bare towers with height
ranging fiom 30 to 120 m. It is suitable for towers with lightweight antennae (less than 5%
of tower self-weight), however, towen with heavy antennae (mas > 5% of tower mass)
cannot be anaiyted ushg this method without modifications to the ai coefficients.
7.4 Anrlyris of Tranamurion Lint Towen
The following conclusions were drawn for suspension towen and cannot be
generazed to cover otha types oftmmission towers or line parameters:

The change in the cable tension had no significant d e c t on the fundamental
periods of the systan.
8 d y the mnss of the overhead ground wire has an &ect on the fiequency
characteristics of the tower-cable system. The replacement of the ovethead
ground wire by 25% to 35% of its mass produced satisfactory results speciaiiy
for the lowest longihidinal fle>airal penod.

8 The response in the transverse direction could not be simplifieci in the same
manner. This is due to the fact that there is no clear trend in the results that
could enable us to assess the con~butionof the cables' mass to the transverse
modes of the system.

@ The response of the tower-cable system could not be simplifieci in a way
permitting the application of the proposed equivalent static method for seismic
response to transmission line towers.
7.5 Recommtndationsfor Future Work
The work presented in this thesis has covered several aspects related to the
simplification of the seismic analysis of self-supporthg lanice telecommunication towers,
but more research is still n d e d to M e r investigate the following topics:
1) The effkct of including heavy antennae and accessories on the prdction of the
mode shapes md naturai fiequencies of vibration of telecommunication towers.
2) The effe*. of includhg the torsionsa1 modes of vibrations on the seismic
response of telecommunication towas.

3) The effect of foundation flexibility on the sejsmic response of
telecommunication towers.
4) The applicability of the proposed method to four-legged towers.
5) A comprehensive study on the seismic analysis of transmission line towers.
Statemeot of Originality
To the best of author's knowledge, this work constitutes the first wmprehensive
research on the simplified seismic analysis of self-supporting telecornmunication towers.
The foilowing sumrnarize the three main onguial contributions of the thesis:
1) Two simple seismic response indicators are proposeci which can be used by
tower designers to estimate the maximum base shear and the total vertical
reaction of self-supporthg telecommunication towers due to earthquake
excitations.
2) A simplified equivalent static method is proposed for the prediction of member
forces in self-supporthg telecommunication towen due to horizontal and
vertical earthquake excitations. The originaiiity of the method lies in the
definition of an acceleration profile adapted to the essential dynamic
charactaistics ( n a d fiequencies and mode shapes) of the towers.
3) A better understanding of the effect of heavy antenna clusters on the seismic
response of telecornmunicittion towers.

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APPENDIX A
EARTaQUAKE RECORDS
Al: EARTHQUAKE RECORDS WITH LOW A N RATIO
A2: EARTBQUAKE RECORDS WlTH LNTERMEDIATE A N RATIO
A3: EARTHQUAKE RECORDS W I T H HIGH A N RATIO

l
I l
-1.5 '
O 5 10 15 20
The, s
Period., s
Fig. A l . 1 Earthquake record Long Beach, NS I W (L1)
Event: Long Beach earthquake

Compaem: N5 1W
Station: L A . Subway Termllial, Los Angeles, Cal..
Peak Acccleration: 95.63460 cm/#at 7.50 s
Peak Velocity: -23.68613 cmls at 13.62 s
7 -
1
I
+
- 3% damping 1
p, 1
, \ I
17 ! i
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
Fig. A1-2Earthquake record Long Beach N39E (22)
Event: Long Beach earthquake

Compnent: N39E
Station: L.ASubway Termid, LOS Angeles, Cd.
Peak Acceleration: 62.3281 1 cm/2 at 3.36 s
PeakVe1oQty:-17.34293ds at 13.32s
- 3% darnping j
Penod, s
Fig. A1.3 Earthquake record Lower California SOOW (L3)
Event: Lower California earthquake

Compnent: SW
Station: EL Centro hperial Vaky
Peak Acceleration: - 156.82 1 12 cm/s2 at 3.32 s
Peak Velocity: -20.85573 cmls at 2.90 s
Fig.AI.4 Earthquake record San Femando N6 1W (L4)
Event : San Femando earthquake

Componen~:N6 1W
Station: 2500 Wdshire Blvd., Basement, Los Angeles, Cal.
Peak Acceleration: 98.74722 cm/$
Peak Velocity: 19.30336 cm/s
The, s
Fig. A1-5 Earthquake record San Femando West (L5)
Event: San Fernando earhquake

