Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic
plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic



plastic
2

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
F lb N  = Fs F Ft
 = t = 2f or 2 Ao
A o in m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
3
 Common States of Stress
Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F





Ao
Ski lift(photo courtesy
Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao 
Ac
F


s
Ao
M
2R Note:  = M/AcR here.
4

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)

Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches

structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)

Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
> 0

z >0
h < 0

6
 Engineering Strain
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:
/2
 L

L

Lo Lo wo
wo

Shear strain: L/2


x  = x/y = tan

y 90 - 
Strain is always
90 dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 7.1 (a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 3e. 7

Linear Elastic Properties

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:
=E
F
E

Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

9
 Poisson's ratio,

Poisson's ratio,
: L

L




metals: ~ 0.33 -
ceramics: ~ 0.25
polymers: ~ 0.40

Units: > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa] or [psi]
< 0.50 density decreases
: dimensionless (voids form)

10

Mechanical Properties
Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus) depends
on bond strength of metal

Adapted from Fig. 7.7,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

11

Other Elastic Properties

 M
Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
 torsion
=G test

M
Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G
K

2(1  ) 3(1  2 )
12
 Youngs Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
40 Tin
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester
4 glass (GFRE)
PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE 13

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships

Simple tension: Simple torsion:

FL o
 Fw o 2ML o
L



4
EA o EA o r G
 o
F M = moment

/2
= angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
L/2
Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
14

Plastic (Permanent) Deformation

(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p
engineering strain, 

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 7.10 (a),

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

15
 Yield Strength, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y = yield strength
y

Note: for 2 inch sample

= 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in
engineering strain, 
p = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 7.10 (a),
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
16

Yield Strength : Comparison

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
Hard to measure ,

values
Hard to measure,

Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr

Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 17
10

Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
TS
F = fracture or
y
engineering

ultimate
stress

strength

Typical response of a metal Neck acts

as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
18
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cwa
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber)Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
PP CFRE( fiber)
30 hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 19

Ductility
L f  Lo
Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL
x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 7.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

20

Toughness
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, 
Adapted from Fig. 7.13, very small toughness
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, 

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
21
 Resilience, Ur
Ability of a material to store energy
Energy stored best in elastic region


Ur
 y d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur  yy
2
Adapted from Fig. 7.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
22

Elastic Strain Recovery

D
yi

y o
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load

Strain

Adapted from Fig. 7.17, Elastic strain

Callister & Rethwisch 3e. recovery
23

Mechanical Properties
Ceramic materials are more brittle than metals.
Why is this so?
Consider mechanism of deformation
In crystalline, by dislocation motion
In highly ionic solids, dislocation motion is difficult
few slip systems
resistance to motion of ions of like charge (e.g., anions)
past one another

24
 Flexural Tests Measurement of
Elastic Modulus
Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.
3-Point Bend Testing often used.
-- tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials.
cross section F
L/2 L/2 Adapted from Fig. 7.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
d R
b
= midpoint
rect. circ.
deflection
Determine elastic modulus according to:
F F L3
x E
(rect. cross section)
F
4bd 3
slope =

F L3
E
(circ. cross section)

12R 4
linear-elastic behavior
25

Flexural Tests Measurement of

Flexural Strength
3-point bend test to measure room-T flexural strength.
cross section F
L/2 L/2 Adapted from Fig. 7.18,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
d R
b
= midpoint
rect. circ.
deflection
location of max tension

Flexural strength: Typical values:

Material fs (MPa) E(GPa)
3Ff L
fs
(rect. cross section) Si nitride 250-1000 304
2
2bd Si carbide 100-820 345
Al oxide 275-700 393
FL
fs
f (circ. cross section) glass (soda-lime) 69 69
R3 Data from Table 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

26

Mechanical Properties of Polymers

Stress-Strain Behavior
brittle polymer

plastic
elastomer
elastic moduli
Adapted from Fig. 7.22,
less than for metals Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals

Deformation strains for polymers > 1000%
for most metals, deformation strains < 10% 27
Influence of T and Strain Rate on Thermoplastics

Decreasing T...
(MPa)
-- increases E 80 4C Plots for
-- increases TS semicrystalline
-- decreases %EL 60 PMMA (Plexiglas)
20C
Increasing 40 40C
strain rate...
-- same effects 20
as decreasing T. to 1.3
60C
0
0 0.1 0.2  0.3
Adapted from Fig. 7.24, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 7.24 is from T.S.
Carswell and J.K. Nason, 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the
Mechanical Properties of Organic Plastics", Symposium on Plastics,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.)

28

Time-Dependent Deformation
Stress relaxation test: There is a large decrease in Er
-- strain in tension to  for T > Tg. (amorphous
and hold. 105 rigid solid polystyrene)
Er (10 s) 3 (small relax) Adapted from Fig.
-- observe decrease in in MPa 10
7.28, Callister &
transition Rethwisch 3e. (Fig.
stress with time. 1 region 7.28 is from A.V.
10 Tobolsky, Properties
and Structures of
tensile test 10-1 Polymers, John
viscous liquid Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
o strain 10-3 (large relax) 1960.)

60 100 140 180 T(C)

(t) Tg
time Representative Tg values (C):
Relaxation modulus: PE (low density) - 110
PE (high density) - 90
Selected values from
(t ) PVC + 87 Table 11.3, Callister
E r (t )
PS +100 & Rethwisch 3e.
o PC +150
29

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
30
 Hardness: Measurement
Rockwell
No major sample damage
Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
Minor load 10 kg
Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

HB = Brinell Hardness
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

31

Hardness: Measurement
Table 7.5

32

True Stress & Strain

Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched

True stress T
F Ai T
1  

True strain T
ln i o  T
ln1  

Adapted from Fig. 7.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

33
 Hardening
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y1
y small hardening
0


Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T
K  Tn n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
true stress (F/A) true strain: ln(L/Lo)
34

Variability in Material Properties

Elastic modulus is material property
Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
Statistics
n

Mean xn
x

n
1
n 2
 x i  x 
2

Standard Deviation s

n 1

where n is the number of data points

35

Design or Safety Factors

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working
1.2 and 4
N
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y
working
1045 plain
carbon steel:
N y = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N TS = 565 MPa
5

 d2 / 4  F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
36
 Summary
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

37