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Sugar
Sugars used commonly in the food production are Dextrose commonly called glucose, Fructose
which is called as levulose or laevulose, and the common disaccharide called Sucrose.

Character of Sugars

Sugars do not taste equally sweet.

Fructose is one and three-quarter 1 times as sweet as sucrose.
Glucose is three-quarter as sweet as sucrose.
Food value of all sugars is same.
Sugars with impurities, that the components other than sugar have nuance of flavour from that
particular impurity.
High concentration of sugar acts as preservative.

Cooking of Sugar makes different texture and stages as follows.

116C Soft Ball Suitable for Marzipan
119C Ball Suitable for Fondant
121C Hard Ball Suitable for Nougat
140C Small Crack Suitable for Italian Meringue
153C Crack Suitable for Dipping Fruit
160C Hard Crack Suitable for Pulled Sugar.

Types Sugars

In the cuisines all over the world sugars are used for many dishes. The forms and types of sugar
is not the same. They vary in their colour and flavour.

1. White Granulated Sugar.

A fully refined white sugar, made from sugar cane or sugar beet. With medium sized crystals.

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Several texture of white refined sugars are available. The most common is granulated, used both
for the table and cooking.
With virtually no taste other than sweet, it is the all- purpose, standard sugar.

2. Light Soft Brown Sugar.

A refined white sugar, coated with light cane molasses which imparts a delicate taste.
The golden granulated sugar has medium-sized crystals.
The fine-grained version is soft and moist.
The refining process leaves a coating around the crystals

3. Dark Soft Brown Sugar.

A refined white sugar, coated with a dark cane molasses
This imparts a rich caramel taste.
This has a soft, moist and fine-grained texture.
It is suitable for baking
Both dark and light Brown sugars are used with cereals, coffee, fruit and spice cake.
There are other brown sugars also on the market which do not contain cane molasses.
These contain vegetable dye and this will be stated on the packet.

4. Caster ( Castor ) sugar

A fully refined white sugar with very fine crystal.
It is fine enough to use in a sugar caster or sprinkler
It develops quickly so is excellent for baking
It is called super fine sugar in USA.

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Raising / Leavening Agent

A raising agent (also called leavening or leaven) is a substance used in doughs and batters that
causes a foaming action intended to lighten and soften the finished product.
The following are the different types of raising agents:
Biological raising agents
Chemical raising agents
Mechanical leavening
Other leaveners

Biological Leaveners
Microorganisms that release carbon dioxide as part of their lifecycle can be used to leaven
products. Varieties of yeast are most often used, particularly Saccharomyces species (i.e. baker's
yeast), though some recipes also rely on certain bacteria
Some typical biological leaveners are:
beer (unpasteurised - live yeast)
buttermilk
ginger beer
sourdough starter
yeast
yogurt

Chemical Leaveners
Chemical leaveners are chemical mixtures or compounds that typically release carbon dioxide or
other gases when they react with moisture and heat; they are almost always based on a
combination of acid (usually a low molecular weight organic acid) and an alkali
Chemical leavening agents include:
baking powder
baking soda (sodium bicarbonate)
ammonium bicarbonate (hartshorn, horn salt, bakersammonia)
potassium bicarbonate (potash)
potassium bitartrate (cream of tartar)
potassium carbonate (pearlash)
monocalcium phosphate

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Mechanical Leavening
Mechanical leavening is the process of incorporating air by whisking, beating and sieving.
Creaming is the process of beating sugar crystals and solid fat (typically butter) together in a
mixer. This integrates tiny air bubbles into the mixture, since the sugar crystals physically cut
through the structure of the fat.

Other Leaveners
Steam and air are used as leavening agents when they expand upon heating. To take advantage of
this style of leavening, the baking must be done at high enough temperatures water to steam,
with a batter that is capable of holding the steam in until set.

SHORTENINGS, FATS & OILS

Fats are solid at room temperature and melt when heated. Those used in cooking include butter,
margarine, lard, suet and hydrogenated fat.

Oils are liquid at normal temperatures, but solidify at lower temperatures. Those commonly used
in cooking are peanut (groundnut/arachide) oil, coconut oil, mustard seed oil, sesame (teel) oil,
olive oil and safflower oil.

Shortenings are fats that are used in the baking industry and in confectionery.

