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Article history: Understanding the ow eld around horizontal axis marine current turbines is important if this new
Received 10 June 2009 energy generation technology is to advance. The aim of this work is to identify and provide an
Accepted 17 November 2009 understanding of the principal parameters that govern the downstream wake structure and its recovery
Available online 24 November 2009
to the free-stream velocity prole. This will allow large farms or arrays of devices to be installed whilst
Keywords: maximising device and array efciency. Wake characteristics of small-scale mesh disk rotor simulators
Marine current turbine have been measured in a 21 m tilting ume at the University of Southampton. The results indicate that
Wake wake velocities are reduced in the near wake region (close behind the rotor disk) for increasing levels of
Flow eld disk thrust. Further downstream all normalised wake velocity values converge, enforcing that, as for
ADV
wind turbines, far wake recovery is a function of the ambient ow turbulence. Varying the disk
proximity to the water surface/bed introduces differential mass ow rates above and below the rotor
disk that can cause the wake to persist much further downstream. Finally, the introduction of increased
sea bed roughness whilst increasing the depth-averaged ambient turbulence actually decreases
downstream wake velocities. Results presented demonstrate that there are a number of interdependent
variables that affect the rate of wake recovery and will have a signicant impact on the spacing of
marine current turbines within an array.
& 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0029-8018/$ - see front matter & 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oceaneng.2009.11.004
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L.E. Myers, A.S. Bahaj / Ocean Engineering 37 (2010) 218227 219
actuator disks replicating a tidal turbine in a shallow uid ow Reynolds numbers as follows:
(Bahaj et al., 2007). Whilst length scales and ow features shed
U
from a tidal turbine support structure may differ from those of Fr p 1
wind the fundamental issue of the far wake ow eld mixing gd
being driven by ambient turbulence is expected to remain. Key
differences between wind and tide include potential ow UL
Re 2
acceleration above and below a tidal rotor and different turbulent n
length scales in both the ambient and wake regions.
where U is the ow velocity, g the acceleration due to gravity,
The structure of the near wake has little bearing on far wake
d the water depth, L the characteristic length (generally taken
properties. In this region the rate of wake expansion and
as the depth for wide channels) and n the kinematic viscosity
dissipation is driven by ambient turbulence and proximity of
of the uid. Linear scaling of these parameters cannot be achieved
bounding surfaces. For wind turbines longitudinal (downwind)
when the model/prototype ratio becomes too small. Froude
spacing is in the order of 810 rotor diameters, comfortably
scaling is important as there is a free surface in close proximity
within the far wake region. Previous experiments conducted by
to the rotor and thus gravitational effects cannot be ignored.
the authors (Myers et al., 2008a, 2008b) with a submerged
High Froude numbers can often occur in model systems that lead
actuator disk demonstrated that centerline velocity decits are
to unsteady water surface proles; thus parity is generally
still appreciable at 10 diameters downstream and that down-
maintained between prototype and model systems. In a large
stream spacing could be in the order of 1520 diameters. The
tidal channel, viscous forces dominate especially close to the
close proximity of sea bed and water surface constrains vertical
sea bed; thus Reynolds scaling is important. Channel properties
expansion of the wake and reduces ow entrainment on the
are used for this work (L represents the depth) as actuator
underside of the wake as demonstrated in previous studies of
disks do not rotate and for horizontal axis turbines (wind and
tidal turbines in high blockage ratio environments (Strickland
tidal) Reynolds scaling is generally dened at the rotor blade
et al., 1979). This increases the wake length for a given ambient
surface. Discrepancy in Reynolds numbers between model
turbulence intensity compared with the relatively unconstrained
and prototype is usually tolerated for the scaling of hydraulic
case for wind turbines.
channels if Froude similarity is maintained and both full-scale
Accurate representation of complex temporally and spatially
and model Reynolds numbers lie within the same turbulent
varying ow of a full-scale tidal site is never going to be achievable
classication.