Component: West
Station: 3 550 Wdshire Blvd., Basement, Los Angeles, Cal.
-
Peak Acceleration: 129.8 1620 ds'
Peak Velocity: 21.58354 cm
Fig. A1.6 Earthquake record San Fernando S37W (L6)
Event : SM Fenando earthquake

Component: S37W
Station: 222 Figueroa Street, 1st. flwr, Los Angeles, Cal.
-
Peak Acceieration: 126.88940 d s 2
Peak Velocity: -1 8.63307 an
I
-1.5
O 5 10 15 20
Time, s
1
- , - 3% damping i
'\; '1 !
i i I
- -
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
b)
Event: San Fernando earthqualre

Component: SWW
Station: 3470 Wilshke Blvd., Sub-basment, Los Angeles, Cal.
Peak Acceleration: 111.843 80 cm/*
Peak Velocity: 18.56407 a n / s
Period, s
Fig. Al. 8 Earthquake record San Fernando N 1SE (La)
Evmt: San Fernando d q u a k e

Compona*: Nl SE
Station: 4680 Wdshire Blvd., Basement, Los Angeles, Cd.
Peak Accdefation: 114.9761O cm/s'
Peak Vdocity: 21.53514 cm
- 3% damping
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
b)
Event: SM Fernando earthquake

Compomm: S38W
Station: 445 Figueroa Street, Sub-basement, Los Angeles, Cal.
Peak Acceleration: -1 16.96350 cm/$
Peak Velocity: -17.3 1090 cm
Period, s
Fig. Al. 10 Earthquake record San Fernando SW (L 10)
Event : San Fernando earthquake

Component: SW
Station: Hoiiywood Storage, Basement, Los Angeles, Cd.
Peak Velocity -16.96477 cm/s
Fig. A 1.1 1 Earthqhe record Near E.Cost of Honshu NS (L11)
Event: Near E.Cost of H o d u earthquake

Component: NS
Station: HK003
Peak Accelefation: -221-50Mn/$
Fig. Al. 12 Earthquake record Near E.Coast of Honshu (L12)
Event: Near E.Coast of Honshu earthquake

Component: NS
Station: HKW
Peak Acctleration: -200.9 cm/$
Peak Vtlocity: 27.5 cmls
5 - - 3% damping ;
Period, s
Fig. A l . 13 Earthquake record Michoacan SOOE (L13)
Event: Michoacan earthquake

Component: SE
Station: AZIH
Peak Gcceleration: 1O 1-30 cm/$
-
P d Vdocity: 15-86 cm/s
Fig. A 1.14 Earthquake record Michoacui NOOE (L14)
Record: Michoacan earthquake

Cornponeai: NOOE
Station: TEAC
Peak AccclCtgfim:-5 1.30 cm/#
Peak Velocity: 7.38 m/s
7
- 3% damping i
Fig. Al. 15 Earthquake record Michoacan N90W (L15)
Evm: Micholun earthquake

Component: NWW
Station: CUMV
Peak Acceleration: 38-83 m/s2
Peak Veiocity: -1 1.O 1 mis
Fig. AZ. 1 Earthquake record Imperia1 Valley SE (N1)
Eveat: Imperid Valley earthquake

Component: SW
Station:El Cmtro site Imperid Vdey Irrigation D i h a
Peak Acceleration: 34 1.70508 cm/$
Peak Vdocity: 33 -44281 cm/s
- 3% darnping
/ I I 1 I !
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
Fig. A2.2 Earthquake record Kem County S69E (N2)
Event: K a n County earthquake

Component: S69E
Site: Taft Lincoln school tunnel
Peak Accehtion: 1759404 cm/!?
-
Peak Veiocity: 17.72147cmis
O O .2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Period, s
b)
Fig. A2.3 Earthqurke record Kern County N2 1E (N3)
Event: Kern County earthquake

Component: N21E
Station: No.095
Peak Acceieration: 152.70538 cm/s'
Palr Vdocity: -15.7254 cmls
I
-0.5
O 5 tO 15 20
Time, s
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
b)
Fig. A 2 4 Earthquake record Borrego Mountain N57W (N4)
Event: Borrego Moumain earthquake

