The Rebec Page

5/17/2017 THEREBECPAGE
THEREBECPROJECT
(LastUpdatedOctober21,2003)
ThispagehasbeengraciouslytranslatedintoBelarussianbyBodhanZograf!
Sinceoriginallywritingthispage,I'vegottenalotofnicefeedback,andhavedoneabittotheactual
instrument.Ihavebeenquiteimpressedwiththenumberofpeoplewhoactuallyhaveattemptedtocreate
theirowninstruments,andhavebeengladtoseethispagehasbeenuseful.Peoplealsohaveinformedme
thattheoriginaldarkbackgroundwithlighttextwasunprintable,soIhavedroppedthebackgroundand
switchedthetexttosimpleblack,sothatthosewhowanttoprintthisoutmaydosomorereadily.
Thisdocumenthasgottenverygraphicintensive,sohavesomepatienceastheMANYimages(50+)thatare
onitload.Enjoy!
GeneralIntroduction
OriginandHistoryoftheRebec
MorphologyoftheRebec(w/images)
SummaryofMorphologicalData
ConstructionoftheInstrument
Playing,Sound,andTuning
MakingtheRebec
TheFinishedInstrument
WheretogetaRebec
Bibliography
GENERALINTRODUCTION
Ihavebeenplayingmedievalandrenaissancemusicforseveralyearsnow,andwasseekingtocreateasoundthatwascloserto
theoriginalthanmypresentperformance.PresentlyIamplayingthemajorityourrepetoireofmostlyrenaissancedancemusicon
violin,whichwhilebothperiodininstrumentandapplicationoftheinstrument(theviolinappearedsometimebetween1540and
1560butthat'sanotherdiscussionaltogether),itwasnotreallyappropriateforasubstantialportionofthemusicweplayed
whichpredatedtheappearanceoftheviolin.Oneoftheviolin'sprecursorswastherebec(theotherprobablybeingthelyradi
bracchioviathevioladibracchio,alsoanotherpointofdiscussionwhichI'mnotgoingtogointohere),ifnotinmorphologyat
leastinusageasanupperrangemelodyinstrumentplayedfordancemusic,amongotherapplications,soitseemedtome
logicallythatIshouldtrytoaddthatinstrumenttothepileIlugaround.(Asasidenote,I'venow(Nov.2001)acquireda4string
viellefromtheEarlyMusicShopinLondon,madebyMarcoSalerno,whichI'vebeenplayingmoreoftenasitsmoreperiodthan
theviolin,andlouderthantherebec.)SoImadeasearchforarebec,anddiscoveredthat1.)theyarefarfromeasytofind,and2.)
oncefound,theyareveryexpensive.Nothavingthefundstoacquireonefromamasterluthier(whoseemtobetheonlyoneswho
makethem)andnotabletofindakitofanykindanywhere,Iturnedtotheprospectofmakingonemyself.Todoso,Ineededto
learnalotmoreabouttheinstrument,andtooktheopportunitytolearnmoreofitshistoryandusageintheprocess.These
discoveries,alongwiththeresultsoftheproject,Inowpassontoallinterestedparties.
ORIGINANDBASICHISTORYOFTHEREBEC
Likeallgoodmedievalthings,therebec'soriginscanbetracedtothemiddleeast.Aroundthemiddletotheendoftheninth
centuryAD,thereareseveraldiscussionsofaninstrumentcalledarabab(therearemanyspellingofthisword,butI'musingthe
simpler,moremodernspelling)intheArabiclands.Unfortunately,nophysicalexamplesoftheinstrumenthavesurvivedtothe
present,andearlyIslamforbadedepictionsoftherealworld,sotheonlyexistingcontemporaryevidenceisliterary.Happily,the
literaryevidencedoesgiveussomeverydetaileddescriptionsoftheformandmethodofplayingtheinstrument.IbnKhaldun
writesinMuqaddimah("IntroductiontoHistory")apassagedescribinganinstrumentcalledtherabab,whichwasbowedbya
stringrubbedwithresinattachedtoabentshaft,whichwasdrawnacrossthestrings.Hedescribesthelefthandasbeingusedto
stopthestrongstocreatedifferentpitcheswhiletherighthandmanipulatesthebow.AlFarabigivesafulldescriptioninhisKitah
almusiqialkabir,writtenaround900AD.Herehedescribestherababassimilarinshapetothetumbur,havingalongnarrow
neckwithapearshapedbody.Stringswereattachedtoanendpinandhadtunablepegsattheotherend.Therababhadnofrets,
incontrasttothetumbur.Itwasplayeduprightonthelap,withtheinstrumentfacingawayfromtheplayer,thelefthandstopping
thestringsandtherighthandworkingabow.Itwasstrungwithtwostrings,sometimesdoubledincourses."Folk"instruments
weretunedinthirdsoraugmentedfourths,while"consort"instrumentsweretunedtoanestablishedpatternoffifths.Jeromeof
Moraviaalsocommentsontherababanditstuning,andlikewisenotesthatthestringsweretunedinfifths.IbnSinainhisKitah
http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~pbutler/rebec.html 1/39
alShifa,writtenaround1000ADalsodiscussestheinstrument,asdoeshisstudentIbnZailainalatertext.Laterevidencetellsus
thattheinstrumentsweremadewithadriedgourdbody,atightenedskinsoundboardandawoodenneck.Thepreferredstring
materialwastwistedsilk,thoughdriedgutwasalsoused.
Bythe11thcentury,theinstrumenthadfounditswayintoByzantiumandSpain,whereitsmorphologychangedbutlittle.The
Byzantineinstrumentthatwehaveillustratedevidenceforwasheldpointup,liketheArabicstyle,thoughthebowwaslongand
flat,asopposedtocurved(thoughthatmaysimplybeanattemptatperspective)[Fig.1].TheSpanishonewasmorelikethe
Arabicversion.Though,asalways,wearedealingwithpictoralevidencethatisalwayssuspect,andartists'detailsmaybeonly
minimallytrustedwithoutsomeothercorraberation.Theimagesdepictedinthesecasesaredefinitely"rabablike"whilethe
detailsmaybeofquestion.TheearliestSpanishexampleisfromtheCatalanpsalter,ca.1050AD.[Fig.2]Thisinstrumentisbeing
tuned,inthepicture,andshowsthecharacteristicshapeandshortcurvedbowthatcharacterizetherabab,butalsoshowsoneof
thechangesthatoccuredastheinstrumentmovedintoEuropeachangeinthenumberofthestrings.TheByzantineexample
showsdefinitivelyonlytwostrings,butcontemporarytextsnotethatthisnewinstrumenthadanywherefrom23,sometimesin
courses(upto6strings),anotethattheSpanishexampledemonstratesbyhavingclearlythreestrings.
Withthecomingofthecrusades,theinstrumentfindsitselfspreadingoverEuropeintoSpain,FranceandGermanybythe
middleofthe11thCentury,andintoEnglandandtherestofEuropeby1100orso.TheEuropeansdonotsignificantlychange
theformoftheinstrument.Itstillretainsthepearshapedbody,thelongneck,withthestringsanchoredonanendpinatoneend
andpegsontheother.Severalchangesdidoccur,however.First,thenumberofstringssettledon3(or6)insteadof2(or4).The
instrumentwasmoreregularlymadeofwoodratherthangourdorskin(generallytrueofalleasternstringedimports),andthe
methodofplayingshiftedfromtheverticallappositiontoamorehorizontalpositionattheshoulder,muchlikethemodern
violin.TheSpanishexamplefromtheCatalanpsaltershowsthispositionalready,soitseemstohavedevelopedveryearlyonin
Europeanusage.
Initsearlyhistory,therebecwasseenasacourtinstrument(thusseveraldepictionsofKingsplayingtheinstrument,orminstrels
playingforthebiblicalKingDavid).Bowedinstrumentsofanykindwereverypopularinthe11th13thcenturiesinroyal
society,andwholegroupsweremaintainedbythecourtsinvariousregions,suchasAlfonsotheWiseinCastile,andManfredof
HohenstaufeninSicily.Havingmusicianswasasignofstatusandwealth,atraditioncarriedintothe14thcenturybytherising
burgharsand"middleclass"whooftenemployedminstrelsaspartoftheirhouseholds.Duringthe13thcentury,fiddleswere
invitedintothechurchaspartofthemusicalpresentationoftheservices,asmentionedbyJohnofSalisburyinHonorius
Augustodeinensis,St.FrancisofAssisi,andJohannAegidiusZamorensisandothers.Itsabilitytoplayquickandlivelynotes
madeanaturalmatchfortheevolvingquickmelodiesofdance.Itwasplayedeitherasasolitaryinstrument,asaccompanimentto
singing,orinconsortwithotherinstruments(howitismostoftendepicted).Theinstrumentthrivedthroughthe14thcenturyasa
primarystringedinstrumentuntilthedevelopmentofthecompetingviellesandfiddles,whichwerefrettedbowedinstruments,
easiertoplayasthemusiciandidnothavetobeasaccuratewithhisorherfingerplacement.Bythefifteenthcenturyitsappealin
thecourtlyclasseswasdiminishing,anditwasregardedasarusticinstrument,suitablemostlyforpeasantdances.Bellefoiereand
Banquetduboysrefertoitasa"rustic"instrument,withasoundtooharshandsharpforgentlerears.Itshigh,sharpvoice
contrastedstronglywiththelowmellowtonesofthecourtfavoredbowedstringsofthetime,anditslowlyfadedfromthemusical
scene.Howeveritwasnotwithoutproponents.KingCharlesVIIIofFrancetwicepaysforitsplaying1483accountmentions
himpaying30soltoamanwhoplayedtherebec,andin1490moneywasgiventoRaymondMonnetrebecplayer.Also,seethe
exceptionallyelaboratelycarvedGermanexamplebelow.Itsawbrieflifeinthe16thcenturyasadanceinstrument.Henrythe
VIIIin1526countedthreerebecsamongsthis"stateband"andtheKingofFrancekepttwo"rebecplayerstotheKing"Lancelot
Levasseurin15231535andJehanCavalierin1559.Agricolain1528evenmentionsthattherebechad(asmanyinstrumentsof
theday)branchedoutintoafullfamilyofsoprano,alto,tenorandevenbasswhichhecalled"kleineGeigenolineBunde(orlittle
fiddleswithoutfrets)".Butitsfateasatruemelodyinstrumentwassealedbymidcenturywiththeappearanceoftheviolin,which
slowlysupplantedallotherbowedstringedinstruments.Towardtheendofthe16thcentury,therebecwaswhollyregardedasa
plebianinstrument,fitonlyforpublicstreetsandtaverns."Dryasarebec"becameapopularderagatorycomment.Bytheendof
the17thcentury,therebechadfallenfromrespect.A1628Parisianordinanceforbadeviolinsinthepublichouses,allowingonly
rebecs.AsimilarordinanceoveracenturylaterfromGuignonin1742restictsthe"amusementofthepeopleinthestreetsandthe
publichouses"tothe"threestringedrebec"andespeciallyforbadetheplayingofthenoblefourstringedviolin.Bythatpointthe
rebecistotallygonefromrecordedmusic,andforthemostpartforgottensaveasaninterestingfootnoteinChaucer.Itsurvives
brieflyintothelate18thandearly19thcenturiesasthe"kit"violin,butitwouldbedifficulttoprovethatthe"kit"or"pocket
fiddle"wasreallyarebecandnotbutsimplifiedviolin,orpossiblyahybridofthetwo.
