8th International Conference on Power Electronics - ECCE Asia

[ThB4-2] May 30-June 3, 2011, The Shilla Jeju, Korea

Advanced Building Blocks of Power Converters

for Renewable Energy Based Distributed
Generators
Riming Shao, Mary Kaye and Liuchen Chang
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada E3B 5A3

AbstractThe power converter is a critical component of liberalization of the electricity market for more players in
a distributed generation (DG) system, particularly for a the generation business, and advancement in DG
renewable energy based distributed generator. With the technologies. Fig. 1 shows the transformation of the
rapid development and growing applications of DG systems, Denmark generation landscape from a dominant
power converters have evolved from a traditional power centralized generation structure in the 1980s to a mixture
conversion device to a system integrator. This paper
outlines the basic and advanced building blocks of power
of centralized generation stations and distributed
converters for distributed generation systems, with an generators.
emphasis on the new algorithms developed especially for
grid-connected single-phase power converters in small wind
turbines and photovoltaic systems. A grid-connected power
converter should feed power of a high quality into a grid
with a low total harmonic distortion (THD), and fast
dynamic response to the variations of a renewable energy
resource. The newly developed space vector based pulse-
width-modulation (PWM) with predictive current control
provides a direct cycle-by-cycle regulation of the current
waveform feeding into the grid.

Effective anti-islanding is an essential function of a power

converter, in compliance with the grid interconnection
requirements. As active islanding detection methods exert
disturbances to the grid and passive islanding detection
methods generally have large non-detection zones, new and
hybrid islanding detection methods have been developed. A
power spectral density method has been developed to
continuously monitor and identify the possible features of
an islanding formation. Maximum power extraction from
renewable energy resources is vitally important for
distributed generators. Many algorithms have been
developed for maximum power point tracking (MPPT) of
photovoltaic and wind energy systems. A new MPPT
method has been developed by integrating the fast
extremum-finding method of Golden Section Search (GSS)
into a multi-stage MPPT algorithm. The proposed MPPT
algorithm provides fast response (in the order of 40 msec)
and high tracking accuracy (99.9%) as compared to the
existing algorithms.
Index TermsAdvanced control, Distributed generation,
Power converters, Renewable energy systems.
I. INTRODUCTION
Distributed generation (DG) systems have experienced
rapid growth in the past three decades, particularly since
the late 1990s. The drivers of this rapid market growth
include the steady increase in demand for electricity and
electricity generation capacity, requirements for reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation,
Fig. 1. Transition of Danish power generation structure rapid
development of the distributed generation market.
Many distributed generators use renewable energy as
their sources, including wind energy, solar energy,
hydraulic energy etc. As most renewable energy
resources are variable in nature, power conversion is
required for these DG systems. For example, a variable
speed wind turbine system needs to convert the variable
voltage and variable frequency generator output into a
fixed voltage and fixed frequency ac output feeding into a
grid. A photovoltaic (PV) system needs to convert the
variable dc output of a photovoltaic array into a fixed
voltage and fixed frequency ac output feeding into a grid.
Power converters have been used to accomplish this
power conversion function. A typical distributed
generation system using wind energy is shown in Fig. 2.
The power converter is a critical component of a
distributed generation system, particularly for a
renewable energy based distributed generator. With the
rapid development and growing applications of DG
systems, power converters have evolved from a
traditional power conversion device to a system
integrator. This system integrator may include multiple
function blocks, as shown in Fig. 3. This paper outlines
the basic and advanced building blocks of power
converters for distributed generation systems based on