Component: N57W
Station: San nofie power plant
Peak Accc1eration: -45.53455 cm/?
Peak Velocity: 4.20186 d s
Fig. A25 Earthquake record Borrego Mountain N33E (NS)
Evait: Bonego Mountain d q u a k e

Companent: N33E
Station: 280,33 22 OSN, 1 17 33 17W
Peak Acctleration: 40.02722 crn/s2
Peak Velocity: -3.67305cm/s
- 3% damping 1
Fig. A2.6 Earthquake record SM Fernando SWW (N6)
Event: San Fernando earthqualce

Component: SWW
Station: 3838 LankefShim Blvd., basement, Los Angeles, Cd.
Peak Acceleration: 143.6254 crn/s2
Peak Velacity: 14.87&41cm/s
V
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
Fig. A2.7 Earthqde record SM Feniando N9E (N7)
Event: San Femando earthquake

Componcat: N9E
Station: HoUywOOd Storage P.E.Lut, Los Angdes, Cd.
Peak Gcceleratioa: -206,99030 cm/s2
Peak Velocity: -2 1.13652 cmfs
3% damping
Period, s
b)
Fig. A2.8 Earthquake record San Fanrndo N90E (N8)
Event: San Femando d q u a k e

Compomm: N90E
Station: 3407 6th Street, basement, los Angeles, Cal.
-
Peak Acceldon: 161.WSW cm/s2
Peak Velocity: -16.59729 cm/s
The, s
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period s
b)
Fig. A 2 9 Earthquake record SM Fanrado SOOW (N9)
Evenit: San Fernando arthquake

Component: SOOW
Station: M t h Park Obsmntory. moon rwm, Los Angdes, Cal.
-
Peak Acctleration: 176.89980 cm/$
Peak VdoQty: -20.48 128 d s
-3
O 5 10 15 20
Time, s
- 3% damping 1
Fig. A2.10 Earthquake record San F m d o N37E (N10)
Event: San Fernando earthquake

Compoacnt: N37E
Station: 234 Figueroa Street, basement, Los Angeles, Cd.
Peak Accelcration: 195.65 120 cm($
Period, s
Fig. AZ. 11 Earthquake record Near E.Coast of Honshu NS (N1 1)
Evevnt: Near E.Coast of Honshu earthquake

Componmt: NS
Station: KT036
Peak Accelcration: -69.1 cm/s2
Peak Velocity: -7.2 an/s
- 3% darnping
I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Penod, s
Fig. A2.12 Earthquake record Near S. Coast of Honshu EW (N12)
Event: Near S. Coast of Honshu earthquake

Component: EW
Station: H K W
-2 1
O 5 10 15 20
Time, s
Fig. A2.13 Eanhquake record Monte Negro NOOW (N13)
Eveat: Monte Negro earthquake

Component: NW
Peak Accelcration: 170.0 cm/s"
Fig. A2.14 Earthquake record Michoacan SOOE (N14)
Event: Michoacan canhqU8ke

Component: SE
Station: SUCH
Peak Acceleration: 103.12 a&
-
Peak Velocity: 11.6 1 a n l s
!
- 3% damping iI
Fig. A2.15 Earthquake rewrd Michoacan NWE (N15)
Event: Michoacan earthquake

Compomnt: N9E
Station: VILE
Peak Acceleration: - 120.87 cm/s2
Peak Velocity: 10.5 1 cmls
- 3% damping
Fig. A3.1 Earthquake record P d d d N6SW (H1)
Event: Parffield earthquake

Component: N65W
Station: Tedior, California No.2
Peak Accekation: -264.35 cm/!?
I
- 3% darnping 1
Fig. A3.2 Earthquake record Parkfield NSSE (H2)
Event: P d e l d earthquake
Component: N85E
Station: Thoiaine, Shandon, California Array No. 5
Peak Gcctlerstion: 425.68 cm/$
-
Peak Velocity: a n / s
- 3% damping
Period, s
Fig. A3.3 Eartbquake record San Francisco S8OE (H3)
Event: San Francisco earthquake

Component: S80E
Station: San Francisco Golden Gate park
Peak Acceleration: - 102.80 cm/$
Peak VdOaty: -4.61 cm/s
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Period, s
b)
Fig. A3.4 Earthquake record San Francisco S09E (H4)
Event: Sm Francisco eafthquake

Component: S9E
Station: San Francisco State building, basamnt
Peak Acceleraion: -83 -81 c d 8
Peak Velacity: -5.05 cm/s
Period, s
Fig. A3.5 Earthquake record Helena Montana SW (HS)
Event: Helena Montana d q u a k e