MORPHOLOGYOFTHEINSTRUMENT:
Unfortunately,therearenoexistingexamplesofacompletemedievalorrenaissancerebec(theonesurvivingexample,theVenus
Rebecbelow,doesn'thaveanyofthesetupsurviving,soisonlyminimallyuseful),sotheonlyevidencewehaveforitsformand
appearancecomesfromtextualdescriptionsandpicturesandcarvingsfromthetime.Asmentionedabove,thepictoralevidenceis
suspect,soitisalwaystobejudgedwithcare.Itismentionedintheperiodliteraturethatmostoftenthemusiciansmadetheir
owninstruments,andnotveryoftenfromaverysetpattern,sothereareasmanydistinctformsoftheinstrumentastheirwere
musiciansplayingthem,butafewspecificscanbedeterminedfromthetextsandfromtheimages.Ihavehereassembleda
numberofimagesandwillprovidebothgeneralizationsofthewholeandspecificcommentsoneachasameansofinvestigating
boththefixedandchangingaspectsoftheinstrument.
Severalpointsoftheinstrumentdoremainthesameoveritsseveralcenturyhistory.Thebasicpearbodyshape,withaflat
soundboardandroundedback,doesnotchange.Theneckisnarrow,andblendsmoreorlessseamlesslyintothebody.Thereare
threestrings,whichareaffixedatoneendeithertoaendpinorafixedbridge,andattheothertotunablepegs,thoughexamples
arerepresentedthatshowonlytwoorasmanyasfour.Theinstrumentisbowed,thoughtheexactshapeofthatbowchangesover
time.Overitshistory,thepegboxchangesfromaflat,spadeordiscshapedsolidpiecethroughwhichthepegswerevertically
mounted,toanangledbackscrolledboxwhichhadthepegsthrustthroughlaterally,asinamodernviolin.Theinstrumentalso
hadatailpiece,abridgeandafingerboard,thoughthepresenceandformoftheseelementsseemedtovaryalargedegreeby
individualdepiction.Theinstrumentwassmall(atleastasthesopranooriginalform),nevermorethanmaybetwofeetlong,and
thebowlofthebodywasrelativelyshallow.
Dealingwiththevariablecharacteristics,Iwillexaminetheindividualdepictionsherepresented.Theseobviouslyarenot
EVERYdepictionoftheinstrumentinexistance,butdoserveafairlycomprehensivesurveyofthedifferenttypes.Theyare
presentedinchronilogicalorder,
Fig1:Byzantine,ivorycasket
c.1000(fromMuseoNazionale,
Florence,Coll.Carrand,No.26)
earliestdepictionofarebeclike
instrument.Haspearshapedbody
blendingintolongnarrowneck.
Thereisadefiniteanchorpointat
thebase,withakindoffleur
tailpiece,thoughthepegsappearto
bemissingfromthedepiction(no
otheranchorpointisclearly
indicated).Thereareonlytwo
strings,andthebowisverylong
andnarrow(thoughitmaysimply
betheartisttryingtheshowthatthe
bowisperpendiculartothesurface
ofthestrings,thusappearingflat
whenviewededgeon).Nosound
holesareshown,thesoundboard
seemstobeadistinct,attached
piece(possiblyaskincovering
muchlikeinrababs).Thisisthe
instrumentintransition.
Fig2:Spanish,CatalanPsalter,
c.1050.("KingDavidandmusicians
tuningtheirinstruments"in
BibliothequeNationale,Paris,MS
Lat.11550,fol.7v)Showsa
normalpearbodyshape.Three
distinctstrings,attachedtoa
triangulartailpieceatthebase,and
toverticallymountedpegsatthe
otherend.Thepegboxisaround
diskthatappearstobemadeofthe
samepieceastheneck/body,
suggestingthatthisisaunibody
construction.Againalittleendpiece
orendpegisindicated.Thereare
tworoundsoundholessetfarback
ontheinstrument.Thebowisa
simplecurvedbowwithend
pressuregrip(seebelow).This
imageisalsosomewhatsuspect
fromthedistortionofthelefthand,
whichhasthefingerscurling
backwardsratherthanforwardas
theyactuallymust.
Fig3:French,GradualofNevers
c.1060("Musiciandancing,with
legendConsonanciacunctamusica"
fromBibliothequeNationale,Paris,
MS.lat.9449Fol.34v).Herewe
havefourstringsandfourpegsset
intoadiamondshapedflatpegbox.
Againtherearetworound
soundholes,thoughtheyappearto
haveslightlycuspededgesalmost
likerosettes.Theyareplacedfarther
upthesoundboardthanonthe
previousimage.Thereisadefinitive
triangulartailpiecemuchlike
before.Thereisalsoalineseeming
toindicatethatthisinstrumenthada
fingerboardthatextendedthelength
oftheneck.Thebowalsoisquite
similar,thoughitappearstohavean
ornateendpiecebythegrip.
Fig4:Italian,Frescointhecryptof
SanUrbanoallaCaffarella,near
Rome.Executedin1011.Shows
severalvariations.First,the
soundholesarefacing'S'shaped
almostasonamodernviolin,
thoughtheyaremostlikely
incorrectlydrawnveryfaruponthe
soundboard.Thestringsappearto
beattachedtoafixedbridgerather
thantoatailpiece/endpeg
construction,thoughtherearethe
customarythreestrings.Thepegbox
constructionisimpossibletomake
out.Thebowisnormallyshaped,
butrathershort.
Fig5:German(Rhineland),bible
codexc.1070("KingDavidwith
musicians"inGraflich
SchonbornscheBibliothek,
Pommersfelden,Cod.2777,fol.I).
Thisonehaslessofseamlessline
betweenbodyandneck.Tailpiece
constructionseemstobeasnormal,
butthereisalsoadefinitebridge
present.Threestrings(thoughonly
twopegs),endinginacircularflat
pegbox.Thesoundholesare
centeredroughlyonthesoundboard,
semicircularinshape,withthe
bridgecenteredbetweenthem.
Eitherthisinstrumenthasa
fingerboard,ortheneckismadeof
aseparatepieceaddedontothe
bodyitisdifficulttodetermine
specificallyfromtheimage.The
bowappearsnormal.
Fig6:SouthernEnglish,"Tiberius"
Psalter,c.1050("Musicianfrom
KingDavid'ssuite"inBritish
Museum,London,Cotton
MS.Tib.C.VI,fol.30v).Thisone
seemstobeahybridfromthe
CatalanPsalterandtheGradualof
Nevers.Therearefourstringslike
theNeversimage,withfour
correspondingpegsintheflat
circularpegboxwhichappearstobe
carvedfromthesamepieceasthe
restoftheinstrument.Thesmall
triangulartailpiecewiththesmall
roundsoundholessetfarbackon
thesoundboardrecalltheCatalan
Psalterimage.Thebowappearsas
normal.
Fig7:English(Canterbury),
PassionaleofAugustinec.1100
(detailofinitialTfromBritish
Museum,London,MSArundel91,
fol.218v).Normalinmostaspects.
Threestrings,pearshapedbody
mergingintothelongneck.Pegbox
isflatanddiamondshapedand
appearstobepartofsamepieceas
bodyandneck.Tailpieceispresent.
Soundholesaresemicircularand
centeredroughlyonthesoundboard.
Noindicationoffingerboardor
bridge.Bowisnormal.
Fig8:German(Marchiennes)12th
Century("KingDavidwith
Musicians"detailfromInitialB,in
theBibliothequemunicipale,Douai,
MS.250fol.2v).Singularbody
construction,pegboxflatand
circular,threestringsattachedto
pegsandnormaltriangulartailpiece.
Soundholesaresemicircularand
centeredroughlyonsoundboard.No
indicationoffingerboardorbridge.
Bowhasextendedhandleandis
incorrectlyshownrunning
UNDERNEATHthestrings.
Fig9:English,Psalter,c.11251150
(St.John'sCollegeLibrary,
Cambridge,MSB.18,fol.I.).
Normalsingularbodyconstruction,
flattrefoilshapedpegboxhousing
theendsofthethreestrings.Has
definitetailpiece(thoughvery
long),withnoticeablebridgeset
veryclosetotailpiece.Soundholes
aresemicircular,andwhile
centeredonthesoundboard,arestill
setbehindthebridgeandtheendof
thetailpiece.Bowisnormal.
Fig10:French,detailfromthe
tympanumabovethemainchurch
doorattheChurchofSt.Pierrein
Moissacc.1120Thisinteresting
sculptureshowstwoinstruments
nexttoeachotherofdiffering
design,yetbotharereadily
recognizableasrebecs.Theleft
instrumentshowsalongishbody
thattaperstoapointatthetail.
Thereisatailpiece,threestrings(or
fivestringsarrangedin3courses),a
flatdiamondshapedpegboxwith
threepegs(actuallyitappears,as
someonenoted,thatthereWERE
fivepegstwooneithersideofthe
pentagonclosetothefingerboard,
andoneinthecenterapexthree
areclearlyvisible,oneishalf
broken(attheapex)andoneis
entirelybrokenoff),andtwosmall
roundsoundholessetaboutmid
waydownthesoundboard.The
otherinstrumentislongerinbody
shapewithastubbierneck.There
arethreestrings,butthepegboxis
cicularratherthanangular,andthe
soundholesaretheinwardfacing
"C"shaperatherthanmerelyround
holes.Theonlyremainingbitof
bowinonthefaceoftheleft
instrument,whichshowsthe
standardtipofabowbeingdrawn
acrossthestrings.Theking'sright
handisproperlypositionedandset
toholdtheotherendofthebow,but
theotherpartsofithavebrokenoff
andarelosttous.NOTE:the
instrumentshere"appear"tobeflat,
likeaguitarorfiddle,butthatseems
tobemoreanindicationofthebas
reliefstyleofthesculpturethana
truedepictionofthenatureofthe
instrument.Notetheflatnessinthe
depictionofthefoldsofcloth.