978-1-61284-957-7/11/$26.00 2011 IEEE

renewable energy. As depicted in Fig. 3, the basic
function of a power converter is power conversion.
Advanced functions of a power converter may include
maximum power extraction algorithms to maximize the
power output under variable conditions of renewable
energy resources; control and protection algorithms to
meet the requirements for grid interconnection; and
communication and diagnosis functions to facilitate the
control and integration at the power system level.
Fig. 2. System structure of a typical renewable energy based DG unit.
Fig. 3. Building blocks of a power converter for a DG unit.
This paper will present the new algorithms developed
by the authors for grid-connected single-phase inverters
for small wind turbines and photovoltaic systems. A
generic power circuit for such a power converter is
presented in Fig. 4. An uncontrolled rectifier converts the
variable ac source into a variable dc source. The dc boost
chopper provides the dc voltage regulation and voltage
increase, as well as maximum power control if needed.
The inverter stage (i.e. dc-ac converter using IGBTs)
converts the dc voltage into an ac source, feeding into the
ac grid. If a PV array is the renewable source, no
rectifier is needed.
II. BASIC BUILDING BLOCK SPACE VECTOR PWM
Power conversion from one form or level to another is
the fundamental function of a power converter. In
particular, a grid-connected inverter should feed power of
high quality into a grid with a low total harmonic
distortion (THD), and fast dynamic response to the
variations of a renewable energy resource. This power
quality requirement demands advanced pulse-width-
modulation (PWM) algorithms for the inverter stage.
Fig. 4. Power circuit of a single-phase grid-connected wind turbine
power converter.
Most inverters for distributed generation systems are
voltage-source current-controlled inverters, where the
current feeding into the grid is directly controlled by a
pulse-width-modulation strategy [1]. One of three major
techniques may be used for regulating the output current
of a voltage source inverter. The three current control
methods are hysteresis, ramp comparison and predictive
current control. Hysteresis current controllers determine
the switching of power semiconductor devices (assuming
IGBTs) based on the errors between the actual output
currents and current references. Hysteresis current
controllers are simple and robust, but the converters'
switching frequency largely depends on the output
parameters and the control delays often compromise the
quality of the output current.
Ramp comparator controllers compare the error
current signal to a triangular carrier waveform to generate
the inverter gating pulses. The main advantage of the
ramp comparison technique is that the inverter switching
frequency is mostly limited to the frequency of the
triangular waveform, thus producing a well defined
spectrum of harmonics to facilitate the filter design.
However, the system response is affected by the stability
requirements of the feedback loop. Thus, inherent phase
and amplitude errors arise, even in steady states [2].
Predictive controllers calculate the inverter voltages
required to deliver the output currents according to the
current reference [3]. This method offers the potential for
achieving more precise current control with low
distortion and harmonic noise. However, it takes more
calculations and requires a good knowledge of the system
parameters.
An improved current predictive control strategy has
been developed to generate the desired voltage of the
inverter output which is then used to generate the inverter
PWM gating signals based on space vector control [1].
The required inverter voltage Vop for generating PWM
can be determined by:
d i g rid
V op V g r id  L (1)
dt
where Vgrid is the grid voltage, igrid is the grid current, and
L is the filters inductance. For implementation in a
digital controller, (1) can be written in a discrete form:
I ref [ n  1]  I grid [ n ]
V op_av > n @ V grid_av [ n ]  L (2)
Tperiod
where _av denotes the average voltage during a
switching period (i.e. a PWM cycle) of IGBTs, [n]
represents the current switching period, Iref is the current
reference, and Tperiod is the switching period. The timing
relations of the control variables are represented in Fig. 5.
Considering the calculation of Vgrid_av[n], the voltage
equation of (2) is then written as (3) which is directly
used for generating gating signals based on space vector
PWM principles.
I ref [n  1]  Igrid [n] (3)
Vop_av [n] 1.5Vgrid [n]  0.5Vgrid [n  1]  L
Tperiod
Fig. 5. Timing relations of the control variables.
As shown in inverter power circuit in Fig. 4, the
output voltage of the inverter, Vop, is the potential
difference between VA and VB, where VA and VB are the
potentials at the points A and B in Fig. 4 with respect to
the neutral potential VN=0. The voltage vector VA VB T
can be expressed as:
VA 1 1  1 a
V Vdc
B 2  1 1 b
where a and b are the switching signals for the four
IGBTs with 1 representing the turn-on state and 0
representing the turn-off state, Vdc is the dc link voltage.
