LESSON 2 Fossil Fuels

Guiding Question: How did fossil fuels form, and how are they obtained
and used?

Explain how fossil fuels formed.
Describe the uses of coal and how it is removed
from the ground.
Describe the uses of oil and how it is extracted.
Explain the characteristics and uses of natural gas.
Predict the future of fossil fuels.
Reading Strategy Before you read, preview Figure 6,
which shows how coal formed. Write any questions you have
about the illustration. Answer these questions when you read
the lesson.
Vocabulary strip mining, subsurface mining, petroleum,
petrochemical, oil sands, oil shale, methane hydrate

DOWN BY THE STATION, early in the morning, see the little

pufferbellies all in a row. When you hear that old childrens song, do you
ever wonder what a pufferbelly is? Pufferbelly is a slang term for a steam
locomotive. Many years ago, railroad trains were powered by steam, and
that steam usually came from water heated by burning coal.
Today most trains run on diesel fuel or electricity, not steam produced
by coal fires. Both diesel fuel and the coal that powered the old steam
locomotives are fossil fuels. All fossil fuels are nonrenewable energy
resources. These nonrenewable fuels were produced by processes that are
still happening today. However, these processes do not create fossil fuels
nearly fast enough to replace the ones we are using up. To replenish all
the fossil fuels we have used so far would take many millions of years.

How Fossil Fuels Form

Fossil fuels form from the remains of organisms that lived mil-
lions of years ago.

17.2 Lesson Plan Preview
Inquiry Students investigate
how people have historically
used coal.
Real World Students make
lists of products they use every-
day that contain petroleum.
Differentiated Instruction
English language learners learn
different uses of the word gas.
17.2 Resources
Paper and Pencil Activity, Fossil Fuel
Use Bellringer Video, Coal MinesIn-
tegral to the Economy Graph It, Global
Oil Production and the Hubbert Curve
Chapter 17 Overview Presentation
Fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas, are formed from the
remains of once-living organisms. The energy in these fuels comes
originally from the sun. During photosynthesis, electromagnetic energy
from the sun is converted to chemical energy stored in complex mol-
ecules. Over millions of years, some of these molecules undergo a series
of changes that eventually result in fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are composed
mostly of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are chemical compounds made
mainly of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Breakdown Without Oxygen After they die, most organisms do
not end up as part of a coal, gas, or oil deposit. Fossil fuels are produced
only when the remains of living things are broken down in an environ-
ment that has little or no oxygen, such as the bottoms of deep lakes,
swamps, and shallow seas. As dead organisms gradually accumulate at the
bottoms of these bodies of water, sediments may accumulate on top of the
the remains and exert pressure on them.

522 Lesson 2
Different Conditions, Different Fuels The remains of organisms FOCUS Watch the ABC News
may be converted into crude oil, natural gas, or coal. Various factors, video Coal MinesIntegral
such as temperature, amount of pressure, and the chemical composition to the Economy. Use the
of the starting material, determine which fossil fuels are produced. Oil, information in the video to
for example, comes from the remains of organisms such as microscopic launch a discussion of the im-
portance of coal as an energy
animals and algae. These organisms live in oceans and inland seas. Coal source in the United States.
forms from plant remains that are compressed under very high pres-
sure. Figure 6 shows how coal forms. First, peat forms as plants die and
BIG QUESTION
fall into a lake, bog, or swamp. Then, coal forms over millions of years,
under increasing heat and pressure. Notice that there are different types Can we depend on nonrenewable
of coal. Lignite has the lowest energy value, and anthracite typically has energy resources for our energy
needs?
the highest.
Explanation After students have
read about coal formation, help
Coal them use what they have learned
to expand their understanding of
Coal, which is used mainly to generate electricity, is obtained the Big Question. First, have stu-
by mining. dents write a sentence that relates
the length of time required for coal
Coal is the worlds most abundant fossil fuel, and its use goes back to to form to coals classification as
ancient times. People in parts of China have heated with coal for at a nonrenewable energy resource.
Then, have students apply their
least 2000 years. In Britain, during the second and third centuries of knowledge of coal formation to de-
the modern era, the ancient Roman invading armies used coal for heat- velop and support an opinion about
ing. Beginning in the 1300s, in what is now the southwestern part of the whether people can use nonrenew-
United States, Native Americans of the Hopi Nation used coal to heat able energy resources for all of their
energy needs.
their homes, cook food, and fire pottery.
North America has abundant coal reserves. One quarter of the worlds
coal is located in the United States. Asia, too, is rich in coal. Today, China ANSWERS
and the United States are the main producers and users of coal. Reading Checkpoint China and the
United States
Reading What nations are the main producers of coal today?
Checkpoint