Fig11:French,detailfromthe
tympanumabovethemainchurch
doorattheChurchofSt.Pierrein
Moissacc.1120Thisverynicely
detailedsculpturerevealsanumber
offinepointsaboutthisversionof
theinstrumentsharingthesame
sculpturesetasthefigureabove.
Thethreecoursesofstrings(the
lowertwoaredoubled)areclearly
indicated.Thetailpieceis
elaboratelycarvedandeasily
recognizable,asistheloopofchord
(gut)thatconnectsittotheendpin
inthetailofthebody.Thepegboxis
thefamiliardiamondshape,with
threepegscleanlyindicated,andthe
remnantsoftwoadditionally
evident.Thereisevenevidenceofa
fingerboard,withaslightcurvetoit,
demonstratedjustaboutwherethe
neckmeetsthebody.Alsopresentis
abridge,situatedcloselytothetail
piece.Thesoundholesarean
unusualsquiggleshapethatmight
beareflectionofthestonecarver's
fancy,ormightbeanelaborate
instrument(thecarvingonthe
tailpiece,andtheknobaccentonthe
pegboxhintatthelatter).Theyare
centeredfairlycloselyonthebridge
oftheinstrumentinthecenterofthe
soundboard.Againtheinstrument
lookskindofflatbacked,butagain
Ithinkthatismorethesculptor's
styleofrepresentationthana
reflectiononthenatureofthe
instrument.Nobowisdepicted.
Fig11A:French,12thcentury,King
DavidontheCapitalofapillarin
theCathedralofVienne.Agood
threedimensionalviewofthe
instrument,thoughpositionedinan
impossibleplayingseat.Shows
simplepearshape,roundedbody
withthenecksignificantlythinner
thanthebody.Thissculpture
suggestsaveryshallowbody(nota
fullhalfcircledepth),thoughagain
thatcouldbetheconstraintsofthe
stonework.Still,theotherdetails
areveryfine,andI'dbetemptedto
saythisdoesindeedportraya
shallowbodiedinstrument.The
pegheadisdiamondshaped,the
soundholesaretheopenCshapes
turnedinward.Thisinstrumenthasa
bridgewhichthestringsliterallyrun
over,andaslightlyoddlyshaped
tailpiecesortoflikeabutterfly
perpendiculartothestring.Itis
placedrelativelyfarfromtheendof
theinstrument,andwouldthus
suggestafloatingtailpiece.Thereis
alongendlooprunningtoapeg
(notvisiblefromthisangle).There
appeartobethreestrings,and
apparantlythreepegsinthepeghead
butsomewearonthepeghead
makesitdifficulttosaywith
absolutecertainty.Still,aniceform
oftheinstrument.
Fig11B:FromtheBaptistryin
ParmaCathedral,Parma,Italy,
sculptedbyBennedetoAntelami,
ca.1180.Stillretainssomeofthe
originalcoloring!Anicerebec
player,showingdecentplaying
position.Theinstrumentispear
shaped,withdiskshapedpegbox.It
hasatailpiece,thoughdoesnot
appeartohaveaseparatelyattached
fingerboard.Therearefourdistinct
strings(asopposedtothemore
normalthree),andthesoundholes
aresimplehalfcircleC'sturned
inward.Thebodyisashallowbowl.
Overallagoodtypemodel.The
bowisasimplearc.
Fig12:French,12001250("King
Davidwithmusicians"InitialB
fromKoninklijkeBibliotheek,The
Hague,MS76EII(formerlyy421),
fol.2r.).Amanuscriptillumination
thatshowsseveralinstruments
includingthisrebec.Thisrebechas
thenormalpearshapedbody,ifa
littleelongated.Therearethree
strings,attachedclearlytoa
decoratedtailpieceandtothreepegs
setintoadiamondshapedflat
pegbox.Thesoundholesare"C"
shaped,facinginward,andare
Thereappeartobetwoinlaypieces
setintothesoundboardtowardthe
neck,adecorationnotbeforeseen.
Nootherdetailsareabletobe
determinedregardingfingerboardor
bridge(neitherappears).Thebowis
standard.
Fig13:French,LambertusTreatise,
13thCentury("KingDavidwith
Musicians"intheBibliotheque
Nationale,Paris,MS.lat.6755(2),
fol.Av).Thisoblonginstrument
showsthreestringsbutfivepegsin
itsdiscshapedpegbox.Theirisa
decoratedtailpiece,andadefinitive
bridgeindicated,situatedinthe
centeroftwosemicircularly
soundholes(facing"inward").A
fingerboardisalsoindicatedtoward
theneck.Oddisthesmallblack
triangleappearingacrossthestrings
midwaybetweenthebridgeand
fingerboard.Notquitesurewhat
thisissupposedtobeprehapsa
thirdsoundhole,orperhapsa
strangerepresentationoftheendof
afingerboard(formerseemsmore
likely).Bowhasaratherelaborate
handle,butotherwiseisrather
standard.
Fig13A:English,early12th
century.(Detailsfromaminiature
fromtheglossedpsaltermanuscript
intheBibliothequeMunicipaleat
Lunel,MS.I,fol.6).Thisisan
interestinginstrument.I'mnotquite
surewhetherI'dclassifyitasa
rebecorasanovalfiddle.Bothat
thispointwereconstructedoutofa
unibody(onepiecebodyandneck),
thoughthelinesoftherebecare
smoother.Thisappearstobe
somewhereinbetween.Itdoeshave
amarkedtailpiecewithendloopand
endpeg.Thereisadefinite
fingerboardthatisraisedoffthe
neck.Thereisabroadtrefoil
peghead.Soundholesarethe
commonhalfcircleC'sturned
inward.ThereasonIthinkthis
mightbeafiddleratherthanarebec
isthenumberandconfigurationof
thestrings.Thereappeartobefive
strings.Fourprogressnormallyover
thefingerboard,withoneoutlying
string(calledabourbon),thatis
usuallyplayedeithergatheredwith
thebowasadrone,orpluckedwith
thethumbofthelefthandand
allowedtoresonateasadrone.
Bourbonswereverycommonon
earlyfiddles,butrareornon
existantonrebecs.Iincludedthis
imagefortworeasons.Firsttoshow
thatthefloatingtailpieceandraised
fingerboarddidexistdistinctlyat
thisearlyaperiod.Andsecondto
showaninstrumentthat
demonstratesthatthelinesbetween
rebecandfiddlemightberather
blurred.Thedistinctionbetweenthe
two,especiallyasearlyasthestart
ofthe12thcentury,whenbowed
instrumentswerejustappearingin
muchofEurope,mightbe
artificiallyimposedbyourlater
ages.Theotherinterestingthingin
thisimageisthebow,withits
markedthreestrings,apparantly
tensionedbytherighthand.
Fig14:FromDeMusicade
Boethius14thcentury(?)addition
toa10thcenturymanuscript
("Minstrel,withthelegend'Nicolo
dalaviolafiorentino'"inthe
BibliotecaAmbrosianainMilan,
Italy,Cod.C.128,Inf.,Plate3a.).
Thisrebecisstandardlypear
shaped,withthreestringsleadingto
threepegsinthediscshaped
pegbox.Thereisevidenceofa
fingerboard(apparantlymadeofa
differentwoodthanthe
soundboard).Thetailpieceislong
and"T"shaped,andappearstobe
fixeddirectlytothesoundboard(no
evidenceofaendpegandcord,
thoughthismightbeanartistic
oversite).The"3"shaped
soundholesarefacinginward,and
aresetbacktowardthetail,behind
thestartofthestringsfromthelong
tailpiece.Thebowisvery
interesting.Itshowsalackofahard
curve,moreagentleonewitha
front"hook"muchasinamodern
bow.Thehandleendofthebow
alsoshowsafrog(thesmallsquare
undertherodofthebowtowhich
thehairsofthebowareattached),
alsoaquitemodernfeature.
Fig15:English,GreatCanterbury
Psalter,c.11801190(inthe
BibliothequeNationale,Paris,MS
Latin8846,fol.54v.note:thereare
atleasttwoothertextsreferredtoas
the"CanterburyPsalter"butthisis
theonlyonefoundinParis).An
Englishtrioofharp,rebecand
fiddle.Thisinstrumentispear
shapedwithabroadface.Three
stringsendinthreepegssetintoa
discshapedpegbox.Thereisafirm
tailpiece,andthesoundholesare
"C"shaped,facinginwardand
centeredonthesoundboardaheadof
thetailpiece.Thebowisslightly
morehookedthaninother
examples,butotherwiseappears
normal.
Fig16:Italian,VenicePsalter,c.
1270(BibliotecaNazionale
Marciana,Venice,MSLatinaI.77,
fo.115).Thisimagedepictsarebec
playeraccompanyingasinger.The
rebechasthecharacteristicpear
shape,withthreestringsleadingtoa
discpegbox.Thereisinindication
ofsomeedgingonthebody(either
inlaypiping,orasuggestionthatthe
soundboardissetnotchedintothe
body,ratherthanlaidwhollyon
top).Thereisatailpiece,whichis
longandextendstothecenterofthe
soundboard.Thereisalsoabridge
setclosetothetailpiece,anda
fingerboardindicated.The
soundholesare"C"shapedandface
inwardatthecenterofthe
soundboard,aboutevenwiththe
tailpiecebutbehindthebridge.The
bowappearsquitemodern,witha
hookedend,afrogandhandle,and
averynarrowspacebetweenhair
androd.
Fig17:English,TickhillPsalter,
c.13031313(fromtheNewYork
PublicLibrary,MSSpencer26,
fol.17).Hasaslightlyodd
perspective,butotherwiseshowsa
pearshapedrebecwiththreestrings
leadingtoanopendisclikepegbox.
Thisisthefirstevidenceforanopen
boxwiththepegsthrustthrough
horizontally(theknobsofthepegs
arejustvisibleatthetop)Thereisa
fairlyelaboratetailpieceovalin
shape.Abridgeisclearlyindicated
withasuggestionthatithad"feet"
likeamodernviolinbridge.The
doublelinesatthebaseoftheneck
suggestalsoafingerboard.The
soundholesare"C"shaped,facing
inward,andsituatedjustoffcenter
onthesoundboardforwardofthe
bridge.Thebowistypical.
Fig18:SmithfieldDecretals,
c.13251350(fromtheBritish
Library,MSRoyal10.E.iv,fol.71).