The output voltage of the inverter can have three values:
Vop (1 0) = V dc , Vop (0 1) = - Vdc and Vop (1 1) = Vop (0
0) = 0. Fig. 6 shows the output voltage in a space vector
form for a single-phase inverter.
Fig. 6. Single-phase space vector diagram.
Based on the average inverter output voltage in a
switching period, the switching of the IGBTs, i.e. the
durations of the IGBT conducting states can be
determined by (5):
V op_av [ n ]
T12 [ n ]
and
V dc
T13 [n]
Tperiod
T period  T12 [ n ]
` (5)
where T13[n] represents the zero voltage duration, and
T12[n] represents the duration when the inverter output
voltage is the dc link voltage, during a switching period.
The centered space-vector approach is used to control the
gating signals of IGBTs in order to minimize the current
harmonics for fixed switching frequency [4].
The developed current controller based on space
vector PWM has been applied to 10kW IGBT inverters
for variable speed wind turbines for controlling the grid
current. The inverter output current waveform feeding
into the single-phase grid is shown in Fig.7 at the output
power of 7kW, where the current THD is 1.4%. The
inverter output current waveform at the output power of
10kW is shown in Fig.8, where the current THD is 0.9%.
These test results verified that the proposed PWM
strategy has a high power quality even through the grid
voltage has a noticeable total harmonic distortion of
2.3%.
> @
(4)
Fig. 7. Inverter output current & voltage waveforms at 7 kW.
(Upper trace: output current of the inverter (20A/div);
Lower trace: output voltage of the inverter (200V/div))
Fig. 8. Inverter output current & voltage waveforms at 10 kW.
(Upper trace: output current of the inverter (20A/div);
Lower trace: output voltage of the inverter (200V/div))
III. ADVANCED BUILDING BLOCK ANTI-ISLANDING
Under certain local conditions, a DG system may
maintain a stable output power with a stable frequency
and voltage even when the grid is disconnected from the protection (OFP/UFP) still play a very important role in
point of common coupling (PCC). This islanding the islanding prevention. Other passive islanding
operation of the DG system could have a significant detection methods include: rate of change of output
impact on the safety of the power system personnel and power (ROCOP), rate of change of frequency (ROCOF),
facilities. Grid interconnection standards require that a rate of change of frequency over power (ROCOFOP),
DG be de-energized when an island is formed, as shown phase jump detection (PJD) and harmonics detection
in Fig. 9 [5]. Thus effective islanding detection (HD),
techniques are a key building block of the DG power With active islanding detection techniques,
converters. perturbations are purposely injected, normally from the
DG into the point of DG connection. Active methods are
Main EPS often used in DG power converters because of their fast
response and small non-detection zone. Among active
anti-islanding techniques are reactive power export error
Area Electric Power detection (RPEED), impedance measurement method
System (AEPS)
(IM), active frequency drift (AFD), active frequency drift
with positive feedback (AFDPF), slide mode shift (SMS),
and automatic phase shift (APS) etc. For active anti-
Point of
Common Coupling islanding approaches, determining a proper perturbation
(PCC) is always a challenge and often a compromise between
successful elimination of islanding and good system
stability and quality.
Point of Research efforts have been made to improve the
DG Connection sensitivity of the passive islanding detection methods and
to improve the positive feedback of the active islanding
detection method. The target is to develop effective
Load DG unit DG unit Load
islanding detection strategies with small non-detection
Local Electric
zones and with minimum perturbations to the DG
Local Electric Local Electric
Power System 1 Power System 2 operation. This section reports on an islanding detection
Power System 3
algorithm based on power spectral density (PSD).
The power spectral density of a signal x(n) with a
Fig.9. Interconnection of a DG system with electric power system. finite-length sequence of N points is defined as,
Many islanding detection techniques have been 1 2
P (Z ) X N ( e jZ ) (6)
developed for inverter systems in the past two decades [6]. N
These techniques can be classified into two categories:
remote techniques and local techniques. While the remote where,
islanding detection methods rely on communications
between a central controller and distributed generators, N 1
2S
the local techniques rely on the local conditions of the
X N (e jZ ) x ( n )e
n 0
 jZn
,Z
N
k, k 0,1,..., N  1 (7)
DG sites in the decision making process and often present
cost-effective solutions to DG anti-islanding issues. An The signal energy can be represented in the frequency
overview of anti-islanding techniques is shown in Fig. 10. domain by,
Anti-islanding
Anti-Islanding Techniques
Techniques
1 N 1
2S
X
2
Remote Techniques Local Techniques EZ N ( e jZ ) , Z k (8)
N k 0 N
PLCC Passive Techniques Active Techniques