HYDROGENATION OF OILS

The conversion of oil into fat is known as hydrogenation. The process changes the physical
properties of the oil. Hydrogenation consists of treating oil under pressure and at a suitable
temperature with hydrogen, in the presence of a catalyst, usually nickle. Under these conditions,
the unsaturated fatty acids present in the oil combine with the hydrogen. This chemical process
brings about a physical change, the liquid oil changing into a solid fat. The unsaturated fatty
acids are chiefly those of the oelic type and are converted into stearic acid which is solid. The
varying consistencies available in fats is due to the process of hydrogenation being stopped at
various stages.

SHORTENINGS
Fats can be used as shortenings or as a cooking medium. In confectionery, fats impart their
characteristic flavor as well as shortening qualities. Their effect is to coat and break down the
gluten strands, so that instead of being hard and tough to eat, foods containing shortening break
off short and melt readily in the mouth.

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FACTORS TO LOOK FOR IN SHORTENINGS:

1. Creaming Value: This effect the volume of the item eg: cakes
The amount of air incorporated during creaming
2. Shortening value: The shortness it gives to the end product. Shortness
is a quality essential in products such as biscuits & cookies.
3. Stability: Refers to keeping quality and shelf life.
4. Consistency: Hardness or Softness depending on the purpose.
hardness for puff pastry, softness for cakes.
5. Water absorption Will affect the emulsification value of the shortening.
power:

As shortening agents, fats add to the nutritional and satiety values of flour mixtures like doughs
and batters. They also contribute to the taste and flavor. The type of fat and the way it is
incorporated will affect the texture (eg: short crust pastry and flaky pastry). Baking must be done
at correct temperatures. As the fat melts during baking, it must be absorbed by the flour. If the
heat is insufficient, the melted fat will run out and result in a hard product. Fat which has been
broken up into small particles during creaming will be more easily absorbed than fat left in large
pieces.

Fat as a frying medium functions in three ways:

- it serves to transmit heat to the articles of food to be fried.
- it adds to the nutritive value (calories).
- It contributes to the flavor and taste and texture of the food.

Fat used as a frying medium must have

- a high smoke point
- low congealing point
- low moisture content
- high stability
- acceptable flavor which is neutral

RENDERING OF FAT:
Rendering of fat is the process of melting to extract fat from fatty tissues. A good supply of fat
can be obtained in this way there are two methods to complete this process:
1. Cut the fat into small pieces, put them in a baking tray and heat in the oven till the fat has

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melted and only crisp brown pieces of tissue remains. Strain the fat through a clean cloth into a
basin and store in the refrigerator.
2. Cut the fat into small pieces and cover with a little water. Boil, without the lid until the water
has evaporated and the fat melts leaving behind only tissue. Strain and store as above.
In both cases, the temperature should not be too high as the fat will decompose.

CLARIFICATION OF FAT:
This method of cleaning the fat. Used fat is mixed with water and allowed to boil. It is then
strained and allowed to cool. The fat solidifies on the surface. This cake of fat is lifted out and
the bottom scraped off all impurities. The fat is then heated till it stops bubbling and the water
particles have disappeared.

In short, Fats & Oils can be classified as:

Animal Sources: Lard, Suet

Dairy Sources: Butter, Pure Ghee
Vegetable Sources: Refined oils
Margarine

HISTORY OF BAKING

The organized production of wheat by the Egyptians is considered by most historians to be the
beginning of the breads produced today. Many centuries aft6er the Egyptians (about 400 B.C),
the Greeks were preparing more than fifty kinds of bread, all baked in closed ovens. The Romans
combined the Greek and Egyptian developments in bread making with their own improvements
to begin producing the bread in large scale. During the reigns of the emperors Augustus and
Julius Caesar (100 to 44 B.C), public bakeshops were established in the cities of Roman Empire.
Pastries of Various kinds were sold to spectators during the games in the colosseum. While
Roman civilization spread throughout Europe, the Middle East, and the North Africa, the new
profession of baking was born. Baking knowledge grew through experimentation and the influx
of information from new conquered territories. However, with the slow disintegration and
collapse of the Roman Empire, the new baking industry also collapsed.

Knowledge, the true legacy of Rome, was preserved in monasteries, and during the Dark Age the
temporarily lost art of baking was practiced mainly by monks who kept their baking knowledge
as well-guarded secret for many years. At the beginning of the thirteenth century, Philip II of
France granted bakers the right to build their own ovens. This movement by Philip against the
power of the nobles and the church resulted in the incorporation of the Patissier Dublayers of
paris in 1270. Those were pastry and bread specialists, and, with a guild incorporating both

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professional baking was once more firmly entrenched. The industry continued with only minor
changes until the discovery of America and the influx of new ingredients, particularly sugar and
cocoa.