Thisslightlydistortedillustration
showsthelaterformofthepegbox
asadecorated"scroll"herea
horse(?)headsetatalmostright
anglestotheneckoftheinstrument.
Otherwisetheinstrumenthasthree
strings,nonoticabletail,abridge
setveryfarbackonthesoundboard,
andtwo"S"shapedsoundholes
Theillustrationalsoimpossiblyhas
theplayerfingeringtheinstrument
inthebentsection(fingeringthe
pegbox).Bowistypical.
Fig19:LutrellPsalter,c.13251340
(fromtheBritishLibrary,Add.MS
42130,fol.149).Thisgrotesque
playershowsanicepearshaped
rebecwithafairlybroadneck.The
tailpieceiselaboratelycarved,and
theendlooptotheendpegisrather
visible,thoughthereisnobridge
indicated.Threestringsendintwo
pegs,withtwostringsseemingto
impossiblybeattachedtoonepeg
(artistproblem).Thisinstrument
showstheopendiscshapedpegbox
withthepegsmountedhorizontally
throughthesidesofthebox(this
illustrationdoesnothavethem
continueentirelyacrossthebox,but
merelypassingthroughoneside).
Thesoundholesaresemicircular,
butfaceoutward.Thebowis
typical.Interestingly,thisisaleft
handedplayer...
Fig20:BurySt.Edmundsrondel
window,c.1400,currentlyinthe
VictoriaandAlbertMuseumin
London.Thisalsoslightlydistorted
instrumentshowsagainthelate
formbentscrollpegbox.Thepear
shapeistypical,andatailpieceis
present.Thenumberofstrings
variesdownthelength,startingwith
three,butonlytwomakeitpastthe
bow.Therearenosoundholesand
nopegsinthepegbox,andno
indicationofafingerboardora
bridge.Bowhasanendhook,but
otherwiseistypical.
Fig21:Fromtheroomofthe
ChurchofSt.JohninStamford,
15thcentury.Thissculpturedfigure
playsapearshapedrebecwiththree
strings.Thetailpieceisclearly
indicated,asthereisahintofa
bridge.Thesoundholesareharderto
discernexactly,thoughthereare
appeartobefoursmallcircularones
centeredaroundthemiddleofthe
soundboard(thoughthatcouldbe
thesculptor'swayofcreatingthe
"S"figureonesandthecutbetween
themhasfaded...hardtosay
though).Thepegboxhasbrokenoff,
soitcannotbecommentedon.The
bowisfairlytypical.
Fig22:TheVenusRebectheonly
physicallysurvivingrebecofwhich
Iamaware.From15thCentury
Venice,presentlyhousedinthe
KunsthistorischesMuseumin
Vienna.Veryelaboratelycarved,
withfloralpatternsonthesides,a
largefigureofnudeVenusonthe
back,andaman'sheadonthesickle
shapedpegbox.Theunusual
angularbodyisprobablyto
accomodatethecarving.The
soundboardandothersetupofthe
topoftheinstrumenthavebeenlost,
socannotcommentonthesound
holeshape,presenceoftailpieceor
thelike,howevertherewerethree
stringsasindicatedbytheexisting
threeholes.Definitelyacourtly
instrument,showingthateventhis
latetherewasstillnobleinterestin
theinstrument.Thiswascarved
entirelyoutofasingleblockof
pearwood,withthesoundbox
hollowedout.Itprobablydidnot
haveagreatsound,asthehighrelief
carvingonthebackdidnotallow
forthesoundboxtobehollowed
verydeeply.Asasidenote,mywife
wasveryhappywiththediscovery
ofthispiece,assheisanancient
historianwhosedissertation/first
bookwasontheoriginofAphrodite
(Venus),andsheseesthisasa
mergingofherandmyinterests.I
thoughtitwasanamusing
synchronism.
Fig23A/23B:Thesearetwodetails
frompaintingsbyGerardDavis.
Theleftonefrom"Virginamong
Virgins"dated1509.Therighthand
isfrom"VirginandChildwith
Angels".Bothwerehappily
suggestedbyAllenGarvin,whomI
thankfortheinformationon.Thisis
nowshowingtherenaissance
versionoftherebec.Unibody
carvingswerenowlesscommon,in
favorofmuchlighterribbed
instruments(andyes,theyare
MUCHlighter).Therebeccouldgo
eitherway.Theinstrument
portrayedveryrealisticallyonthe
leftfallsintothatvaguecategory.
Thebodyhereappearstohave
straightersides,andnotbeas
roundedastheearlierforms
(Goerge'sreproduction(foundat
EMSseebelow)followsthiskindof
pattern,thoughhisisaunibody).
ThishassimpleCsoundholes,
turnedinandplacedjusthighofthe
bridge.Thepegboxisasimple
sickle,notfullyscrolled.Thereisa
floatingtailpiece,asimplearched
bridge,andaraisedfingerboard
(thoughtheebonyinlayonlygoes
downhalfthelength).Thereare
threestrings,withthreepegs
laterallystruckthroughtthepegbox.
Thebowisasimplearchbow,very
short.Onepossible"unique"aspect
hereisthepotentialthatthe
disk/rosetteonthefingerboard
indicatesthattheinstrumentis
hollowthatfardowntheinstrument
thenecknotbecomingfullysolid
untilitreachestheebonyinlaid
fingerboard.Thisisimpossibleto
know,ofcourse,butingeneral
rosettesarerarelyblind,andusually
doindicateahollowspacebehind.
Aninterestingplayingnotethe
angelappearstobestoppingthelow
stringwithhisthumbatechnique
sometimesdescribed,butrarely
clearlyillustrated.Theother
(smaller)pictureshowsmoreorless
similarcharacteristics(eventothe
thumbstoppedstring).Thetailpiece
onthatinstrumentismoreornate,
andthefingerboardappearstogo
downthefulllengthoftheneck
(thoughinterestinglynotthefull
width).
Fig24:St.Mary'sChurchin
Beverly,16thCenturythislate
cherubyfellowshowsanodd
variantofarebec.Theinstrument
shapeiscorrect,asisthebow,tail
andendpeg,butthestringsand
pegboxareodd.Thestringsnumber
five(moretypicalofafiddlethana
rebec),andthebentbackpegbox
resemblesthatofaluteoragittern
morethananybowedinstrumentof
thetime.Theinstrumenthasa
roundedback,andlacksfrets,soit
couldpossiblybecalledarebec,but
itisastrangeversion.
Fig25:Adetailfromthepainting
"AllegoryofHearing"byJan
Brueghal,1618imagekindly
pointedoutbyAllenGarvin.This
showsthefinalphaseofthe
rebec/poquette.Thedancemasters
bythelate16thcenturyhadadopted
theviolinastheprimarymelody
lineinstrument,butoftenviolins
wereeitherprohibitedaswholy
"court"instruments,orsimplytoo
expensiveorbulky.Sothelinesof
therebecandviolinmergedback
togethertogenerateasmall,
portableviolinlikeinstrument
knownvariouslyasapockette,
poquette,orsimply"kit".Theyhad
arebeclikeunibody,oftenwitha
smallroundedsoundbox.Otherwise
theyweresetuplikeaviolin,with
taperedtailpiece,raisedfingerboard,
scrolledpegbox,andfourstrings.
Thesoundholesareusuallyornate
F'sorC's.Thisisagoodbaroque
exampleoftheinstrument,with
ornateCholesandprettyinlaid
fingerboardandtailpiece(aswas
oftenfoundonbaroqueviolsand
violins).Theytendedtohavea
thinner,tinniersoundthanthe
violin,soinasensetheyarethe
directdescendentoftherebec.They
persisteduntiltheendofthe18th
century.
However,theinstrumentisnot
entirelydead,eventoday.Variations
oftherebecarestillplayedinSpain.
OnehelpfulpersonAlfonsoGarcia
Olivainformedmeatraditionstill
goingoninCantabriainnorthern
Spain,wheretherebecsurvivesasa
rusticfolkinstrument.Ontheisland
ofCrete(offthecoastofGreecein
theMediterraneanSea),theCretan
lyrapreservesthetraditioninan
instrumentthatismoreorlessa
rebec(picturedtotheleft,with
tunings).Hereisanicearticleon
theCretanTradition.Also,the
Arabicrababinitsvariousformsis
stillofcourseplayedthroughout
NorthAfricaandtheNearEast.
SUMMARYDATAFROMFIGURES:
Bodyshape:Themostcommonformappearstobepearshaped,witharoundedbodyandanarrowneckwithacleanmerge
betweenthetwo.Severalvariantsdooccur,withtheinstrumentbeingmoreoblong,orhavingataperedtailorawiderneck,but
theyappeartobedeviationsratherthanstandards.
Pegbox:Fortheearlyinstruments(uptothe14thcentury),thestandardwastohavethe"box"asaflatdiscordiamondthrough
whichthepegsweremountedvertically.Variationsontheshapeoccurs,frompurecircles,toangulardiamondlikeforms,to
spadesorothermoreelaboratedecorativeshapes.Duringthe14thcentury,thepegboxslabwashollowedout,andthepegs
startedtobemountedhorizontallythroughthewallsofthebox.Thiseventuallydevelopedintothebentbackscrollboxseenin
severalofthelaterversions,oftenelaboratelydecoratedinafigurativefashion.
Soundholes:Thesoundholesshowalotofvariation,fromsimplecirclescutoutoftheboardtoelaborate"S"andsquiggleshapes.
Mostcommonappearstobesemicircularor"C"shaped,withtheopensideofthe"C"facinginwardtowardthestrings.The
positionofthesoundholesalsovaried,fromclosetothetail,tofarfowardtowardtheneck,butmostoftentheywerefixedfairly
closetothecenterofthesoundboardlaterally,andspacedmoreorlessevenlybetweenthestringsandedgeofthesoundboard.
Tailpiece:Thetailpiececonstructionconsistsofapegthrustthroughtheendofthesoundbox,towhichwasattachedacord(gut
orsimilarmaterial)thatheldasmallblockofwoodtowhichthestringswereanchored.Thetailpieceisalmostalwayspresent,but
couldserveseveralfunctions.Inearlierinstrumentswithoutabridge,thetailpiecewasbothanchorpointforthestrings,separating
themappropriately,andalsoservedtoraisethemoffthesoundboard.Thisfunctionofsettingboththespacingandpositionofthe
stringsislaterservedbythebridge.Thetailpiecewasgenerallytriangularinshape,butcouldbeveryelaboratelydecorated.The
lengthvariedfromasmallendpointtohalfofthelengthofthesoundboard,notwithanyconsistancyoftimeorplace,though.