at small scale in a laboratory setting. Indeed it has been stated that
In terms of device scaling all physical distances are scaled in a
full scale wind turbine wake velocity decits were smaller than
linear manner. The principal device scaling parameter is the
wind tunnel experiments due to wake meandering caused by short
amount of thrust force exerted on the uid by the rotor. This is
time scale direction changes in the wind reducing time-averaged
generally expressed as a non-dimensionless parameter; the thrust
velocities downwind of the turbine (Ainslie, 1986). Another study
coefcient is given by
(Barthelmie et al., 2005) measured this direction change down-
wind of a full-scale wind turbine and highlighted the over- Thrust
Ct 4a1a 3
estimation of wake velocity arising from a numerical model. It 0:5rU02 Ad
remains to be seen if short term uctuations in direction will occur
at MCEC-suitable sites with strong tidal ows. where r is the uid density, U0 the free stream longitudinal ow
Far wake characteristics are assumed to be similar to that of velocity, Ad the area of the rotor and a the axial induction factor.
full-scale rotors due to parity between accurately scaled rotor The axial induction factor has a peak value of 1/3; hence the
thrust and channel ow properties (velocity prole, ambient optimum value of Ct = 0.9. This equation is derived from actuator
turbulence, etc.). There is also evidence of previous investigations disk theory and is commonly found in wind turbine texts (Burton
(Builtjes, 1978; Sforza et al., 1981; Myers and Bahaj, 2008) et al., 2001). It applies equally to horizontal axis MCECs, the only
concerning the study of ow elds around horizontal axis rotors difference being the uid density and typical operating ow
using mesh disk simulators. speeds. Thrust values for marine turbines per unit area are
The overarching aim of this work is to investigate key variables approximately 50 times greater than wind turbines (at typical
that affect the ow eld downstream of scale mesh disk rotor operating ow speeds) and 5 times greater for typical rotor swept
simulators in a vertically constrained ow eld with vertical areas.
blockage ratios similar to that expected for rst-generation tidal
turbines. Far wake properties ( 45 diameters downstream) will
be similar to an operational horizontal axis rotor and the 2.2. Circulating ume
identication and quantication of specic trends will guide the
course of future research in this area. Work presented in this Experiments were conducted at the 21 m tilting ume at the
paper describes the experimental arrangement and results of Chilworth research laboratory, University of Southampton. The
investigation of the following parameters: varying rotor thrust, ume is a conventional gravity fed ume with a working section
proximity of the rotor disk to the sea bed/surface and the effect of 21 m in length, 1.35 m width and depths up to 0.4 m. Water is
increasing sea bed roughness. lifted from a large sump beneath the ume via 3 centrifugal
pumps that convey uid to a sump at the upstream end of the
working section. Flow rates are controlled with buttery valves on
each feeder pipe and depth can be varied with an overow
tailgate situated at the downstream end of the working section.
2. Experimental set-up The vertical velocity prole in the ume is well developed (Fig. 2)
and closely resembles a modied (1/7)th power law with a more
2.1. Scaling parameters uniform velocity close to the surface as measured at a full-scale
tidal site (Carbon Trust, 2005). Adding articial bed roughness
Scaling properties of an open channel can present problems at reduces the velocity and increases shear in the bottom third of the
small scale due to the relationship between both Froude and water column.
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L.E. Myers, A.S. Bahaj / Ocean Engineering 37 (2010) 218227 221
Mesh disks were constructed of varying porosity to replicate In order to visualise the ow eld around the mesh disk rotor
changes in thrust force. Lower porosity disks were machined from simulators, a large number of point measurements were taken
thin sheet PVC plastic. Porosity (ratio of open to closed area) within the channel. A Nortek ADV device was used for high
ranged from 0.48 to 0.35. Higher porosities were achieved by frequency velocity sampling. The uptake of such devices has been
using wire mesh disks. The diameter of all disks was 100 mm. swift due to affordability and ease of use. The functionality and
In order to accurately scale disk thrust coefcients from full the general accuracy of ADV devices have been addressed
scale to model scale in the Chilworth ume, actual disk thrust elsewhere (Lohrmann et al., 1994); Voulgaris and Trowbridge,
forces were in the order of 1 N. Disks were mounted in the ow 1998; Rusello et al., 2006; Blanckaert and Lemmin, 2006). The
via a stainless steel lever arm that was mounted on a rig that Vectrino ADV used for this work incorporated advanced rmware
incorporated a variable point pivot arrangement to mechanically and was set to sample at 50 Hz with a sample volume of 0.15 cm3.