Ancient
forest

Increasing heat and pressure

FIGURE 6 How Coal Forms Coal

forms as ancient plant matter is
compacted underground. Notice that
peat forms before coal, and that there
Peat Lignite Sub- Bituminous Anthracite are four types of coal. The type of coal
bituminous that forms depends on conditions such
Time as heat and pressure.

Nonrenewable Energy 523


Surface
(a) Strip mining
FIGURE 7 Mining for Coal Coal is
mined in two ways. (a) Strip mining
is used when the coal is near the
Find Out
surface of the ground. (b) If the coal is
More
deep underground, it is removed by
subsurface mining.
ANSWERS
Find Out More Answers will vary,
but should indicate that students
have used reliable resources to learn
more about heating methods used in
their houses or apartments.
Find Out
More
How is your apartment or house
heated? Does this method depend
on fossil fuels? Ask your parents or
the building superintendent for
this information. Use a library or
Internet resources to find out the
advantages and disadvantages of
this type of heating.
524 Lesson 2
Surface
Ventilation
Main
Shaft
Coal deposits
Coal deposits
(b) Subsurface mining
How Coal Is Used Coal provides one fourth of the worlds energy.
Coal-fired steam engines helped drive the Industrial Revolution, power-
ing factories, trains, and ships. In the 1880s, people began to use coal to
generate electricity. Today, coal generates about half the electricity used
by Americans. In addition, coal powers many industries. Some of these
industries are chemical manufacturing, iron and steel manufacturing, and
paper mills.
Mining for Coal We use two major methods to remove coal from the
ground. Look at Figure 7 as you read about these methods.
Strip Mining When coal deposits are at or near the surface, strip
mining is used. Strip mining is the extraction of a mineral by remov-
ing a strip of the layers of soil and rock on top of the mineral deposit.
Strip mining may remove huge amounts of soil and rock. Once the coal
is exposed, it can be extracted. After the coal has been removed, the soil
may be put back to fill the holes. Strip mining operations can extend over
a large area. In some cases, entire mountaintops are blasted away.
Subsurface Mining We reach underground deposits with subsurface
mining. Subsurface mining is typically the practice of digging shafts deep
into the ground to find and remove a mineral. Networks of tunnels are
usually blasted with explosives and then dug out so that miners can reach
the coal. After miners dig the coal out, it is brought to the surface.
Advantages of Coal There are several reasons why coal is used com-
monly as an energy source. Compared to other fossil fuels, coal is more
abundant and less expensive. It does not need much processing after it
has been removed from the ground. Coal can be transported relatively
easily in trucks and trains. Unlike the oil taken from Prudhoe Bay in
Alaska, coal does not require a pipeline.
Oil
Petroleum, which is obtained by drilling, is a major source of
energy and is used to make a variety of products.

Oil, or petroleum, is a dark, liquid fossil fuel made up mostly of hydro-

carbons. Petroleum is found in underground deposits. The Middle East is
especially rich in these deposits. Petroleum is also found in other parts of
the world, such as Russia, and North and South America.

How Petroleum Is Used Petroleum is the source of the fuels used for
most forms of transportation, such as cars, trucks, airplanes, and ships.
Many people heat their homes with fuel oil. Because oil is a complex
mix of hydrocarbons, it can be used to make many types of products.
Petrochemicals are chemical compounds that are derived from oil and
used to make products. Figure 8 shows some petroleum products that are
used in and around a home.

Finding Petroleum Deposits Most oil deposits are deep under-

ground. There, the oil is usually found within tiny pores, or holes, in rocks
such as sandstone and limestone. Rocks containing oil are a little bit like
a sponge that has soaked up water. Scientists look for oil by performing
various tests. For example, they send sound waves deep underground and
determine how long it takes the waves to be reflected and to reach differ- ANSWERS
ent surface locations. The length of time can indicate the characteristics
Reading Checkpoint Petroleum is
of the rocks the waves pass through. Once scientists find a likely location,
composed mostly of hydrocarbons.
oil companies drill deep holes and remove rock cores to see whether the
rocks contain oil.
FIGURE 8 Petroleum Products
Reading What is petroleum composed of? Many products, such as those shown
Checkpoint here, are derived from petroleum.