Onlyinveryfewexampleswasthetailpiecemissingaltogether,andthatwasprobablyanartist'serror.
Bridge:Bridgesalsoappearfromalmostthebeginning,butappearsporadically.Severaldesignsofthetailpieceallowedthe
tailpiecetofunctionbothastailandbridge,thuseliminatingtheneedforone.Othertimesthebridgeissimplynotrepresented.
Whenthebridgeispresent,generallyitispositionedclosetothetail,andappearstobeonlyslightlywiderthanthewidthofthe
strings'spacings.Thecurvatureisimpossibletotrulycommentonbasedontheimages,butseveraldepictionsseemtoindicate
somesmallcurvaturepresent.Somewouldbenecessaryinordertoplaythestringsseparately,butthedepictionsarenottelling.
Fingerboard:Theadditionofafingerboardovertheneckalsoappearsfairlyearlyon,butseemstobemoreoftenpresentinlater
instruments.Generallytheyseemedtostopatthepointoftheneck,andnotcontinueoverthebodyasinamodernviolin.This
supportsthenotion(inmoderncommentary)thatonlyfirstpositionwasusedwhenplaying(ie,thehanddidnotslideupthe
fingerboardasmodernviolinplayersdo,butremainedinonepositionduringallplaying).
Numberofstrings:Generallythree,thoughacoupleofvariationsgofrom25strings.Threeisthemostcommon,andseemstobe
thestandard.Theillustrationsdonotsuggestthattheyweredoubled,asinsomeofthelaterrababs.Notethereismentioninthe
textsofa"bordunus"ordronestringthatapparantlyexistedonsomeearlyrebecs(nevermentionedpast1300)thatwasstrungoff
thesoundboard.Iwasunabletolocateanypictoralindicationofthisfeature.
CONSTRUCTIONOFTHEINSTRUMENT
Asmentionedabove,generallythemusiciansthemselvesmadetheirowninstruments,andthusthenumberofformsandshapesis
aboutasmuchasnumberofindividualplayers.Sometextshoweverdidcommentontheconstruction,materialsandexactformof
theinstrumentsothatafewdetailscanbeknown.
Themainbodyoftheinstrumentwascarvedoutofasingleblockofwood.Thebody,neck,and(earlieron)thepegboxwereall
fashionedoutofasinglepiece,thoughwhentheshapeofthepegboxchangedtothebentscroll,thatwas"attached,"madefroma
differentpiece.Thebodywashollowedoutuntilithadthinwalls,andthenasoundboardwasaffixedoverthetoptocreatea
resonatingchamber.Soundholeswerecutthroughthesoundboard,andthenthepegs,tail,and,ifpresent,fingerboardandbridge
wereaddedontotheinstrument.MeisterKonradvonMegenbergreferstotheconstructionasalwaysconsistingoftwoparts,the
"pauch"andthe"poden",orthebodyandthesoundboard.Thewholeofthebodyandneck,thepauch,wascarvedofasingle
pieceofwoodtowhichthesoundboard,orpoden,wasattached.Thisindicatesthattheneckandsideswerenotseparatepieces
(thiswastrueevenoftheviellesofthetime).
Themainblockwasbestmadeofahard,nonporouswoodtobest"holdinthesound."AlbertusMagnusinhisDeVegetabilis
(12061280)suggestedsycamoreormaple,thoughapricot,walnut,almondandebonyallarementionedinthevarioustexts.The
soundboardneededtobemadeoutofamoreporouswood,andbereadilyabletoresonatethesound.Theearlierskinsoftheeast
wererejectedinfavoroffirorspruce,asmentionedbyAlbertusandKonradvonMegenberg'sDasBuchderNatur.Konradalso
mentionsthattheinstrumenthasabetterandsmoothersoundifthesurfacesofthewoodarefinishedandsmooth.Severalwriters
mentionvarnishes,includinga1440Turkishtreatisesuggestingavarnishofpoweredglassandglue.
Thetailandotherpartsweremadeofsimilarhardwoods,oftenincontrastingcolorsforappearance'ssake.Fingerboardswere
madeofparticularlyhardwoodstoresisttheconstantwearoftherubbingofthestringsandfingersontheinstrumentonereason
fortheiraddition.Thebridgecouldbemadeofmanymaterialswood,amber,ivoryandboneareallmentioned.Earliermentions
indicatethatitwasgluedtothesoundboardofteninsertedunderthetailpieceasa"lifter."Itstartsoffflatterandendedupmore
curved,andnotcheswerecutontheuppersurfacetoholdthestringsinplace.
Thestringsthemselveshadavarietyofmaterials.Thearabspreferredspunsilkstrings,astheybelievedtheyhadabettertone,
couldenduremoretension,andheldtheirtuningwell.TheEuropeanspreferredgutstringsmadefromsheep'sgut.Thisenduring
argumentismadebyAmarciusinthe11thCentury,Liederhandschriftinthe12thcentury,theFranciscanBartholomeusAnglicus
inhisDeProprietatusRerum(1230),HugoconTrombergin1280orso,andJohnofTrevisain1398.Thetechniqueformaking
gutstringsisdescribedingreatdetailintheSecretumPhilosophorum(14thcentury),andIwillnotrepeatithere.Acontrasting
voiceisheardinTheSummaMusicaofthe13thcenturynotingthatmetalstringsofsilverorbronzearesuperiortogut.
Thebowwasmadeofaflexiblepieceofwoodsuchasyeworbirch,andhadseveralstringsattachedtoit.Earlyonsometimesa
singlestringsufficed.Oneendofthestringwastiedtothetipofthebow,withtheotherendaffixedneartheotherend,leavinga
spaceattheendoftheshaftforahandle.Oftentheplayerwouldpressonthestringto"tighten"thebowtomaintaintension.
Rosinwasrubbedintothestring(s)toprovidefrictionbetweenthebowandthestringsoftheinstrument.
Thegluesusedintheconstructionwere"hide"collagenglues,madebybiolingdownthehidesofanimalsandthinnedas
necessary.Theinstrumentsweresandedsmooth,andwereapparantlyoiledorvarnishedaccordingtosometexts,withthese
"finishers"beingmadeofanythingfromglassdustandgluetosimplevegetableoils.
PLAYING,SOUNDANDTUNING
Therebecwasplayedupatthechinorchest,withtheinstrumentheldhorizontallyinthelefthand,whiletherighthanddrewthe
bowlaterallyacrossthestrings.Alldepictionsshowthismethodology,thoughoneortworeversethesideoftheinstrument,and
thismethodisdescribedinmostofthetextsdealingwithitsplaying.Thefingerswereusedtostopthestrings,withtheplayers
havingtomastertheexactpositioningtomaintaincorrectpitch,astheinstrumenthadnofrets(note:MaryRemnant,inherarticle
"TheUseofFretsonRebecsandMedievalFiddles"inGalpinSocietyJournalarguesforthepossibleexistanceoftiedfretsonthe
rebecbasedontherepresentationintheCantigasdeSantaMaria,whichImentionforcompletionbutdon'tseeasthenormbased
onallotherevidence).Earlyonitissuggestedthatthestringsbeexclusivelystoppedwiththenailstofirmlyholdthestring,
thoughlateronthepadsofthefingersarealsomentionedasamethodofstoppingthestrings(thougheven16thCenturymasters
continuetopromoteusageofthenails).
Thesoundoftheinstrumentisgenerallydescribedashighpitchedandsharp,sometimesasshrill.Itsvoicewasdescribedlikethat
ofawoman's:AymeriedePayracspeaksofaminstrelwho"bowedtherebecasifimitatingafemalevoice."TheArchpriestJuan
RuizdeHitainhisLibrodeBuenAmorin1343commentsabouttherebecthat"consuaaltanota."TinctorisinDeInventioneet
UsuMusicaegrantstherebecahigherbutpleasanttone.Notallagreedwiththisassessment.InBellefoiereandtheBanquetdu
boys,therebecisdismissedasarusticinstrumentwithaharshshrillsound.Chaucer'sFriarcommentsthatawoman'svoicewas
"shrilllykearebekke,"andasimilarcommentinmadebyJohnSkelton.Nonetheless,thegeneralsenseisthattheinstrumenthas
ahighsoundingvoice,higherthanthecontemporaryfiddlesandviols,whichweretunedsimilarlytomodernviolasandcellos,
andhadasoft,mellowsound.
Theexacttuningofthestringsismoredifficulttodiscernprecisely.Therababisnotedconsistlyinits"classical"formtohaveits
stringstunedto5ths.JeromeofMoravianotesthatthesenotesaremiddleCandtheGaboveit.Thatwouldgivetheinstrumenta
fairlyhighvoice,muchlikethetwomiddlestringsofthemodernviolin(whichareDanda).Thethreestringedvarianthastwo
possibletuningsmentionedinseveralsources.Virdung(in1511)notestherebecashavingthreestringstunedinfifths.Agricola's
MusicaInstrumentalisDeudschagainmentionsthattherebecistunedin5thswithabridgeallowingthesoundingofthestrings
individuallyandhavingnodrones.The1545editionofAgricolagivesthesenotesasG,D,atheLOWERthreestringsofthe
violin.Gerle'sMusicaTeuschalsodescribestheinstrumentasbeingtunedin5ths,andthatithasnodrones,butdoesnotmention
anynotes.Othersourcesmentionagainthenotionof5ths,butprovidethenotesasD,a,etheUPPERthreestringsoftheviolin.
Thesecondtuningset(startingonD)morecloselymatchesthesopranorangeofotherinstrumentsliketherecorderandshawm.If
thenotionthattheplayerdidnotmoveoutofthefirstposition,thefirsttuning(startingonG)givesafullnoterangeofGtoe,
whilethesecondtuninggivesafullnoterangeofDtob'.Eitherismoreorlessacceptibletotherangeofperiodmusicwehave,
thoughthelaterdancemusic(Renaissance)wouldfavorthehighertuningtotheloweroneforthekeysthatareusually
represented.However,itcannotberuledoutthatthemusicianswouldsimplyalterthekeyofthemusictofittherangeofthe
instrument,orsimplyretunedtheinstrument.
THEMAKINGOFMYINSTRUMENT
Myattemptatmakingthisinstrumentwillcombineauthenticitywithsomepracticalityregardingavailablefundsandmusical
needs.Ihavedecidedforbothhistorical,aesthetic,andeaseofmakingreasonstousetheearlierdiscshapeofpegbox.Ihave
decidedtoincludebothabridgeandafingerboard,andtousethemostcommonformofsoundholesthe"C"shapefacing
inward.Thebodywillbecarvedfromablockofmaple,andthesoundboardwillbesitkaspruce,infittingwiththehistorically
mentionedmaterials.Thetailpieceandfingerboardaretobemadefromlacewoodforitsdurabilityandcontrastincolor(slightly
darkerandredderthanthelightmaple).Imanagedtofindsomeinstrumentmakershideglueinarandomhardwarestore,sothat
aspectshouldberatherauthentic,andamplanningonusingonlyhandtoolstomaketheinstrument.