Component: SW
Station: Heena, Montana C m U college
Peak velocity: 7.21 cm/s
-2
O 5 10 15
The, s
- 3% darnping
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
Fig. A3.6 Earthquake record Lytle Creek S25W (H6)
Event: Lytle Creek earthquke

Component: SZSW
Station: N/A
Peak Acceleration: 194.4 1 cm/s2
Peak vdocity: -9.64 d s
,
-1
O 7 4 6 8 10 12
Time, s
- 3% darnping j
Fig. A3.7 Earthquake record rovle N53W (H7)
Event : Orovle earthquake

Component: N53W
Station: Oroviiie Dam, Colifornia, Seismograph station, ground level
Peak Acceleraion: -82.5 cm/$
Time, s
1 l I
O
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Period, s
Fig. A3.8 Earthquake record San Fernando S74W (Hg)
Event: San Fernando earthquake

Component: S74W
Station: Pacoirna Dam, California
Peak Acctkation: 1054.95 cm/$
Peak Velocity: -5 7.74 cm/s
I
-2 '
O 5 10 15 20
Time, s
Period, s
Fig. A3.9 Earthquake record San Fernando S21W ( ' 9 )
Event: San Fanudo earthquake

Composent: S2 1W
Station: Lake Hughes, Array station 4, California
Peak Acceleration: -143.5 1 cm/s2
Peak Vdocity: -8.53 cm/s
-10 c 1
I
I
1
!
-15 '
O 5 10 15 20
The, s
Fig. A3.10 Earthquake record Nahanni Longjtudinal (Hl 0 )
Event: Nahami earthquake

Cornponent: Longitudinal
Station:
Peak Accelemtion: 1100.0 cm/+
The, s
- 3% damping j
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2

Period, s
b)
Fig. A3.11 Earthquake record Centeral Honshu TR (H1 1)
Event: Centeral Honshu earthquake

Component: TR
Station: CB030
Peak Acceleration: 148.10 c d 8
- 3% damping
Fig. A3.12 Earihquake record Near E. Coast of Honshu NS (H12)
Evevnt: Near E.Coast of Honshu earthquake

Component: NS
Station: H K W
Peak Acceleration: - 142.8 cm/s2
Peak Veloaty: 6.0 d s
Time, s
Fig. A3.13 Earthquake record Honshu NS (H13)
Event : Honshu urthquake

Component: NS
Station: No. 2
Peak Acceleration: -265 .O cm/s2
1
Il - 3% darnping '
Period s
Fig. A3.14 Earthquake record Monte Negro NOOW (H14)
Evait: Monte Negro earthquake

Component: NW
Station: Albatros Hotel basernent
Peak Acceleration:42.0 cm/$
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Period, s
b)
Fig. A3.15 Earthquake record Banja Luka N90W (H15)
Event: Banja Luka earthquake

Component: NWW
Station: Banja Luka-4 seismological station
Paek Acceleration: 73.O cm/$
Peak Velocity: 3 -2 cm/s
VEIUFICATION OF THE PROPOSED EXPRESSIONS FOR THE
EARTHQUAKE AMPLIFICATION FACTORS
Fig.B.1 Maximum base shear vs. peak grouad acceleration in TC1
Fig. B.2 Maximum base shear vs. pedr ground accderation in TC2
- Eq. (4.10)
Fig. 8.4 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground acceleration in TC5
-
-
-
- Eq.(4.10)
Fig.B.5 Maximum base shear m. perk gruund accelcration in TC6
-
-
- Eq.(4.1 O)
Fig. B.7 Maximum base shear vs. peak ground acceIeration in TC8
Fig. B.8 Maximum base shear vs. p& ground acceteration in TC9
Fig. B.9 Maximum bise shm vs. pctL ground acccicnfion in TC10
I Eq. (4.11)
l
Fig. B.10 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC 1
Fig. B.11 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak grwnd acceleration in TC2
v - Eq. (4.9)
O 2 4 6 8 10 12
Acc., dsA2
Fie. B.12 MzWmum dynimic vertical d o n m. pmk @adcfltion hTC4

Fig. B.13 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak gound accelaation in TC5
Fig. B.14 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction W. peak ground acceImtion in TC6
;t 100 Eq.(4.11)
O
Fig. B.15 hilritimum dynamic vertid d o n M. peak ground acceicrafion in TC7