In 1675, the baking art was given another boost when a Sicilian pastry cook named Procopio
went to Paris and opened the first ice cream parlor. This success gave rise to Dublayers who
roamed the streets of Paris selling galattes and sweet breads.

The distinction between pastry cook and baker became more clear in the early eighteenth
century. Bakers and pastry makers separated generally because of arguments about proper oven
temperatures (bread requires a much stronger heat than delicate pastries). In 1790, the first
school of baking opened its doors in paris.

The French Revolution freed servant-chefs of French aristocrats. These culinary masters could
now offer their knowledge and talent to the public.

Small tools and equipments used in Bakery

1) Scrapper

2) Nozzles

3) Whisk

4) Palette knife

5) Piping bag

6) Turn table

7) Baking tray

8) Bread mold and cake molds

9) Bread knife

10) Electric egg beater

Large tools and equipments used in Bakery

1) Oven

2) Spiral mixer

3) Dough kneader

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4) Bun divider

5) Bain Marie

6) Dough nut fryer

7) Proofing cabinet

8) Bread molder

9) Hot and cold display

10) Dough sheeter.

COMPOSITION OF FLOUR

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Composition of Flour will vary depending upon the types of Wheat used in the grist.

A typical analysis is given below:

Starch 71.5 to 74.5%

Moisture 13.5 to 14.0%

Protein (gluten forming) 7.0 to 10.0%

Protein (Soluble) 1.0%

Sugar 2.0 to 2.5%

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Fat 1.0%

Ash (mineral salts) 0.5%

STARCH

Starch consists of microscopic granules or cells. Although starch is not soluble in water,
it absorbs moisture through its cells and hence the necessity of protecting flour from too humid
atmosphere.

When starch is heated to about 140 deg F with about six times of its weight of water,
starch cells swell and cell wall bursts. Starch becomes soluble in water and in concentrated form
will form a gel. The process is known as gelatinization. This quality of starch is made use of in
making fruit pies where fruits are kept in suspension in starch gel. Degree of gelatinization
influences the water holding capacity of starch cells. Completely gelatinized starch will hold
more water for longer time than partially gelatinized starch. For complete gelatinization of
starch, there should be sufficient (six times of the weight of starch) water available and it should
be heated to 140 deg F. In case of bread, water available to starch is insufficient and inner
temperature of bread does not reach gelatinization point until the last stages of baking and when
the temperature does reach gelatinization point the bread is taken out of the oven. Due to these
reasons, starch in bread is only partially gelatinized.

Moisture

The next important constituent of flour is moisture. A level of 13 to 14% moisture content in
flour is ideal from bakers point of view. If moisture in flour is higher, the baker will be getting
less solid material and more of water for his money. Higher moisture will warm up the flour
during storage and will induced insect infestation, reducing its storage life. If the moisture
content of flour is high, it will reduce the Water Absorption Power (W.A.P.) of the flour,
resulting in fewer yields.

Protein

Maida contains soluble and insoluble proteins. Soluble proteins are useful in providing
nourishment to yeast for its growth and reproduction during fermentation process. Two insoluble
proteins Gliadin and Glutenin form a rubbery material when water is added to flour and it is
mixed. This rubbery material is known as Gluten and is responsible for formation of structure

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of baked products. High structured products like bread will require stronger quality of gluten
while lower structured products like cakes, cookies do not require strong gluten.

Ash content

On a small glass plate (6x)place a small heap of flour and with another similar glass plate press
the flour to smoothen the upper surface. Gently cut out rough sides, and form a neat wedge
(slick). Now dip this wedge gently in slanting position in a bowl of water so that the surface of
flour is moistened. Now observe the moistened surface minutely. Colour of bran fragments will
be more pronounced in wet condition.

Sugar

Small quantity of sugar which is naturally found in flour is of sucrose or maltose or type. Even if
sugar is not added to bread formula, it should be possible to make bread as the sugar naturally
occurring in flour will provide sufficient food to yeast to produce Carbon dioxide gas. However,
apart from providing food for yeast, sugar has other functions to perform viz. retaining, moisture
in bread, imparting golden brown colour to crust, improving taste and flavor of bread etc. These
beneficial effects cannot be achieved with the limited amount of sugar naturally occurring in
flour. Hence the necessity for using additional sugar in bread formula.