Nonrenewable Energy 525

 Drilling for Oil You squeeze a sponge to remove the
water. Similarly, pressure is needed to get oil from porous
rock. Usually, oil trapped in rocks is already under pres-
sure. So at first, oil will rise in the well, often all the way
Oil rig
to the surface, without needing to be pumped out. During
that period, a process called primary extraction can be
Oil well used to remove the oil, as shown in Figure 9.
Later, once the pressure decreases, oil companies use
a process called secondary extraction to get the oil to the
surface. In secondary extraction, chemicals may be used to
Ocean floor dissolve oil. Secondary extraction may also involve pump-
ing water, steam, or gases such as carbon dioxide beneath
oil deposits to force the oil to the surface. At Prudhoe Bay
in Alaska, seawater is piped into wells to flush out oil. Oil
drilling takes place not just on land but on the seafloor in
relatively shallow water.
Oil in pores Refining Oil Oil taken out of the ground is called crude
of rocks oil. Crude oil cannot be used the way it is. It must be
refined in order to be usable. Refining involves separating
(a) Primary extraction of oil
crude oil into different fuels and other substances. This
process takes place in a refinery.
Reading Describe primary extraction.
Checkpoint

Oil rig
Natural Gas
Natural gas yields a large amount of energy and
is less polluting than other fossil fuels.

Oil well Natural gas consists of the gas methane mixed in with
Seawater small amounts of other gases. Its use is growing faster than
Gas
injection injection that of most other fossil fuels today. Natural gas is color-
less and odorless. It is much less polluting than coal or oil,
Ocean floor and it emits less carbon dioxide per unit of energy pro-
duced than either coal or oil. Natural gas produces a large
amount of energy. Pockets of natural gas are often located
above oil deposits, both on land and offshore. Coal depos-
its, too, may have natural gas above them. Within the
United States, pipelines carry natural gas from its source
to where it is used. If laid end to end, our network of natu-
Pressure Oil in pores
of rocks ral gas pipelines would go to the moon and back twice.
About half the homes in the United States are heated
(b) Secondary extraction of oil by natural gas, as are many businesses. Appliances such as
water heaters, stoves, and clothes dryers may use natural
gas to produce heat. Increasingly, natural gas is used to
FIGURE 9 Extracting Oil (a) Primary extraction is used generate electricity, because it does not pollute the atmo-
when the oil deposit is already under pressure. (b) Once sphere to the extent that coal does. Natural gas goes into
the pressure decreases, secondary extraction is used,
which involves injecting water or gas to force the oil
products such as paints, plastics, dyes, and fertilizers.
upward. Apply Concepts Which technique is now used
for removing oil from the Prudhoe Bay area?

526 Lesson 2
The Supply of Fossil Fuels World Consumption of
Fossil Fuels 19802006
The supply of fossil fuels is limited.
200
Global consumption of coal, oil, and natural gas has risen steadily

Wolrd Consumption
for years, and it continues to rise. Figure 10 shows this trend. Right

(quadrillion Btu)
150 Petroleum
now, all the coal, oil, and natural gas that will be available to human
society have already formed. What will happen when easily obtain- 100
able supplies of fossil fuels begin to run out? Coal
Natural gas
Dwindling Deposits No one knows the exact amount of fossil 50
fuels that are left or how long they will last. The most accessible
reserves of natural gas, oil, and coal have already been used up. 0
Remaining deposits of fossil fuels are often difficult and expensive 1980 1990 2000 2006
to extract. The technology for extracting and producing fossil fuels Year
Source: Data from U.S. Energy Information Administration,
will probably continue to improve. However, as people continue to International Energy Annual 2006.
remove fossil fuels, it is becoming harder and harder to find new
sources. FIGURE 10 Consumption of Fossil
Some scientists and oil-industry experts calculate that we have Fuels The graph shows how the use
of petroleum, coal, and natural gas
already extracted nearly half of the worlds oil reserves. Many scien- increased between 1980 and 2006.
tists predict that the worldwide production of oil will decrease over
the next few decades. Figure 11 shows a graph of one prediction ANSWERS
for what will happen to oil production. And many scientists and Reading Checkpoint Primary
experts think that we will face a crisis long before the last drop of oil extraction is a method of removing
is pumped from a well. If the demand for oil continues to increase, oil from rocks using the pressure that
there will be a shortage when the rate of oil production first starts already exists.
going down. Reserves of coal are expected to last significantly longer Figure 9 Secondary extraction
than oil. In fact, one projection indicates that coal supplies will last Figure 11 Opinions will vary. Some
students may think that diminishing
130 years in the United States. But even supplies of coal, the most oil supplies justify drilling for oil in
abundant fossil fuel, will not last forever. the Arctic Refuge. Others may argue
that the Alaskan environment needs
to be preserved.