-
-
-
Eq. (4.11)
Fig.B.16 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC8
-
- Eq.(4.9)
Eq. (4.1 1)
Fig. B.17 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC9
Fig. B.18 Maxjmum dynumc vaticai renction W.peak p u n accecfation in TC10

APPENDIX C
VERTICAL EARTBQUAKE AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR
TELECOMMUNICATION TOWERS
C. I Introduction
Earthquake amplification factors for both base shear and vertical reaction of
self-supporthg telecornmunication towers were presented in Chapter 4. These vertical
amplification factors were obtained by reducing the horizontal accelerograms to 75% of
their origuial values and then used as vertical input. This approach was chosen as most
building codes do not contain specific uiformation on the peak vertical groud
accelerations.
It was also found usefiil to present expressions for esthating the vertical
eanhquake amplification factors using vertical earthquake records. The motivation for
presenting these expressions is the fact that vertical earthquake records generally have
hi& frequency content when compared to the horizontal records. The expressions
presented in this appendix should replace the expressions presented in Chaptw 4, Eqs.
(4.9) and (4.1 l), when information about the peak vertical ground accelerations is
indudeci in codes or othenvise available.
C.2 Vertical Earthqualrc Records
In the present snidy, as not al1 the correspondhg vertical components of the
previous set of horizontal accelerograms were available, a distinct set of 55 vertical
earthquake records wiiected from 17 diierent events were rlso considere. The majority
of these events were included in the study @ormed by Tso a al. (1992). Table C. 1 lins
the events m e ? magnitude, number of componens and date. It shouid be noted that
wntraiy to the horizontal earthquake records, these recorde wae not classified in
accordance to th& A/Vratios.

Table C. 1 - Earthquake records used as vertical input
Earthquake Magnitude No. of records Date

Long Beach,California 6.4 1 10/03/ 1933
Lower California 5.6 1 30/12/1934
Helena, Montana 6 1 3 1/10/1935
hpenai Valley, California 6.6 1 1810511940
Santa Barbara, California 5.5 1 30/06/ 1941
Borrego Valley, California 6.6 1 21/10/1942
Imperia1 Vailey, California 5.8 1 23/01/1951
Kem County, California 7.5 4 2 1/07/1952
San Francisco, California 5.3 5 22/03/1957
Park Field, California 6.1 5 2710611966
Bonego Mount@ California 6.5 12 %/Ml 1968
Lytle Creek, California 5.3 7 12/09/1970
San Fernando, California 6.6 9 9102/ 197 1
Oroville, California 5.7 1 1IO811975
Michoacan, Mexico 8.1 2 19/09/1985
Nahanni, N.W.T., Canada 6.9 1 23/12/1985
Elrnore Ranch 6.2 2 2411 111987
C.3 Vertical Earthquik Excitation
The towers are also analyzed considering the vertical earthquake set acting in the
vertical direction. The values of maximum venical reaction at the tower base are plotted
versus the peak ground accderation. Figs. C. 1 to C. 10 show the resuits obtained for the
ten towen used in the study ris a fnction of peak vertical ground accderation.
O 50 100 150 200
Acc., crn/sA2
Fig. C. 1 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC 1
50 1
Fig. C.2 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC2
O 50 100 lm 200
Acc., d s A 2
Fig. C S Total vertical dynarnic reaction for tower TC5
O 50 1 0 150 200
Acc., d s A 2
Acc., cm/sA2
O 50 Io0 IU) 200

Acc., d s A 2
Fig. C.9 Totd v d d dynamic reaction for towa TC9
O 50 100 150 200
Acc., cni/sA2
Fig.C.10 Total vertical dynamic reaction for tower TC10
As seen fiom these figures, the relation between the maximum vertical reaction and the
peak vertical ground acceleration foiiows a linear trend. Therefore, linear regression
analyses are perforrned to correlate the total venical reaction to the peak ground
acceleration and the results are sumrnarized in Table C.2 for the ten towers.
Table C.2 - Linear regression analysis for the total vertical reaction
Tower Slope R'