WAP of flour

It does not require any elaborate equipment to estimate the quantity of gluten. Just an accurate
weighing scale, a small bowl, a plastic spatula or a spoon, s small burette or a small measuring
cylinder, and wire sieve.

Weigh accurately 100g flour in a bowl and add 50ml. correctly measured water. Mix with a
plastic spatula or a spoon. If the dough so formed is still stiff, add more water 1ml.at a time until
the consistency of the dough is pliable but not too soft or too stiff. While doing this, utmost care
should be taken that flour is not spilled out of the bowl and it does not remain sticking to the
bowl or spoon. Note the quantity of water taken up by flour for making pliable dough. This
quantity of water is known as Water Absorption Power (W.A.P.) of that particular flour. Higher
the WAP, better the flour is likely to be.

Milling of Wheat

Today wheat is milled by a highly automatic and efficient system known as Roller Flour
Milling

Wheat milling consists of:

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1. Grading

2. Cleaning

3. Conditioning

4. Blending

5. Milling

Cleaning of wheat in a roller flour mill is carried out by a series of equipments:

Separator: reciprocating scrums remove stones, sticks and other coarse and fine material

Aspirators: Air currents remove lighter impurities

Scourer: Beaters in screen cylinders scour off impurities and roughage

Disc Separator: Barley, cockle and other foreign material is removed.

Magnetic Separator: Iron objects are removed

Washer-Stoner: High speed rotors circulate wheat and water. The process removes the
stones.

After washing, the moist wheat is conditioned in silos for a predetermined time which
depends on the original moisture content in wheat. For proper milling of wheat 16 to 17%
moisture is considered ideal. After conditioning, different types of wheats could be blended
to obtain flour of a particular specification. After blending, wheat passes through sets of
break-rolls. The set of break-rolls have two rolls which have diagonal grooves and which
move at different speeds in opposite direction from each other. The grooves are so designed
and speed of break-rolls so adjusted that wheat kernel is broken only gradually.

After the wheat passes through first break-rolls, some bran is separated and lifted off by air
current. Very small amount of flour is milled and separated. Large chunks of kernel are
further directed to second set of break-rolls where similar process takes place as above till
finally pieces of wheat kernel are almost devoid of bran. The product so obtained is known
as Sooji, Rava or Semolina from which flour is milled. After wheat passes through the first
set of break-rolls, it breaks into pieces of different sizes which are separated by Plan-sifter.
Plan-sifter contains a set of sieves where the uppermost sieve has largest holes and in
descending order the lower most sieve has smallest holes.

Refined semolina is passed through reduction rolls to obtain white flour. Reduction rolls are
smooth and granularity of flour will depend on the adjustment of pressure between these

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rolls. However, excessive pressure will cause more damaged starch which will be
detrimental to the quality of flour for bread making. Normal quantity of damaged starch is
flour is approximately 6%

We have seen above that at each stage of milling some quantity of flour is produced till
finally semolina is milled. If the various streams are collected separately, these flours will be
known as Fancy Patent, First Patent etc, depending on which steam it is collected from.
After Patent Flour is separated the remaining flour is termed as clear flour which is dark in
colour due to higher bran content. If all the steams are blended together, the end product is
termed as Straight Run Flour. Presently the flour available generally in the market is
Straight Run type which us used by bakery and biscuit industry for making all kind of
products
The flour is then bleached and matured either chemically or naturally by storing it for 10-15
days. It is believed that storing improves the flour.

Flour testing
Moisture: Flour should have 14% moisture. Higher moisture content is detrimental to flour
quality and a monetary loss to the baker as has been demonstrated in previous paragraphs.
Ash: Ash determines the mineral matter in flour. Minerals are concentrated in bran. Hence
by knowing the ash content, degree of bran contamination can be determined. Higher bran
content of flour will not only darken the flour but bread volume will also be affected as bran
has a cutting action on gluten strands.
Protein: Quantity and quality of insoluble (gluten forming) proteins can be determined in the
laboratory. For bread making, both quality as well as quantity is important

Pastry

A paste of flour, fat, salt and water is known as pastry. Optional ingredients may be added such
as sugar, flour, milk solids, egg yolk and so on.