SCADA OVP/UVP&OFP/UFP
OVP/UVP & OFP/UFP RPEED The proportional power spectral density (PPSD) is
ROCOP IM
defined in the following as a measure of signal power
spectral density over its total energy.
ROCOF AFD

2
X N (e jZ )
ROCOFOP AFDPF
P(Z )
PJD SMS PPSD(Z ) 2
EZ N 1 (9)
HD

Fig. 10. Overview of anti-islanding techniques.

APS
X
k 0
N (e
jZ
)

The local anti-islanding techniques include passive
and active techniques. In general, passive islanding
detection techniques have large non-detection zones.
Traditional passive schemes such as over/under voltage
protection (OVP/UVP) and over/under frequency
The normalized energy in a low frequency band can
be used to detect the formation of an island, according to
simulation and experimental studies of inverter-based DG
systems. This normalized energy, denoted as the
proportional energy (PE), can be calculated from PPSD,
 PEZZ L PPSD (Z )
ZZ L
where L represents the low frequency band.
Both simulation and experimental studies revealed
that the proportional power spectral density in the low
frequency band is confined in a low value range during
the grid-connection operation of power converters, and
that PPSD in the low frequency band substantially
increases at the formation of an island. Thus, proportional
energy in the low frequency band is monitored
continuously and compared with a threshold, as an island
indicator. Fig. 11 shows the DG system under anti-
islanding testing.
(10) IV. ADVANCED BUILDING BLOCK MPPT
To maximize the power output of a DG supplied by a
renewable energy source, a maximum power extraction
strategy is a necessary function of a power converter.
Although wind turbine systems, photovoltaic systems,
hydraulic energy systems all require such a control
strategy, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
technologies are demonstrated in this paper using a PV
inverter as an example. The objective of an MPPT
algorithm is to track the maximum power output of a PV
module at various operating conditions, as shown in
typical V-I characteristics in Fig. 14.

Fig. 11. DG test platform for island detection and protection.

Fig. 14. Typical V-I characteristics of a PV module.
Fig. 12 shows the test results of PPSD under an island
operation of a DG system, with a noted increase of PPSD Numerous MPPT algorithms have been developed for
in the low frequency band. Fig. 13 depicts the substantial PV inverters. As one of the most commonly used
increase of proportional energy at the formation of an methods, the perturb & observe (P&O), or hill climbing
island, which can be used to de-energize the DG from the method shifts the operating point of a PV module/array
grid. toward the direction of power increase after a small
perturbation is applied to the PV voltage [7]-[9]. The
250 incremental conductance (INC) method is based on the
mathematical theory of maxima [10][11]. The maximum
200 power point (MPP) on the PV power curve can be
determined by comparing the instantaneous conductance
150
PPSD

(I/V) to the incremental conductance (dI/dV). The

100 advantage of the INC method over the P&O method is
that the INC method can determine whether the operating
50 point is exactly the MPP, and thus eliminate the
continuous trial-and-error process. Other MPPT
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 algorithms have been developed based on artificial
Normalized Frequency ( S radian) intelligent approaches such as fuzzy logics, neural
networks and particle swarm optimization.
Fig. 12. PPSD of the measured period under an island.
Improving the tracking accuracy and stability,
eliminating the difficulty in selecting the search step size,
800
and reducing the searching time have been the focus of
the efforts in developing advanced MPPT algorithms. A
PE
600 new multi-stage MPPT algorithm has been developed
based on the combination of golden section search (GSS),
PE

400 Trigger P&O and INC methods [12].

Signal The GSS is a technique for locating the extremum of a
200 unimodal function inside a bracketing interval by
repeatedly narrowing the width of the interval. The search
0 step size is decreased at a constant ratio throughout the
650 700 750
Sample Instant of Voltage Period at the PCC
entire process. Using the well-known golden ratio of
1.61803398      
Fig. 13. PE increase at the formation of an island.
 distributed generation installations. Fig. 18 presents the
         field test results of the MPPT algorithm in an inverter
    
      start-up process.
 180
The GSS method does not require any derivatives. 160

Vref (V)
P&O GSS INC
140
Thus, it is robust and noise-resistive, as the derivative 120

computation is easily disturbed by fluctuating signals and 100

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
180
noises. Moreover, the GSS mechanism ensures that the

Voltage (V)
160
evaluation points are spread out from each other in every 140
120
search interval. Therefore, when comparing the values in 100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
order to find the maximum, the GSS algorithm has good 15

Current (A)
10
tolerance for measurement errors due to inherent noises 5
and power ripples caused by switching mode converters. 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
In this paper, P&O, GSS, and INC are combined to 1800