amplify the force. Measurements were taken with a regularly The inow prole was measured upstream of the disk and a
calibrated 10 N button load cell mounted at the top of the rig comprehensive set of downstream points were measured. Offset
(Fig. 3 right), which was consistently excited to a xed voltage for distances from the disk centre-axis were expressed in terms of
all runs. Output responses were measured over a length of time disk diameters (D). Downstream measurements in the long-
to ascertain mean disk thrust values using a Keithley 2700 itudinal axis generally extended from 3 to 20D and laterally (cross
multimeter/data acquisition system with 22-bit resolution. ume) up to 4D. For all tests presented, the water depth was equal
to 0.3 m or 3D, which is the ratio for prototype and 1st generation
devices. Vertical measurement distance intervals were taken
as 0.1d where d = total water depth. Each ow map consisted of
250350 downstream point measurements depending on the
function of the experiment. Sample periods ranged from 90 to
180 s depending on the ow conditions at any particular point
(generally a function of observed turbulence intensity).
Fig. 3. Experimental set-up at Chilworth ume (left) and close-up of mesh disk pivot unit (right).
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222 L.E. Myers, A.S. Bahaj / Ocean Engineering 37 (2010) 218227
Table 1 sound pulse has been emitted, reected and is returning to the
U-component velocity variation in Chilworth ume. probe when it intercepts the following emitted pulse within
the sample volume. This event depends primarily on the height of
Sample Sample Mean U-component Difference from 600-s
number duration (s) velocity (m/s) sample (%) the measurement volume above the bed coupled to the ADV
velocity range. All experiments conducted in the Chilworth ume
1 90 0.2472 0.63 measurements close to 90 mm above the bed often suffered from
2 90 0.2516 1.16 such reection errors. The vertical extent of the weak spot
3 90 0.2497 0.38
4 90 0.2502 0.60
depends on the composition of the bed material and the rmware
5 90 0.2488 0.04 of the ADV device (Nortek website (unpublished), 2006).
6 90 0.2506 0.75 Measurements taken in such weak spots were characterised by
7 90 0.2504 0.66 greater energy levels (than regions of ow immediately adjacent
8 90 0.2517 1.21
to the sample volume) and increased data spiking was prevalent.
9 90 0.2498 0.45
10 90 0.2430 2.31 A velocity cross-correlation lter was applied to such data sets
11 300 0.2478 0.36 (Cea et al., 2007). This method applies the lter and removes all
12 600 0.2487 0.00 erroneous data before replacement data such as those from a
tailored algorithm does not re-introduce data spikes. Other lter
methods are available and a simple minimum/maximum lter
was generally applied to most data sets where a smaller number
of spikes were present. Fig. 5 shows raw data at one of the sample
points taken where ADV reection errors occurred. Data are
presented in velocity correlation space. As with the phase-space
lter (Goring and Nikora, 2002) good quality data are assumed to
lie within the bounds of an ellipsoid. In many instances dead spots
were identied from the ADV velocity trace and the probe
submersion depth adjusted to avoid this phenomenon.
Fig. 5. Raw velocity data shown in velocity correlation space. Sample subject to beam reection error.
Fig. 6. Regions of ow mapped in the Results section of this report. Centre plane vertical slice (left) and centreline (right).
Fig. 7. Centre plane velocity decits for varying rotor disk thrust coefcient. Ct = 0.61 (top), 0.86 (centre) and 0.94 (bottom).