Based on the method of mixing pastries are classified as follows:

1. Short crust pastry

2. Puff pastry

3. Flaky pastry

4. Choux pastry

Short Crust Pastry

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In this type of pastry, fat content is generally 40-80 percent. If the fat content is low, small
quantity of leavening agent (Baking Powder) should be used to impart tender eating quality.
Flour is sieved (with baking powder, milk solids) Chilled fat is cut into small pieces and mixed
with the flour. Then flour and fat are rubbed gently with the tips of fingers till the whole mass
resembles bread crumbs. If sugar is desired to be added, it should be added and mixed now.
Sugar content in this pastry varies form about 10% (For piecrust, tarts, turn-overs etc to 50%.

Mixing operation of short crust pastry is very important. It should be carried out in a manner
that gluten is not unduly developed, otherwise pastry will be become hard and not remain tender
as is should be. Small doughs could be mixed with a pallet knife, by what is known as Cutting
and folding movements of pallet knife. After mixing, the dough should be rested in cool place
(refrigerator) for half an hour to one hour before sheeting for make up. While sheeting short
crust pastry, it should be remembered that the pastry is subjected to as little frictional heat
(Generated by rolling pin) as possible.

Baking of short crust pastry is done at medium temperature (190-195 Deg.C) and the baking time
will depend on the type of product being baked. If the pastry is to be baked without any filling it
is advisable to prick the pastry with a fork in order to avoid any bubble formation which may
spoil its appearance.

B Puff Pastry

Fat used for making puff pastry should have high melting point in order to withstand the
frictional heat to which it is subjected during sheeting and folding operations. Dough for making
puff pastry should be mixed with chilled water in order to prevent fat from melting. Some food
acid like lemon juice is used in the dough in order to impart better extensibility to the dough. Fat
should be added last in the dough because if fat is added before flour has a chance to take up and
absorb water, water absorption will be reduced and gluten may not develop sufficient strength to
undergo so many sheeting and folding operations. After mixing, the dough should be relaxed in
cool place covered with moist cloth which will prevent it from crusting. Puff margarine is made
into a square block and chilled in the refrigerator.

Following precautions should be observed while sheeting puff pastry.

1. Margarine should not become too hard when the dough is relaxed in the refrigerator.
Very hard margarine will break into small pieces while sheeting and the desired layering
effect will not be achieved.

2. Margarine should not be too soft, other wise during sheeting it will be squeezed out at
one end. This will also prevent formation of desired layers.

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3. Relaxation of dough in between two sheeting operations is very important. During

sheeting operation, gluten of the dough is subjected to stress and strain and its
extensibility is reduced. During relaxation period extensibility is regained and further
processing becomes easier.

4. Under no circumstances the pastry should be subjected to undue pressure while sheeting.
This may break the continuity of gluten strands and also break the fat into small pieces.
Both the conditions will disturb the pattern of layers. It will also compress the layers too
much which will adversely affect its rise during baking.

5. The entire operation of making puff pastry should be carried out at cool temperature.
Frictional heat from sheeting action or the atmospheric temperature (warm table top)
should not make the margarine loose which, as explained earlier, will be squeezed out
and proper layer formation will not take place.

6. While relaxing the pastry, it should be covered with moist cloth in order to prevent it
from crusting. If pastry is crusted during processing, it will lose its stretchability and in
the oven will be poor.

Flaky Pastry

Flaky pastry can be used for making pie crust, vegetable puffs, Bombay khara (As popularly
known), cream rolls etc.

Proportion of fat could be 50-70% for layering and 5-10% fat could be mixed in the dough.
Higher amounts of fat either mixed in the dough or layered will make the pastry too fragile to
handle. Dough is making with flour, salt, food acid, chilled water and fat. Dough is relaxed
for about half an hour. Then the dough is sheeted into a rectangular shape and marked into
three equal parts lengthwise.

Fat is divided into three portions. One portion of fat is evenly spread onto two-third portion
of sheeted leaving out half an inch space on the edges. Now one-third part of the dough (on
which fat is not being spread) is folded over the middle one-third pat (on is folded over it).
We have now alternate layers of dough and fat. Relax the dough for 20-25 min. in cool place
covered with moist cloth in order to prevent it from crusting.

The dough is again sheeted into rectangular shape and the process is repeated twice more to
use up the remaining two portions of fat with adequate relaxation time in between sheetings.