Power (W)
form a multi-stage MPPT algorithm for PV systems. The 1200
600
MPPT procedure is divided into three stages, where these 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
three different methods are used, respectively. Initially, Time (ms)

the P&O is applied with relative large perturbation steps Fig. 16. Search results of the proposed GSS-based multi-stage MPPT.
to quickly obtain a bracketing interval with the MPP
inside. Once the MPP is located in a relatively narrow
range by P&O, MPPT switches to the second stage where Start

the GSS takes over. Using GSS, the MPP is found in a Stage 2: GSS
Initial: V(n-1), P(n-1)
very short time through a few iterations. Lastly, the INC V=X V(n-3)=V(n-2)
technique is used in the third stage to verify the MPP. If Stage 1: P&O
V(n-2)=V(n)

the MPP is true and does not drift, the system operates at V(n)=V(n-1)+V
Initial search interval for GSS:
the MPP in steady states. If INC judges that the MPP has Vref=V(n)
V(n-3) V(n-1) * V(n-2)
drifted, the system goes back to the first stage; P&O is |_________|_____|_________|

triggered again and the new MPP is sought.

Sampling No GSS
As shown in Fig. 15, a simulation model for the PV time? Return MPP
system under study was built in MATLAB for Yes Stage 3: INC
comparative studies of the performance of various MPPT
P(n)=V(n)I(n)
algorithms under different operating conditions. Fig. 16 INC time No
depicts the search results of the proposed multi-stage interval
Yes Yes
MPPT strategy. In this multi-stage process, the P&O P(n)P(n-1)?
stage takes 7 steps (21 ms) and GSS takes 5 steps (15 ms). Calculate
No P, dP , and dV
The total search time is 36 ms. The output power and
search accuracy are 1438.6 W and 99.94%, respectively. Swap P(n-1) and P(n)
Swap V(n-1) and V(n) Yes
PWM Generator |dV|dVmin?
Discrete, Pulses Uref
Ts = 2.5e-007 s. No
600 S powergui
i g + Yes No
S T V+ + - L V=X? Yes No
dV0?
V- I -
A 200 V
PV Array V=X V=X
25 + v Boost Chopper
T
- C1 dV=dVmin dV=-dVmin
V

Vref
V V(n-2)=V(n-1)
I V V(n-1)=V(n), P(n-1)=P(n) No
P Vref V(n)=V(n-1)+V |dP/dV|?
I MPPT PI
Scope Vref=V(n) True MPP
Transport
Product
S-Function
Delay Voltage Controller Yes

Yes No
Fig. 15. PV system simulation model in MATLAB. Sampling No dP/dV>0?
time?

A flowchart in Fig. 17 demonstrates the procedure of Yes V=X V=-X

the GSS-based multi-stage MPPT strategy. The search P(n)=V(n)I(n)
time and accuracy from different MPPT strategies found
in publications are summarized and compared in Table I. Generate initial point for
Yes No
It was found that the newly proposed GSS-based multi- P(n)P(n-1)? P&O: V(n-1), P(n-1), V
Go to stage 2
stage MPPT algorithm performs very well, featuring Start over

short search time and high search accuracy. The multi-

Fig. 17. Flowchart of the proposed GSS-based multi-stage MPPT.
stage MPPT has been applied to PV inverters for
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
TABLE I
SEARCH TIME AND ACCURACY OF DIFFERENT MPPT METHODS The Authors acknowledge the support from Natural
MPPT Methods
Search Search Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of
Time (ms) Accuracy
Canada, and Atlantic Innovation Fund.
Proposed GSS-based multi-stage MPPT 36 99.94%
Hill climbing [8] 28500 98.28%
Modified adaptive hill climbing [8] 23500 98.45% REFERENCES
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V. CONCLUSIONS
As distributed generators are penetrating into the main
stream power generation market, power converters are
playing a critical role in DG systems. As a result, more
and more advanced functions are integrated into the DG
power converters, particularly for renewable energy
based DGs. This paper outlines the basic and advanced
building blocks of power converters for DG systems,
with an emphasis on the new algorithms developed for
grid-connected single-phase power converters in small
wind turbines and photovoltaic systems.
The newly developed space vector based pulse-width-
modulation with a predictive current controller provides a
direct cycle-by-cycle regulation of the current waveform
feeding into the grid, thus resulting in extremely low total
harmonic distortion. Effective anti-islanding is an
essential function of a power converter, in compliance
with the grid interconnection requirements. A power
spectral density method has been developed to
continuously monitor and identify the possible features of
an islanding formation. Maximum power extraction from
renewable energy resources is vitally important for
distributed generators. A new MPPT method has been
developed by integrating the fast extremum-finding
method of golden section search into a multi-stage MPPT
algorithm, resulting in a fast and accurate search. All the
developed technologies reported in the paper have been
verified experimentally for their high performance.
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