TC1 0.94 0.92
TC2 1.29 0.73
TC3 1-05 0.77
TC4 1.63 0.78
TC5 1.47 0.78
TC6 1.73 0.76
TC7 1.69 0.60
TC8 1.66 0.71
TC9 1.45 0.79
TC10 1.81 0.73
k Codlicicnt o f ~ ~ d a t i o n
In keeping with the procedure foilowed in Cbpter 4, the numimm vertical reaction, Y, is
divided by the tower mas and peak ground vemcal acceleration, M X A, in orda to yield
a dixnensioness factor. These factors are then plotted versus the fundamental axial p&od
of the tower for each earthquake record (Fig. C.1 1). Contrary to the maximum base shear
response, the data foiiows an ascending trend in which the tower with lowest fiuidamental
axial period of vibration has the unallest amplikation factor. Linear regression analyses
are performed on the entire set and the foliowing expression is obtained for estimating the
maximum vertical reaction:
Vv = M x A , x (0.85 + 9.37 x T a ) (c.1)

where
K, = total maximum vertical reaction, N

A. = peak vertical ground acceleration, m/s2
Ta = fundamental axial period of vibration, S.
The values of the maximum total vertical reaction estimated using Eq. (C. 1) are
shown in Figs. C. 12 and C. 13 , for towers TC3 and TC 1O, respectively. in order to obtain
an upper bound to the expected level of maximum vertical reaction, one standard
deviation is adde to the numerical factors of eq. (C. 1) to yield the following expression:
Vv = M xAv x (0.97+ 1 0 . 9 7 ~Ta) (C.2)

This upper bomd expression for the maximum vertical reaction values is shom in
Fig. C. 1 1 for cornparison with eq. (C. 1).

-
- Eq.(C.l)
Eq.(C.2)
Lowest axial period, s

Fig. C. 1 1 Vertical reaction amplification factors
Peak ground acceleration, m/sA2

Fig. C.12 Maximum dynamic vertical reaction vs. peak ground acceleration in TC3
O 0.5 1 1.5 2
Peak ground accelaation, m/sA2
Fig. C. 13 MarOmum dyMmic vertical readon vs. peak ground accelemtion in TC l O
C.4 Discussion
Two expressions for the evaluation of the vertical reaction of telecornmunication
towers under vertical seismic excitations are included in this appadix. Fig. C. 14 shows a
cornparison between these expressions and eqs. (4.9) and (4.1 1) after multiplying them by
4/3. This was done as eqs. (4.9) and (4.1 1) were originally evahiated &er reducuig the
peak ground acceleration to 314 of the original value. From this figure it is seen that
amplification factors predicted by eqs. (CA)and (C.2) mceed those predicted by eqs.
(4.9) and (4.11) by about 40%. This was expected as acnial vertical earthquake record
possess higher fiequency content and therefore will result in more amplification.
- - Eq. (C. 1 ) -- Eq. (4.9)
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12

Lowest axial perio, s
Fig. C. 14 Cornparison between the expressions for vertical ampfication factor
It should be noted that the use of 314 of the peak ground acceleration in the vertical
direction greatly overestimates the expected peak vertid ground accelemtion which is
usuaiiy with lower intensities. Thenfore, even though the expressions presented in
Chapter 4 underestimate the level of dynamic ampiifidon, they are used with higher
intensities of ground acceieration than the actual vertical earthquakes possess.

APPENDIX D
VERlFICATlON OF THE PROPOSED STArrC METHOD

a) Earihquake record L14
120 r r 3
l
350 1
Fig. D.1 Member forces in towa TC2

a) Earthquake record L 14
150 :
51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 501 503 505

Mcmbcr index
1200 i 2
i
SPEC ,i l
Fig. D.2 M e m k forces in tower TC3

300 1 -4
Mcmber index

350 r 1 10
M a n ber index
1200 1
Fig. D.4 Manber forces in for tower TC6

400 : !
1
-5
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Mcmk index
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Mmber indar
c) Earthqdce record H8
Fig. D.5 Member forces ia tower TC7

400 r 15
I
15
Fig. D.6 Member forces in for towa TC8

300 r
C) Earthquake m o r d H8

a) Earthquake record L14
350 r 4
-
2000 -5
i
l
SPEC !
j -10
Fig. D.8 Member forces in tower TCIO

SPEC Rop. Di&rrrnccr ! 6
Member index
rcn i SPEC Rop. W~ncc.
Fig. D.9 Member forces in tower TC2 ushg NBCC spectmm

Fig D.10 Member forces iu tower TC3 ushg NBCC spectrum
SPEC

3 100
5
<r
B
50
Mcmbcr index
SPEC
9

= 1
SPEC
I
Fig. D.12 Membet forces in towa TC6 using NBCC specmim

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Mcmbcr index
SPEC 1 s
Fig. D.13 Member forces in tower TC7 using NBCC specrnun