Toworkoutsomeoftheaspectsofmakingthepiece,Idecidedtofirstmakea"test"instrumentslightlymorethanhalfsize,to
workoutsomeproblemsandtotrymyhandatthecarving.Imadethebody,neckandpegboxoutofbasswood(quickertocarve).
ThepieceIhadwastooshorttocarvethepegboxasonepiece,soithadtobeaddedonasanadditionalpiece,somethingthat
willNOToccurinthefinalmodel(nothappywiththatjoint).Thesoundboardismadefrombalsawood.The"C"holesareturned
outwardsclosertoaviolin'sstructureasanexperiment,butIhavedecidedthatsuchleavesthebitthebridgerestsontoofragile,
soIamgoingtogobacktotheideaofusingtheinwardturned"C"shape.Thefingerboard,tail,endpeg,andbridgeallarecarved
fromblackwalnutwoodtocontrastwiththebodycheaperforthemodelthantheebonyIwouldhaveotherwiseused,and
definitelyeasiertofind.Thebodywasstainedwithawoodoil,bothforcolorandsealingthewood,butnovarnishwasapplied.
Thepegsthemselvesarefromahalfsizedviolin,andwerecheapandeasierthancarvingonesmyself,whichIwilldoforthefinal
version.Thestringsaremetalviolinstrings,unlikethegutstringstobeusedonthefinalversion.Overallitcameoutratherwell,
enoughsotoencouragemetocontinuewiththe"real"version.Itproducesaratherhigh,shrill,butprettyloudsound,especially
forsomethingmadefrombassandbalsa,thoughitwouldrequirefingerslessthanhalfaswideasminetoactuallyplayitasthe
stringsaresoshortthefingerplacementisVERYclose.Picturesarebelow:
TheFinalVersion:
Ihavedrawnupthefinalplansnow,modifiedslightlyfromtheoriginalonestoreflecttheknowledgegainedfromthemodel.
WestwindWoodsinCanadaismysourceofwood,andtheyhaveprovidedmewithquitenicepieces,includingarathersweetly
resonatingsoundboardbitofairdriedsitkaspruce.Workonthatshallpresentlycommence,andIwillbetakingpicturesofthe
processandthetools,resultsetc.asIgoalongtoposthere.Astheygetdeveloped,Iwillsharetheresultswithall!Theseareplans
I'vedrawnuptoworkfrom:
Alsoexistingnow(in2001),aredraftingplansfortheinstrument,completewithfinetunedmeasurementsandthelike.Thisisthe
smallerversion.Youmayclickonittogetahigherrezprintableversion,butbewarnedthefileislargeabout900K.
PLANSFORREBECFINALVERSION
OveralLength 205/8inches
OverallWidth 51/2inches
OverallHeight 23/4inches
StringLength(playable)
123/4inches
Bridgetoendofneck
BodyLength 91/4inches
NeckLength 81/8inches
PegboxLength 3inches
Thefinalsizewasdeterminedbystringlength.Ialreadyplaytheviolin,andinmylazinessdidnotwanttohavetorelearnmy
fingerpositioning,sothestringlengthisexactlythesameasthatonmyviolinfromthebridgetothepegboxnotch,andassuch
shouldhavesimilarfingeringtotheviolin.Therestofthebodywasbuiltaroundthatscale.
Firstpicturesofthefinalversionprocessareavailablenow:
Thesearethethreepiecesofwoodfrom
whichtheinstrumentshallbemade.Thetop
pieceisthesoundboardchunk,whichisair
driedsitkasprucefromwesternCanada.This
istheclosestapproximationIcouldgetto
theEuropeansprucethatwouldbetheactual
woodusedontheperiodinstruments.The
bridgewillprobablyalsobecutfromthis
piece.Thelargecenterpieceisthenice
chunkofmaplethatwillserveasthebody
andpegboxoftheinstrument.Thelower
pieceislacewood(planewood),whichwill
beusedforthefingerboard,tail,andpegs.
ThesearethetoolsthatIwillbeusing.They
includetwolargewoodclamps(mostlyfor
holdingthesoundboardtothebody),three
smallmetalclamps(mostlytohold
fingerboardtoneck),acopingsaw(all
sawing),alargemetalfile(forshaping),a
smallmetalfile(forfineshaping),sixchisels
andgougesforshapingthebodyandparts,a
woodenmalletfordoingsomeofthechisel
workonthereallyhardwood,hideglue(all
gluing),andarulerformeasuringand
straightedges.Thesecondpictureshowsthe
"additional"tools.Theyincludethelarger
saw(whichprovednecessaryforthecutting
outofthebody),thelongflatfile(for
shapingfingerboard,etc.),theminifiles(for
allthesmallbits),thebiggerfile,thelarge
straightchisel(whichhasleftitsmarkon
me)andthelargecurvedchisel(forscooping
outthebowl).
STEPONEoftheactualconstructionisthe
roughshapingofthebodyoftheinstrument.
Thisbeginsbydrawingtheplanontothe
blockofmaple,asshownhere.
NextItookhandsawtowoodandbegan
cuttingitout.Istartedoutwiththecoping
saw,butthatendeduptakingliterally
forever,soIacquiredabiggersaw,whichI'll
addtotoolpicturesetlater.Evenwiththe
largersaw,handcuttingthewoodwentat
abouttherateofoneinchinaboutanhour,
asthewoodisveryhardanddense.Asit
wasittookareallylongtimetodothis
portion,butaroughcutoutshapefinally
emerged,andispicturedtotheleft.Doing
thiswithapowersawwouldprobablyhave
takenafewminutes.Byhand,tookabout80
orsohours!Usingmoderntools,another
gentlemanworkingonasimilarinstrument
cameupwiththeneatideaofturningthe
wholebodyonalathe,whichproducestwo
instrumentsatonetime!Thismethod
efficientlycutsoutthebodyanddoesthe
roundingofthebowlallinonestep!IfI
decidetomakeanymoreofthesethings,I'll
probablydoitthatway!
STEPTWO:wastoroundouttheouter
shapeoftheinstrument.Thiswasagaindone
byhand,usingchisels.Again,Ifoundthe
smallchiselthatIstartedoutwithtobe
woefullyinadequateforthetask,andgot
myselfalarger3/4inchstraightedgechisel,
whichIusedtocarvethemajorityofthe
body.Ifyoulookclosely,youmightalso
noticethatIroundedofftheendofthe
instrumentalittlemorefromthetopview.
OnceIgotitaboutwhereIwantedit,I
decidedtostartcarvingoutthebowl.
STEPTHREE:Carvingoutthebowl.I
wantedtotrytogetthewallstoabout1/8
1/4ofaninchthickbythetimeIwasdone.I
drewoutthebowlonthewood,andbegan
hackingitout,makingareallybigwooden
spoon,moreorless.Again,Idiscoveredthe
smallchiselsthathadworkedsonicelyon
themodelweretoosmallforthislarger
version,soIacquiredalargerscoopchiselto
dothis.Whiledoingthis,Ireshapedthe
outsideoftheinstrumentagain,softeningthe
tapermore,andthinningouttheneckabit
more.
Thisistheimageofthecarvedoutbowl,
withthepegboxfullyfinishedshaping.
Abouthalfwaythroughcarvingoutthebowl,
Idiscoveredthatmovingthelargechunkof
thepegboxwasgettingtiring,soIdecidedto
carveitdownabitmoretowarditsfinal
shape.Itwaswhiledoingthisataboutonein
themorningthatIslippedwithmynice
newerstraightchiselandcarvedthetopof
myleftthumbtothebone,cuttingthe
extensortendon.Oops...Twomonthslater,
aftersurgerytoreattachthetendonand
closeupthewound,andafteracoupleof
weeksofphysicaltherapytogetuseofthe
thumbback,Iwentbackandfinished
carvingoutthebowl.Andthethumbisall
betternow,moreorless,witharatherlarge
scaronthefirstjoint(seepicturebelowleft).
IguessIcanhonestlysaynowthatImade
thisthingwithtears,sweatandblood!Idid
however,'cheat'abitwhenfinishingthe
pegbox,givenmypreviousproblems,and
usedthedremeltoshapeoutthelastbit
aroundbasewhereitmeetstheneck.A
combinationoftwoproblemsresultedina
slightlydifferentshapeforthepegbox.First,
Ihadgaugedoutachunkofthelowerright
cornerbyaccidentwhileworking,and
neededtoremovethatcornerforasthetic
purposes.Thesecondandmorerelevant
probleminvolvedplayability.Theslow
slopingangleoftheoriginalpegboxdidnot
letmyhandgetintoproperpositiontoreach
theflat/naturalfirstnote.Ineededmore
roomtoslideuptheneckandsettleinmy
hand.Therefore,Inotchedthepegheadabit
intoamorespadelikeshape.Thatsolvedthe
problemnicely,andevenlookedprettygood.
Also,thisimagemoreaccuratelyshowsthe
true,reallyblondecolorofthewoodthanthe
previousones.
STEPFOUR:TheSoundboard.As
previouslymentioned,Ihaveanicepieceof
sprucewhichshallbecomethesoundboard.
Firststepistoroughcutitout,andthinit
downtotheproperthickness(about3/16
inchorso).Hereistheroughcutboardon
top.Belowthatwasthereallytoughpart.I
didnothaveabeltsander,nordidthe
originalpeoplethatmadethese,soIhadto
thintheplatemostlywithfiles.Thiswasa
slowandratherroughprocess,butI
managedtonarrowittoaabout3/16thsof
aninch.Seeoriginalthicknessandfinal
thicknesstotheleft.Afterthis,thesound
holesarecarefullyplacedontothe
soundboard(takingintoconsiderationthe
bridgepositionandthelengthofthe
vibratingportionofthestring),anddrawnon
thebackusingapapertemplatesothatthey
matcheachotherexactly.ThenIdrilleda
holeateachendofthe'C'shape,andusing
thecopingsaw,roughcutouttheholes.The
finetuningfortheedgesofthesoundholes
wasdonewiththesmallfiles.Thelast
pictureshowsthecompletedsoundboard.