Similar two folding are given without fat. Now we have very thin layers of dough
interspersed with very thin layers of fat which will rise during baking to form a light and
crisp product. After final sheeting and folding, the pastry should be relaxed for about an hour
before sheeting for make up.
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After make up and before placing it in the oven the pastry should be relaxed on baking sheets
for 20-30 min. This will stabilize the position of layers and rise of the product in the oven
will be even. During this relaxation period the product should be protected from crusting.

Choux Pastry

Choux pastry has altogether different kind of characteristics. This is an almost hollow shell
which is crisp eating. Shells can be filled with fresh cream or butter cream or custard cream
and then coated with fondant icing. Pastry can be made in the shape of clairs, swans, cream
puffs etc.

Water and fat is boiled together. The pan is taken off heat and all the flour is added at a time
and mixed thoroughly to avoid lump formation. The entire mass is again cooked for some
time on slow heat till the mixture starts leaving the bottom of the pan. Now the pan is taken
off fire and whisked eggs are added gradually beating the mixture thoroughly so as to form a
homogeneous smooth paste of piping consistency. Adequate whisking of this paste will
ensure desirable rise of the pastry during baking.

Baking operation of choux pastry is very important. Initially it should be baked at high
temperature (230 deg. C) so that it achieves maximum rise. Then the temperature is reduced
to about150 deg.C and it is baked until structure is stabilized and shells become crisp.

Pastry should not be subjected to unnecessary movements or sudden temperature variations

until its structure is stabilized otherwise it will collapse. Shells can be stored for short
periods and used as required.

Bread Making Methods

Straight Dough Method

In this method all the ingredients are mixed together, and the dough is fermented for a
predetermined. The fermentation time of straight dough depends on the strength of flour. Strong
flours required more fermentation time to mature adequate.

Flours which require 2 to 3 hours for maturing should be used for making bread by straight
method. Flours that take very long period for mattering should not be used in straight method. It
is is very necessary to control the temperature of a straight dough by

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1. Using shorter fermentation periods

2. Adjusting the temperature of doughing water

3. By fermenting the dough at optimum (room) temperature i.e. between 78 deg. To 80 deg.
F.

Salt delayed Method

This is a slight variation of straight method, where all the ingredients are mixed except salt and
fat. As the salt has a controlling effect on enzymatic action of yeast, the speed of fermentation of
a salt less dough will be faster, and a reduction in total fermentation time could be affected. The
salt is added at the knock-back stage. The method of adding salt at the later stage may be
according to the convenience of individual baker. It may be sifted (dry) on the dough and mixed.
It may be creamed with fat and mixed.

Whatever way is chosen for mixing the salt, only three-fourth (of the actual mixing time) mixing
should be given initially and one-fourth mixing at the time of adding salt. The method is
especially suitable if strong flours are to be used for bread-making by straight method. Due to
absence of salt, the fermentation speed is enhanced and gluten is matured in a reasonably shorter
time.

No-dough Time Method

In this method, dough is not fermented in the usual manner. It is just allowed a brief period
(about 30min) for it to recover from the strains of mixing. Since dough is not fermented the twin
functions of fermentation (i.e. production of gas and conditioning of gluten) are achieved to
some extent by increasing the quantity of yeast (2 to 3 times of original quantity) and by making
the dough little slacker and warmer. Although it is possible to make fairly acceptable bread
(during emergency) by using this method the product has poor keeping quality and lacks in
aroma. Due to absence of fermentation the gluten and starch are not conditioned sufficiently to
retain the moisture and there is no flavour because flavour producing bi-products of fermentation
are absent. As there is increased quantity of yeast present, the bread may have a strong yeast
flavour.

Sponge and Dough Method

Previously, in this chapter it has been mentioned that strong flours take too long for conditioning
and should not be used for making bread by straight dough method. For such flours sponge and
dough method is more suitable where the problem of controlling the dough temperature is not so
acute as the total fermentation time is divided in two separate segments. For the sake of

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convenience and proper identification, a sponge-dough is indicated as 60/40 sponge-dough,

where the first numbers i.e. 60 or 70 indicate the percentage of flour used in sponge and the
second numbers i.e. 40 or 30 indicate the percentage of flour mixed at the time of dough making.