LL SPEC I
Mmbct index
Fig. D.14 Member forces in tower TC8 using NBCC spectnim

63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 03 85 87 89 91 93
Mcmber index
63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93
Mmkr index
Fig. D.15 Member forces in tower TC9 using NBCC spe-

1 SPEC / -6
Fig. D.16 Member forces in tower TC1O using NBCC specum

SPEC P m p d DitlErtncc
2.5 Ezm
5 2
d
1.5
B
r6 1
0.5
O
37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53
38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54
Fig. D. 17 Memba forces in tower TC2 under vertical excitation
51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 501 503 505 507

Mcmber index
Fig. D.19 Manber foras in tower TC5 under vertid excitation

8 SPEC Proposad Differcncc 6

+
1
I
7
56
d
35
4 4
5 3
2 ; 3.5
1
O
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Fig. D.22Member forces in towa TC8 under verticai excitation

63 65 67 69 71 73 75 33 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93
M e m k index
Fig. D.23Member forces in tower TC9 under vertical excitation
Fig. D.24Mernber forces in tower TC IO unds vertical excitation

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Seismic Analysis of Lattice Towers

Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics

O Mohamed Abdel Halim Khedr, 1998

The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la proprit du

telecomrnunication towers, designen may be tempted to apply simplified building code

approaches to these stmctures. However, these towas respond to earthquake~in a

simplified mahods for the seisrnic analysis of self-supporting telecommunication towers.

The author studied the specific problem of self-supporthg lattice

telecornmunication towers ushg numerical simulations and applying the modal

45 strong motion horizontal accelerograms to snidy the horizontal effects. Vertical

dynamic effcts are studied using two approaches: the f

the second using a distinct set of 55 vertical accelerogtams.

used by designers to estirnate the expected lm1 of dynamic forces in seKsupporting

telecommunication towen due to an emhquakc.

As a second *e, a simplified rcnic method is proposeci to estimate the membcr

forces in self'-supportmg tdecommuniuuion lanice towm due to both horizontai and

vibration in sufnciem to estmiffe the structure's respoase to horizontai excitation

findings are summMsed in the thesis.

h e study is extended to include transmission line towers in order to ohplfi the

help in frther saidies.

Fate de directives spccl6ques a l'andyse sismique des pylnes de

tlcommunications, les concepteurs peuvent tre tents d'appliquer les approches

contreventements horizontaux. L'auteur propose maintenant une mthode &pline, par

suggestions, long discussions, support, encouragement, and understanding to the -dent

as my supervisor, many thanks.

The financial assistance provided by the Natural Science and E n g h e e ~ gResearch

research gant is greatiy appreciated.

The hancial assistance provided by Le Fonds pour la Formation de Chercheurs et

telecommunication and transmission towers used in this snidy.

1.3 Organization of T u t .............................................. 4

2.1 Introduction ..................................................... 6

2.2.1 Respome(owhd ............................................ 6

2.4 Seirmic Response of Towe~hapedStructuru ...................... 21

2.5 Design Code Approaches for Sdsmic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.4 Transmission Line Towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.6 Earthquake Records Used in The Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

EARTHQUAKE AMPLIFICATION FACTORS FOR

4.1 Introduction .................................................... 58

4.2 Method of Analysis .............................................. 59

4.3 The Use of NBCC 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.4 Horhontd Earthquake Excitation ................................. 63

4.5 Vertical Earthquake Excitation .................................... 77

4.6 Discussion ...................................................... 90

4.7 Conclosions ..................................................... 93

PROPOSED STATIC METHOD OF ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5.1 Thwmtk.l Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

5.1.2 Modal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.2 Proposed Metbod for Horizontal Earthquake Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

5.3 Verification of the Proposed Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1

5.4 Vertical Earthquake Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5.5 Verification of The Proposed Vertical Acceleration Proffie . . . . . . . . . . . 119

5.6 Effect of Concentrated Mass of Antennae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

SEISMIC CONSIDERATION FOR TRANSMISSION TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6.2 Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

62.2 Modeling of cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

6-3 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

63.1 Nonlinear static analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

63.2 Frcqvencyanolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6.4 Parametric Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

6.5 Equivrknt Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

6.6 Conclusions ................................................... 146

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148