Fig. 8 shows centreline data that reinforce this observation. with fewer larger holes. Ambient turbulence has a signicant
Initial velocity decits close to the disk are not a true function of effect on wake mixing and recovery in the far wake region and so
disk porosity as one might expect. Hole size and frequency also the convergence of the velocity decit proles for varying disk
inuence thrust characteristics. This was assumed to be due to thrust is somewhat expected. At distances greater than 10
increasing orice type losses associated with reducing hole diameters downstream all velocity decit proles are virtually
diameter. Thus for disks with equal porosity, smaller and more identical as the effects of varying thrust coefcient, which
numerous holes would result in a higher disk thrust than a disk primarily increase the initial momentum drop across the disk,
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224 L.E. Myers, A.S. Bahaj / Ocean Engineering 37 (2010) 218227
have dissipated. It is expected that a reduction in velocity of 10% 4.2. Proximity to bounding surfaces
or less would most likely be tolerated for placing an MCEC
downstream of another device. As the kinetic energy ux is There are a number of device concepts for harnessing energy
proportional to the cube of velocity this would still yield a from marine currents. Whilst the use of a horizontal axis rotor is
reasonable reduction in power output for a downstream device. emerging as the most common form of prime mover the means of
From these results it would seem unlikely that longitudinal supporting the rotor structure varies considerably. This gives rise
spacing of MCEC devices will be much less than 10 diameters to devices potentially operating at various points down through
(possibly 15) unless downstream devices are offset laterally from the water column. Fig. 9 shows the effect of variation of the
those operating upstream. Access for installation and vertical position of the disk in the water column. There is a
maintenance vessels may also drive MCEC device layout within signicant increase in wake velocity decit when the disk is
an array precluding tighter spacing. A further area worthy of placed within close proximity of the bed. Fig. 10 reinforces this
consideration is the differing amounts of turbulence added to the observation, showing greater centerline velocity decit for the
near wake region by the MCEC device structure. With a wide lowest disk position persisting far downstream.
range of prototype forms presently in development, predicting the Observation of Reynolds stresses with increasing downstream
ow eld in the near wake may prove quite difcult. The support distance (Fig. 11) for the deeper disk immersion highlights the
stem used for the mesh disk experiments in this work was lack of vertical symmetry that can result for a disk in a vertically
deliberately made as narrow as possible to minimise any added constrained ow. This gradually dissipates with downstream
turbulence in the near wake and to isolate the disk/ow distance until at 20D downstream the shear stress prole
properties as the principal experimental variables. approaches that of the inow condition, where the Reynolds
stress is more constant with depth. This observed lack of vertical
symmetry for mean velocity and higher order ow characteristics
effect has implications for numerical simulation of the ow eld
downstream of MCECs (Myers et al., 2008a, 2008b). A more in-
depth approach for modeling the ow eld will be required,
removing the assumption that the wake is axi-symmetric at all
distances downstream (Fig. 12).
Turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) energy can be expressed as
1 02
TKE u v02 w02 7
2
The term is actually expressed per unit mass of uid, where u0
is the varying component of the ow equal to the instantaneous
velocity minus the mean velocity. The over bar denotes the
time-averaged parameter.
For the deep immersion disk (centred at 0.33d) a normalised
representation of the TKE reveals no ow acceleration beneath the
disk and a much higher mass ow rate above the disk. This would
suggest that the mean pressure difference between the disk and
bed reduces inversely with distance and that there is very little
Fig. 8. Centreline velocity decits for varying disk Ct. mass ow; hence ow re-energisation occurs beneath the disk
Fig. 9. Centre plane velocity decits for varying disk submersion depths. Disk centre at 0.75d (top), 0.66d (centre) and 0.33d (bottom).
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L.E. Myers, A.S. Bahaj / Ocean Engineering 37 (2010) 218227 225
of the wake with free stream uid and ultimately serve to reduce
wake velocity decits downstream. Increased TKE levels beneath
the disk persist downstream for disks centred at 0.5d and 0.66d.
The increased TKE levels above the deep immersion disk serve to
prevent large vertical expansion of the wake. Fig. 9 shows the
symmetry of the wake around the centreline and the band of fast
moving ow bounding the upper part of the wake. It seems as if
reducing the disk/bed distance ultimately causes the disk to act
hydraulically as a submerged obstruction. Seabed mounted MCEC
devices may need to ensure that rotors do not sweep too close to
the slower moving uid close to the sea bed if compact array
layouts are to be realised. Second-generation devices may well be
installed in much deeper ows (relative to rotor diameter) and
hence wake expansion will be altered from the length scaling
employed in this work. Previous work by the authors has
demonstrated that wake lengths could increase in very deep
(almost unconstrained) ows [Myers et al. 2008a, 2008b)
Fig. 13. Centre plane turbulence intensity for varying disk depth over a roughened bed. Disk centre at 0.5d (top) and 0.33d (bottom).