When ferment is ready, it is mixed into dough, along with the remaining ingredients and allowed
to ferment for the second stage of fermentation before the

Ferment and Dough Process

This is a variation of sponge and dough method. Very often a (bread product) formula may
contain milk, eggs, substantial quantity of fat and sugar as in the case of sweet bread, Danish
pastry and other sweet fermented products. All these formula ingredients will have a retarding
effect on yeast activity. If all the formula yeast, part of flour, yeast food and sufficient water (to
make a fluid batter as in the case of flying ferment) are mixed together, the yeast gets at the end
of fermentation time (of ferment) it is in a fit condition to take on the extra load of fermentation
in the presence of milk, eggs excessive fat etc. Fermentation in the presence of milk, eggs
excessive fat etc. Fermentation time of a ferment depends on the formulation of the product but
very often it becomes a matter of individual preference e.g. some bakers may take the ferment
(for mixing) after it is dropped by itself, while others may take it just prior to dropping and some
may allow time even after it has dropped. A ferment containing milk should be guarded against
over fermentation as it will develop more that desirable quantity of lactic acid which in turn will
affect the flavor, taste and texture of the product.

Dough is taken up for make up. This method is used for making enriched bread, buns, Danish
pastry, sweet dough, doughnuts etc. where the speed is very necessary.

Improvers and emulsifiers

Types of Improvers

Improvers are classified into two. They are

1. Chemical improvers.

2. Natural improvers

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Chemical Improvers

Potassium Bromate

It reacts with flour and makes the gluten very soft. It reacts with enzymes and gives a shiny
texture. It helps yeast activity. Should be used 3 to 4gms for 1kg of flour. It improves the
volume, texture and crumb colour.

Ammonium chloride

Yeast takes this and works very fast. During heating it forms hydrochloric acid and it kills the
bacteria. Should be used 5gms on flour weight.

Potassium lodate

It improves the extensibility of gluten. We should use 5gms on flour weight.

Calcium peroxide

It makes the dough skin dry. Hence it can be utilized in automatic bread plant for moulding, so
that dough does not become sticky. We should use 3gms on flour weight

Calcium Propionate

It controls the rope and mold disease. We should use 3 to 5 gms for 1 kg flour.

Ascorbic acid

It is an oxidizing agent and it improves the dough stability

Natural Improvers

Milk

It has tightening effect on the flour protein, which improves the texture of products. It improves
the flavour and taste. Milk contains lactose. It improves the crust colour and improves the
nutritional value. The butterfat present in milk keeps the product moist for a linger time and
improves the shelf life. It gives unique buttery flavour to the product.

Milk can be used for making yeast products in many forms. That is fresh milk, condensed milk
evaporated milk and powder form. Milk must be high heat treated for yeast leavened dough
otherwise the dough will lack necessary gas retaining ability.

Malt

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It provides enzymes that convert starch to sugar during fermentation in the dough. It creases the
moisture retaining capacity and keeps the product moist and fresh for longer time. It has a
softening action on gluten, which improves the softness of the crumb, grain, texture, crust colour,
higher volume, better taste, better oven spring, and shelf life. The drying effect of milk protein in
milk bread is balanced by the use of malt.

Soy flour

Soy flour contains higher quantity of protein. It gives nutritional value to the bakery products. It
increases the water absorption power of flour. It has a modifying action on the product crumb,
texture and grain. It improves the moisture retention power, toasting characteristic, colour and
softness. It also has strengthening effect in the gluten and it improves the product quality. It also
has strengthening effect in the gluten and improves the product quality. It increased the
oxidation requirement in yeast products and rolls for optimum volume.

Faults and remedies in Bread making

Lack of volume

1. Wrong quality of flour

2. Wrong quality and quantity of yeast.

3. Wrong quality of water (alkaline water)

4. Too much salt, fat and sugar.

5. High bran content in flour.

6. Improper proofing (under proofing)

7. Under fermentation of dough

8. Too chilled dough

9. Insufficient dough weight for pan size

10. Improper proofing (Under proofing)

11. Improper baking temperature (Too hot oven)

12. Too tight dough

13. Improper humidity in proofing room

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14. Too much milk or milk powder, improvers and chemicals

Too much volume

1. Too little salt

2. Too much yeast

3. Over fermentation

4. Too slack a dough

5. Dough weight too much for pan

6. Loose moulding

7. Too much proofing

8. Too low oven temperature

Crust colour too pale

1. Too little sugar or milk and salt

2. Too much of yeast

3. Low slack a dough

4. Low diastatic capacity in the flour

5. Under mixing

6. Too much temperature for fermentation

7. Over proofing

8. Too much dusting flour used

9. Under baking

10. Too low oven temperature and time

11. Hot proofing room

Crust colour too dark

1. Too much sugar or milk, egg, fat and salt

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2. Too low dough temperature