STEPFOUR:THEFINGERBOARD.This
wasshapedoutofthelacewoodchunk.The
lacewoodisveryhard,butveryfibrous.It
sawsmuchmoreeasilythanthereallysmall
grainedandhardmapleofthebody,butit
alsochipsandshreadsmoreeasilyaswell,
andwasratherdifficulttoworkwithinthat
respect.Forotherpeopleattemptingthis,I
wouldprobablyrecommenddarkwalnutasa
betteralternative.Idrewouttherough
designontheblockandsaweditout(top
images).Thenwithmuchactionofthefiles
(whichprovedmucheasierthanthechisels
orknife)Iangleditdownandroundedit
over.Theshaggygrainproveddifficultto
sandandsmooth,butsofaritseemedokay.
STEPFIVE:THESMALLBITS.This
includesalltheotherlittlepiecesthetail,
theendnut,theendpeg,andtheactualpegs.
HereIgotalittlelazy.Iacquiredsomevery
attractiverosewoodviolinpegsanda
matchingendpegfromalocalmusicstore,
andamusingtheminsteadofmakingmy
own,atleastforthemoment.
NextIfashionedthetailpiecefromthe
lacewoodblock.Thenextpicturedoesgive
youagoodideaofthegrainofthatwood.I
cutthatoutwiththecopingsawandfiledit
down(Ihavecometolovemyfiles),then
carvedouttheslopeandthelittlenotchatthe
endwhereitwillrestagainstthesoundboard
andbetiedtotheendpeg..
Theendnut(theraisedbitattheendofthe
fingerboardthatthestringsrestin)wascut
outofthelacewood,splittoappropriate
narrownesswiththestraightchisel,andthen
carveddownwithknifeandmorefiles.Note
thatthegrainofthewoodfortheendnut
shouldgoperpendiculartothestrings,so
thatitbetterresistsbeingcutintobythe
stringsthemselves.Thenastiestthingto
carvewasthebridgeitsverydelicate,and
easytosplit.Again,thegrainofthewood
hastogoperpendiculartothestrings,
otherwisetheirtensioncouldsplitit.Iused
theleftoversprucefromthesoundboard,and
cutoutaroughrectangletouseforthe
bridge.Ittookthreetriestocarveitdown
intoshapeusingthedrill(toputintheinitial
holes),thecopingsaw(tocuttheslits)and
theminifiles.Thefirsttwotriesbothsplit
apartwhiletryingtomakethem(thefirst
whentryingtocutoutthebottom,thesecond
whentryingtocuttheslits).VERYdelicate
work,butatleastIhadenoughwoodthatit
wasn'taproblem.Thefinalbridgeyousee
hereturnedouttobeabittootallsoI
carvedafairamountoffthetopofit(as
you'llseebelow).Italsoispotentiallymore
complicatedthanitneededtobe.Others
makingthesebridgesinahistoricalfashion
tendtouseasimplearchbridge,something
likethis: .Itprobably
wouldhavebeenaloteasiertomake,andif
thisbridgeeverbreaks,I'llprobablyreplace
itwiththesimplervariety.
STEPSIX:PUTTINGITALLTOGETHER.
Thenextpartistoputthewholething
together.Thefirststepofthiswastodrillthe
holesinthebodytoallowfortheendpegand
stringpegstobeputin.Theendpeghole
wasratherlarge,andIwasratherscaredthat
itwouldsplitthewoodandtrashallthis
effort,buteverythingturnedoutfine.NextI
usedthedrilltoputintheholesforthestring
pegs.Thehardportionofthisisthattheyhad
tobereamedcarefullytotheexactangleof
thepegs.Idiscoveredthatthehandleofthe
longflatfilehappenedtobethesameangle,
soIusedthattoreamthepegholes,andit
provedtoworkverywell.
Allthepieceswerenowdone.I'daddedthe
smalldrilledholesinthetailpieceandthe
pegs,andpositionedthesoundboardandthe
fingerboardandcheckedthefitandposition.
Thefingerboardrequiredasmallnotchbe
cutintoitwhereitoverlappedthe
fingerboardbyaboutaninchorso,whichI
fileddown.Thebridge(asmentionedearlier)
andendnutalsobothprovedtobetootall,
andIendedupfilingthemdown
considerablylower.Theseareallthepieces
laidtogetherroughlyastheywouldgo.
NextIgluedonthesoundboardandthe
fingerboard.Asthebackoftheinstrumentis
totallyroundedoff,itpresentedtheproblem
ofhowtoclampthepiecesontothebody.I
chosethesolutionofplacingitonaflat
surfaceandweightingitdownlots!Itproved
effectiveenough.FirstIgluedonthe
soundboard,letitdry,thensandedtheedges
down.ThenIgluedonthefingerboard(see
picture),letthatdry,andsandeditsedges
downandsmoothwiththebody.ThenI
addedtheendnut(thelittleraisedbitatthe
pegendofthefingerboard)andgluedand
braceditdown.Thewholethingwasthen
smoothedandsandeddownintoitsfinal
form(seelowerpicture).Therestofthe
piecesareheldonbythepressureofthe
strings,sotheyarenotgluedon.
STEPSEVEN:Finishingandvarnishing.
Thenextpartwastoaddthefinishingtothe
bodyandparts.Thelacewoodparts
(fingerboardandtail)weresimplyoiled
usingawoodsealingoilfromthehardware
store.Astendstohappen,thewood
significantlychangescolorwhenitsoiled.
Herethelacewooddarkenedandreddened,
soitisanalmostmahoganycolor.Ithinkits
pretty.Thebodywasthentreatedwitha
sandingsealerandaspraylacquerobtained
fromMusicmakerKitsInc.,averynice
groupoffolkswhoalsoprovidedmewith
kitsformywoodenmusicstandand
mandolin(bothofwhichcameoutvery
nicely).Thesprucedarkenedalittlebit,but
themapleregaineditsstripedsheen,which
hadkindofdissappearedfromthetimeI
startedcarvingit.Ithinkitlooksreallyneat!
Oncealltheoilsandlacquershaddried,I
thenfinishedofftheinstrument!
THEFINISHEDINSTRUMENT
Thisisthefinallyfinishedinstrumentwiththestringsputon.Thestringingprocesswasdoneasfollows.First,thetailpegwas
insertedintoitshole.Thenathickstringofgutwasloopedarounditandthreadedthroughtheholesinthenarrowendofthe
tailpiece,andtiedoff.Thatwasstretchedovertheendofthesoundboard.Nextthemiddlestring'A'wastiedintothecenterhole
atthewideendofthetailpiece,andrundowntheinstrumenttothesmallnotchcutintotheendnut.Theendwasthreadedaround
thepeg,andgentlytightened.Thesameprocesswasrepeatedforthe'E'and'D'stringstoitsrightandleftrespectively.ThenI
placedthebridgeunderneaththem,centeredbetweenthesoundholes,andpushedthestringsintotheirnotchesonthebridge.The
stringswerethenslowlybroughtuptotension,whichmuchcreakingandgroaningofthewood(mostlythebridge)thatmademe
verynervous.Butintheend,thewholeinstrumentcametogether,noneofthestringssnapped(yeah!),noneofthewoodsnapped
(biggeryeah!),andtheinstrumentworks!Soundfilestocomesoon...Thestringsaremadeofgut(sheeps),obtainedfroma
companycalledPurr'llGutStrings,togivetheinstrumentamoreauthenticsound.Theyaretunedlikethethreeupperstringsof
theviolin,D,a,e.Diametersofthestringsare0.975mm,0.750mm,and0.475mmrespectively.Theyproduceasoftersoundthan
thestandardmetalstringsonmyviolin.Otherviewsofthefinalinstrument:
Theseimagesweretakenveryrecently.Notehowthecolorinthelacewoodhassignificantly"mellowed"awayfromthebrighter
reditusedtobeintoakindofgoldenbrown.Ididencounteroneproblemalmostimmediately,however.Asthegutstretched,the
endloopofgutloosenedalotandthetailstartedslippingtoofarforward.Retighteningit,thegutstringstartedtocarveintothe
softwoodofthesprucesoundboard,andtheanchorpointofthetailwastauntlybuzzingagainstthesoundboard.Ididnotwantto
havethesoundboardcutintoodeeplyorcrackedbythetail.Alsothetailwasnowpositionedatanawkwardangle,andthelittle
cornerofwoodsupportingthetensionwascracking.SoIdecidedtoreworkthetailendoftheinstrument.Icarvedofftheend
support(thelifter)attheendofthetail,anddecidedtohaveitjust"floating"abovethesoundboard.Itheninsertedasmall
tailpieceattheveryedgeoftheinstrumenttotakethetensionoftheendloopandnothaveitcarveintothesoundboard.Italso
servedtoliftthenowfloatingtailawayfromthesoundboard.Ofcourse,myfirstattempttoattachitforgottotakeintoaccount
thefactthatyoucannotglueapiecetoanothervarnishedpiece(duh!),anditimmediatelybrokeoff.Ihadtosandoffthevarnish,
sothatthewoodwouldbegluedtowood,andthatworkedverywell!Sothisisnowhowthetailendissetup.
THEBOW:havingfinishedtheinstrument,Itriedtoplayitwithmyviolinbow.Thisprovedunusallydifficult,asevenmyfairly
decentviolinbowprovedtooheavytouseontheinstrumentwithoutalotofscratchynoises.Ididafairamountofresearchinto
thebowitself,butdeterminedthatIdidn'tfeellikemakingabowthematerialscostwouldhaveapproximatedthefinishedcost
almostexactly.SoIacquiredaverynicefixedarchbowfromBernardEllis(seebelowforinfoonEllis)foraveryreasonable
price,anditworkedverywellontheinstrumentandproducedaverynicesound.
SOhereiswhatthetruefinalinstrumentlookslike,withitsbow:
Andforcomparison'ssake,hereistherebecnexttomyviolin.Thisisa150yearoldGerman4/4fiddlemodeledafterthe
Stradivariusdimensions.Notethebodysizeoftherebecismuchsmaller,buttheusefulstringlength(frombridgetonut)is
almostexactlythesame(easiertoseeonthesideview).Alsonotethedifferenceinthelengthandshapeofthebows.
SOWHATDOESITSOUNDLIKE?
HereisasoundsampleinMP3formatofmeplayingtherebec.ThepieceiscalledMitGantzemWillembyKonradPaumann,
datingfromthe15thcentury.IntheSCA,thisismusicusedforthebassedanceTurin.Thefileisover800K,sogiveitalittletime
toload.Soundsample:REBECINMP3FORMAT.
Andasafinalshotofthis,thisisme(withmywifeinhergypsypersonainthebackground)playingthelittlerebecatanSCA
eventlastwinter.