Fig. 14. Downstream centreplane velocity for an actuator disk placed within close proximity of a roughened bed. (Disk centre at 0.33d).
Variation in the rotor disk thrust yielded the expected result that
there is little effect on the wake structure greater than six disk
diameters downstream. In the far wake region velocity decits
converged for all values of disk thrust, reinforcing the theory that
this region of wake recovery is principally driven by turbulent
mixing of the wake with the ambient ow. For full-scale MCEC
devices it is unlikely that changes in rotor disk thrust and the effect
on the downstream ow will be a signicant driver for array design.
Reducing the distance between disk and seabed serves to
increase the persistence of the wake. It is postulated that this is
caused by a restriction of mass ow rate beneath the disk leading
to a stagnant slow-moving region of ow on the underside of the
wake. Higher shear forces act on the upper surface of the wake as
free stream ow velocity is only slightly retarded but still the
active surface area of the wake where re-energisation can occur is
much reduced. Increasing the distance between the rotor disk and
the bed allows increased ow beneath the disk and an increase in
the centerline rate of wake recovery. Full-scale MCECs operating
close to the sea bed may therefore require more generous
Fig. 15. Centreline velocity decits for varying disk depth over an articially
roughened bed.
longitudinal inter-device spacing if individual device yields are
not to be compromised.
Added turbulence in the form of increased sea bed roughness
will result in a slow-moving turbulent ow that will reduce wake acted to reduce the amount of wake mixing when the rotor disk
recovery and increase structural loading on device rotor blades. was in close proximity to the bed. The slow-moving highly
Devices installed at sites with these characteristics should avoid turbulent layer of uid generated from the roughened bed mixed
extracting energy in the lower third of the water column. with the underside of the wake but tended to stagnate, reducing
the mixing rate between wake and free stream uid in this region.
When the disk was placed higher up in the water column,
5. Conclusions interaction with the bed-generated turbulence was reduced and
wake velocity decits approached those of similar experiments
The results of studies investigating the ow eld around with a smooth bed. Thus no reduction of wake persistence could
100 mm diameter mesh disk rotor simulators at the University of be realised by increasing ambient turbulence in the bed region.
Southampton Chilworth hydraulics laboratory has highlighted The increased velocity shear associated with seabed roughness
some interesting results that will serve to shape on-going should encourage device developers to avoid ow interaction in
research in this area. this region, at least in the short term.
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L.E. Myers, A.S. Bahaj / Ocean Engineering 37 (2010) 218227 227
It is acknowledged that the experiments presented here cannot Connel J.R., George R.L., 1981. The wake of the MOD-0A1 wind turbine at two rotor
replicate the turbulent ow structure that exists at real tidal diameters downwind on 3 December 1981. Report No. PNL-4210, Pacic
Northwest Laboratory, Battelle, U.S.
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recreation at small scale is virtually impossible. The experiments Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 22, 153161.
do highlight trends associated with rotor thrust, vertical constraint Dyer, K.R., 1980. Velocity proles over a rippled bed and the threshold movement
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Also the issues surrounding ow acceleration above and below a EUR16683EN.
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Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering 130 (3), 114118.
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Myers, L., Bahaj, A.S., 2005. Simulated electrical power potential harnessed by
Acknowledgments marine current turbine arrays in the Alderney Race. Renewable Energy 30 (11),
17131731.
This work is part of the Department of Business, Enterprise and Myers L.E. , Bahaj A.S., 2008. Scale reproduction of the ow eld for tidal energy
converters. In: Proceedings of the World Renewable Energy Congress (WREC
Regulatory Reform-funded project on performance characteristics X), Glasgow, UK, 1925 July 2008.
and optimisation of marine current energy converter arrays, BERR Myers L.E., Bahaj A.S., Germain G. and Giles J. 2008. Flow boundary inter-
Project number T/06/00241/00/00. action effects for marine current energy conversion devices. In: Proceedings of
the World Renewable Energy Congress (WREC X), Glasgow, UK, 1925 July
2008.
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