3. Too much diastatic activity in the dough

4. Too high oven temperature

5. Lack of humidity in the oven

6. Too long baking time

7. Too young dough (under fermented or over mixed)

Cracking of crust

1. Dough skinning before baking

2. Short process of bread preparation

3. Over proofed dough

4. Uneven baking temperature

Crust too thick

1. Poor quality or too strong flour

2. Too little sugar or fat

3. Less diastatic activity in the flour

4. Over fermented dough (old dough)

5. Too low oven temperature

6. Over baked (baked too long)

7. Low humidity in oven

8. Low humidity in proofing area

Crust too hard/ Hardness in bread

1. Too strong flour

2. Low fat in the formula

3. Excess water in the formula

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4. Over mixing after water has been added

5. Insufficient fermentation

6. Too much of improvers or bleaching agent

7. Too tight dough

8. Excess flour while rolling and holding before baking

Crust blisters

1. Too much liquid

2. Improper mixing

3. Loose molding

4. Young dough (under ferment dough)

5. Excessive top heat in oven

Leathery crust

1. Too strong flour used

2. Too slack dough

3. Insufficient cooling before packing

4. Uneven fermentation

5. Excessive humidity during proofing or baking

6. Insufficient kneading

Irregularity of shape

1. Too strong or weak flour

2. Wrong quality of water (Alkaline water)

3. Less bread improvers

4. Improper mixing (Over or under)

5. Rough handling the dough

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6. Too slack or stiff dough

7. Over ripened dough

8. Excess dough as compared to bread pan size

9. Rough handling of bread

10. Improper fermentation or proofing

11. Over loading in oven

12. Loose molding

Shelling of top crust

1. Low diastic activity of the flour

2. Too stiff dough

3. Young dough

4. Under proofing

5. Insufficient sugar

6. Too high backing temperature

Lack of cleanliness

1. No sieving or cleaning of flour and other raw materials

2. Carelessness while working

3. Excessive fat used for greasing

4. Use of un cleaned working table, machinery, mould and equipments

5. Handling of bread with dirty hands (before and after baking)

Holes and Tunnels

1. Too weak flour or too strong flour

2. Too much of yeast

3. Too hard and granular fat

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4. Too little salt

5. Too much chemicals

6. Uneven mixing of raw materials

7. Too much chemicals

8. Too much of raw flour

9. Too hot oven

10. Improper processing (knock back, dividing, molding) etc

Poor taste and flavor

1. Poor quality of raw materials

2. Poor quality of flour

3. Too much /low salt

4. Too much yeast

5. Over fermented dough or under fermented

Coarse grain

1. Too much yeast

2. Too much liquid

3. Uneven mixing of raw materials

4. Under mixing of dough

5. Improper fermentation

6. Over proofed

7. Dough weight too much for pan

Gray crumb

1. Excess fat

2. Excess or less salt

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3. Excess mineral improvers

4. Less moisture content

5. Slack dough/tight dough

6. Under fermentation

7. Over fermentation

Streaky crumb

1. Insufficient water

2. Improper mixing

3. Poor makeup (Molding, panning)

4. Too much dusting flour used

Poor keeping quality

1. Poor quality of flour

2. Insufficient salt, sugar and fat

3. Too much improvers

4. Too stiff dough

5. Too high dough temperature

6. Insufficient fermentation

7. Too slacky dough

8. Improper moulding

9. Over proofed

10. Too much dusting flour

Poor texture

1. Too weak flour

2. Too little salt

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3. Excess fat/water

4. Insufficient quantity of yeast

5. Too much improvers

6. Wrong quality of water

7. Improper mixing

8. Too slack dough

9. Too long or short fermentation time

10. Too much of dusting flour

11. Improper moulding

12. Too much pan grease

13. Over proofed or under proofed

Variety of yeast dough products

1. Lean dough products

2. Rich dough products

Lean dough products

1) French bread

2) Brown bread

3) Vienna bread

4) Foccacia bread

5) Hard rolls

Rich dough products

1) Danish pastry

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2) Croissant

3) Brioche

4) Swiss dark & white chocolate bread

5) Trinidad coconut bread

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