ThenextrebecexperimentinvolvedtherebeckitnowbeingofferedbyEMSthiswasoneoftheprototypes.
Youcanseetheexperiencewithithere.
WHEREDOIGETONE?
Afairnumberofpeoplehaveaskedmethis,soIfiguredI'dincludeabriefsectiononwheretogetfinishedinstruments,inthe
eventyoulikethenotionoftheinstrument,butdon'tfeellikeventuringintotheluthierbusinessyourself!Firstoff,atpresentIdo
notplanonmakinganymoreoftheseintheimmediatefuture,soI'mnotaviablesourceoffinishedinstruments:).However,there
areseveralplaceswhereyoucanfindthem:
BERNARDELLIS:aBritishluthierwhospecializedinearlystringedinstruments.AsfarasI'mconcerned,hewouldseem
tobethebestsourceforpracticallyanyearlystringedinstrument,asheseemstohavethenicestinstrumentsforthemost
reasonableprices.Inthecaseofrebecs,hemakestwovarieties:anItalianrebecfamily(sopranowiththreestrings,altoand
tenorwith3or4strings)withfholesandscrollpegbox,andarebecfamilymodeledafterthePraetoriusillustrations(1620
orso),witharosettesoundholeandscrollpegbox.Healsoisbyfarthebestsourceforbows,ifyouaremakingthe
instrumentyourselfanddon'twanttomakethebow.Acceptscreditcardsandthelikeforeasieroverseastransactions.
Aboutthe$8001000rangeforinstrumentandbowwithshipping(toeasternUS,atleast).NOTE:inNovemberof2000,
BernardEllispassedawayfromanillness.Hisinstrumentsaretomyknowledgenolongeravailabledirectlyfromhim,
thoughthereareusedinstrumentsofhissometimestobefound.
EARLYMUSICSHOP(ofLondon):thepremierplacetoacquireearlyperiodmusicalinstruments,especiallyinkitform
(thoughthekitmakernowhastheirowndirectbuysite).TheysellBernardEllisItalianstylerebecs.NOTE:inNovember
of2000,BernardEllispassedawayfromanillness.Hisinstrumentsaretomyknowledgenolongeravailable.Theyalso
sellrebecsbyfellowsnamedJamesBisgood(atrebleandatenorversionseeandhearhisattheFalsobordonewebsite)
andGoerge(a3stringtrebleanda4stringalto),andalsocarryMarcoSalernorebecs,whichareverynice.Newfor
Summer2003theyareofferingasopranorebeccalledtheMitreRebec(madeeitherbyCeskeofCzechrepublicorin
Pakistan,haven'tdeterminedthatyet)thatisonlyaround$300orsoeasilythemostaffordableinstrumentonthemarket
atthispoint.Theyalsoperiodicallyhaveusedinstruments,soworthacheck.
ANTIQUESOUNDWORKSHOP,LTD:locatedinMassachusettsnearBostonintheUS.Anotherveryextensiveshop
withaverywideselectionofinstrumentsofallkindsfrommedievaltobaroqueandearlyclassical.AgoodAmericanrival
forEMS.SellsBernardLehmannrebecs,insopranoandalto/tenor3stringstyles.About$800900withbowhaven't
checkedshippingwiththem.
BERNARDLEHMANN:awellrespectedinstrumentmakerfromNewYorkState.Doesa3stringrebecsellingfor$600,
withotherpotentialoptions.Hisrebecsusemedievalshaping,andyoucanseepicturesthere.Healsohasnicebowsfor
under$100(Ihaveoneofthem,anditworksquitewell).
KELISCHEKWORKSHOP:anotherAmericanearlymusicinstrumentsshopnotquiteasextensiveasASW,butstill
verygood.Theymakeasopranorebecwith3or4strings,andanalto/tenorrebecwith3or4strings.Ihaven'tseenor
heardtheseinstruments,soIcannotdirectlycommentontheirshapeorsound,butotherKelischekproductsIhaveseen
havebeenverygood,soIdon'tseewhythesewouldn'tbe.Instrumentrunsaround$950orsotheirbowsareapricey
$300.
NORTHERNRENAISSANCEINSTRUMENTS:asmallworkshopinEngland,verygoodsourceforstrings,varnishes,
earlysheetmusic,andthelike.Sellsafullfamilyofrenaissancestylerebecs,includingtheonlyversionofa"bass"rebec
I'veseenlistedanywhere.Pricesarealittledifficulttoworkout(youbuytheinstrument,strings,extradecoration,etc.all
asseparatethings)andtheirshippingisalsoabitcomplicated.Theyonlytakepaymentinpoundssterling(drawnonUK
bank)butnowdoacceptcreditcards.Theydoperforminexpensivecustomwork.Ithinkasopranowouldworkoutto
about$700withshipping,butIcouldnotfindanyinformationonbows.Ihaven'tphysicallyseenorheardanyoftheir
instruments,socannotcommentontheirquality.
ANCESTRALINSTRUMENTS:anindividualmaker,DavidMarshall,whomakessomeveryniceMedievalfiddles,and
isclaimingtostartproducingatenorrebec.Healsounfortunately,asjustanindividualinEngland,takesonlypayments
inpoundssterlingdrawnonUKbank,anddoesnotacceptcreditcards.Someniceveryhistoricalrecordings,though.
FurtherbadnewsDavidMarshallhasalsopassedawayrecently,sohisinstrumentsarenolongeravailableexcepton
theusedinstrumentmarket.
MIDEASTMANUFACTURING:isnowmakingahandsomelittlemedievalstylerebec.Looksreallynice,comeswith
hardcaseandbowforanamazinglylow$300.Verymuchworthcheckingoutifyouareinterestinginacquiringagood
beginnerinstrument.Haven'thearditplayedyet,socannotcommentonsound,butwillprobablybeacquiringone
eventuallytocheckitout.Itsworththepriceforthecaseandbowalone!
MARCOSALERNO:anindividualmakerinItaly,whomakesveryniceearlyfiddles,rebecs,andviols.Notcheap
($750+),butverynice.Ihaveoneofhisearlyfiddles,whichIperformwithandhavereceivedmuchacclaimregarding.
JESUSREOLID:anindividualmakerinSpain,whoalsomakesveryniceearlystringedinstruments.Siteisentirelyin
Spanish,buthedoeshaveagreatphotosequenceofmakinghisthreestringrebec/rebab(withaskinhead,ratherthan
woodensoundboard).Thethumbnailimagesappeartobemissing,butifyouclickoneachone,youcanwatchhimcarve
outthewholeinstrumentusingnothingbuthandtoolsinthetraditionalfashion.Rathercool,actually.Hisinstruments
lookwonderful,butIhavenoideahowmuchhechargesorhowtheysound.
KATEBUEHLERofUNPROFITABLEINSTRUMENTS:anindividualmakerintheUS,studiedwithDanielLarson
above.OnlymakeroftheTrombaMarina(seehersiteforanexplainationveryamusing)Iknowof...alsomakesanice
assortmentofrebecsofvarioustypes.Pricesrunsaround$800$900,dependingonindividualfeatures.Shealsodoesvery
niceperiodbowsatapricey$325(only$275withinstrument).
CHRISELMESandGAITAMEDIEVALINSTRUMENTS:locatedinScotland,madesaniceearlyperiodstylerebec.
Looksreallynice,andhaseasilyremoveablesoundpostforvariableperformance.Assumingitispricedcomparablywith
hisfiddle,wouldrunaround$700$800dependingondetails.Alsohassomereallycoolearlybows,includingsome
wonderfulhookedbowsnobodymakesforaround$100orso.Notsurehowhetakespayment.
BARRYEBERSOLEandJUBILTORES:locatedinOhio,USA,makesavarietyoffiddlesandrebecsI'veheardin
recording,andtheydosoundnice.Don'tknowpricingorspecificsyetaswebsiteisstillunderconstruction.
JOHANHEDVALLinSwedenmakesanicedogheadrebecofthelaterrenaissancestyle.Hisharpsarereallynice,soI
expectthathisrebecwillbegoodaswell.WebsiteinSwedish,andnolistedpricesthatIcanfind,however.
HISTORISCHEMUSIKINSTRUMENTEisaGermancompanymakingtwodifferenttypesoflaterperiodrebecs,one
basedofftheitalianmodel(literallyafterB.Ellis'sversion),andanotheroffofPraetorius'illustration.Anothermodelafter
Virdungalsoappearstobeintheworks.Verynicework,butIamunawareoftheprices.
Tomyknowledgeatthispoint,nobodymakesa"kit"varietyoftherebec.IfIeverdogetspaceinmyhouseforarealwoodshop,
Imighteventuallydoso,butatthispointthatisn'thappening.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bachmann,Werner.TheOriginsofBowing.transNormaDeane.OxfordUniversityPress:London,1969.Thisistherootsource
formostmodernresearch,andpracticallyeverybodyciteshim.Averygoodcomprehensivestudyofearlystringandbowedstring
instruments.
Remnant,Mary.EnglishBowedInstrumentsfromAngloSaxontoTudorTimes.ClarendonPress:Oxford,1986.Alsoavery
goodbookforstringedinstruments.
Hayes,Gerald.TheViolsandotherBowedInstruments.BroudeBrothersLtd:NewYork,1969.
Boyden,David.TheHistoryofViolinPlayingfromitsOriginsto1761.OxfordUniversityPress:London,1965.
Bachmann,Alberto.TheEncyclopediaoftheViolin.DeCapoPress:NewYork,1966.don'tknowifanyrelationtoWerner..
Crane,Frederick.ExtantMedievalMusicalInstruments.UniversityofIowaPress:IowaCity,1972.Obviouslynothingonthe
rebecdirectly,butmentionedbecauseitdoesgiveusefulinformationonwhatexistinginstrumentswedohaveincollections
aroundtheworld.
TwoOlderandsomewhatoutofdatetexts:
Bessaraboff,Nicholas.AncientMusicalInstruments,Boston1941.
Panum,H.StringedInstrumentsoftheMiddleAges.London,1939.
Andsincesomepeopleasked,ashortlistofprimarytextsdescribingtheinstrument:
JohannesdeGrocheo.DeMusica.circa1300.
JohannesTinctoris.DeInventioneetUsuMusicaefromabout1487.
SebastianVirdung.Musicagetetscht.1511.
MartinAgricola.Musicainstrumentalisdeudtsch.1528.
MichaelPraetoriusSyntagmaMusicumesp.vol2:DeOrganographiaandvol3:HarmonieUniverselle.1618.
Thereareothers,butthatshouldgetanybodyinterestedagoodstart...
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