Modern Prediction of Peak in Global Oil Production

30
Middle East Europe Other
Russia Lower 48 U.S. states
25
Billion barrels per year

20

FIGURE 11 Oil Production The

15
graph shows how much oil has been
produced worldwide since 1930 and
10 one prediction for the amount of oil to
be produced in the future. Interpret
Graphs Does this graph affect your
5 opinion about drilling in the Arctic
Refuge? Explain your answer.
0
1930 1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050
Year Global Oil Production and
Data from Campbell, C.J., and Association for the Study of Peak Oil. 2007. the Hubbert Curve

Nonrenewable Energy 527


FIGURE 12 Oil Shale If it is lighted, oil
shale will continue to burn on its own.
Oil shale may be a future source of oil.
ANSWERS
Lesson 2 Assessment For answers to the
Lesson 2 Assessment, see page A27 at the
back of the book.
2
1. Review Where did the energy in fossil fuels origi-
nally come from? What type of energy is stored in
fossil fuels?
2. Compare and Contrast What are two major
methods of obtaining coal from the ground?
Compare these two methods.
3. Use Analogies How are rocks that contain oil
similar to a sponge?
528 Lesson 2
New Sources of Fossil Fuels Are there other fossil fuels that
can replace or supplement oil, natural gas, and coal? Oil sands, oil
shale, and methane hydrate may be alternative sources of fossil fuels.
Oil Sands Oil sands are deposits of moist sand and clay contain-
ing bitumen. Bitumen is a thick, heavy form of petroleum that is rich
in carbon. Oil sands are generally removed by strip mining. After
extraction, bitumen is refined into a more valuable synthetic crude
oil. Petroleum prices are rising, and this fact makes oil sands more
profitable than they once were.
Oil Shale Oil shale is rock filled with a mixture of hydrocarbons.
Once mined, oil shale can be burned directly, like coal. Alternatively,
it can be processed to extract liquid petroleum. The worlds known
deposits of oil shale may be able to produce a large amount of oil. As
crude oil prices rise, oil shale is attracting a large amount of attention.
Methane Hydrate The deep ocean floor contains a possible
source of energy, methane hydrate. Methane hydrate is an icelike
solid that consists of molecules of methane within a crystal network
of water molecules. Methane hydrate can be burned to release energy.
Scientists think there is a huge amount of methane hydrate on Earth.
However, they still need to find a way to extract methane hydrate
safely, without causing underwater landslides.
Drawbacks Alternative fossil fuels are abundant, but they will not
solve our energy challenges. They are expensive to extract and pro-
cess. Because it takes a lot of energy to extract alternative fossil fuels,
they provide much less net energy than conventional fossil fuels do.
(Net energy is the energy provided by a source after the energy used
to obtain the source has been subtracted.) In addition, the extrac-
tion of alternative fossil fuels can cause environmental damage. For
example, strip mining is used to extract oil sands and oil shale, and
strip mining removes topsoil and vegetation. The most serious
environmental effect of these fuels is that their combustion releases
greenhouse gases. Therefore, the use of these fuels would speed up
climate change.
4. Apply Concepts What is one advantage that natu-
ral gas has over coal and oil?
5. Relate Cause and Effect Why is the supply of fos-
sil fuels dwindling?
6. Explore the BIGQUESTION The cost of researching
technology to extract alternative fossil fuels, such
as oil sands and oil shale, is high. Do you think this
is a wise investment? Explain your answer.