18.05.2017.

LightWikipedia

Light
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Lightiselectromagneticradiationwithinacertainportionofthe
electromagneticspectrum.Thewordusuallyreferstovisiblelight,whichis
visibletothehumaneyeandisresponsibleforthesenseofsight.[1]Visible
lightisusuallydefinedashavingwavelengthsintherangeof400700
nanometres(nm),or4.00107to7.00107m,betweentheinfrared(with
longerwavelengths)andtheultraviolet(withshorterwavelengths).[2][3]This
wavelengthmeansafrequencyrangeofroughly430750terahertz(THz).

ThemainsourceoflightonEarthistheSun.Sunlightprovidestheenergy
thatgreenplantsusetocreatesugarsmostlyintheformofstarches,which
releaseenergyintothelivingthingsthatdigestthem.Thisprocessof
photosynthesisprovidesvirtuallyalltheenergyusedbylivingthings. Atriangularprismdispersingabeamofwhite
Historically,anotherimportantsourceoflightforhumanshasbeenfire,from light.Thelongerwavelengths(red)andthe
ancientcampfirestomodernkerosenelamps.Withthedevelopmentof shorterwavelengths(blue)getseparated.
electriclightsandpowersystems,electriclightinghaseffectivelyreplaced
firelight.Somespeciesofanimalsgeneratetheirownlight,aprocesscalled
bioluminescence.Forexample,firefliesuselighttolocatemates,andvampiresquidsuseittohidethemselvesfromprey.

Theprimarypropertiesofvisiblelightareintensity,propagationdirection,frequencyorwavelengthspectrum,and
polarization,whileitsspeedinavacuum,299,792,458metrespersecond,isoneofthefundamentalconstantsofnature.
Visiblelight,aswithalltypesofelectromagneticradiation(EMR),isexperimentallyfoundtoalwaysmoveatthisspeedina
vacuum.

Inphysics,thetermlightsometimesreferstoelectromagneticradiationofanywavelength,whethervisibleornot.[4][5]In
thissense,gammarays,Xrays,microwavesandradiowavesarealsolight.Likealltypesoflight,visiblelightisemitted
andabsorbedintiny"packets"calledphotonsandexhibitspropertiesofbothwavesandparticles.Thispropertyisreferred
toasthewaveparticleduality.Thestudyoflight,knownasoptics,isanimportantresearchareainmodernphysics.

Contents
1 Electromagneticspectrumandvisiblelight
2 Speedoflight
3 Optics
3.1 Refraction
4 Lightsources
5 Unitsandmeasures
6 Lightpressure
7 Historicaltheoriesaboutlight,inchronologicalorder
7.1 ClassicalGreeceandHellenism
7.2 ClassicalIndia
7.3 Descartes
7.4 Particletheory
7.5 Wavetheory
7.6 Electromagnetictheory
7.7 Quantumtheory
8 Seealso
9 Notes
10 References
11 Externallinks

Electromagneticspectrumandvisiblelight

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 1/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

Generally,EMradiation,orEMR(thedesignation
"radiation"excludesstaticelectricandmagneticandnear
fields),isclassifiedbywavelengthintoradio,microwave,
infrared,thevisibleregionthatweperceiveaslight,
ultraviolet,Xraysandgammarays.

ThebehaviorofEMRdependsonitswavelength.Higher
frequencieshaveshorterwavelengths,andlower
frequencieshavelongerwavelengths.WhenEMRinteracts
withsingleatomsandmolecules,itsbehaviordependson
theamountofenergyperquantumitcarries.

EMRinthevisiblelightregionconsistsofquanta(called Electromagneticspectrumwithlighthighlighted
photons)thatareatthelowerendoftheenergiesthatare
capableofcausingelectronicexcitationwithinmolecules,
whichleadstochangesinthebondingorchemistryofthemolecule.Atthelowerendofthevisiblelightspectrum,EMR
becomesinvisibletohumans(infrared)becauseitsphotonsnolongerhaveenoughindividualenergytocausealasting
molecularchange(achangeinconformation)inthevisualmoleculeretinalinthehumanretina,whichchangetriggersthe
sensationofvision.

Thereexistanimalsthataresensitivetovarioustypesofinfrared,butnotbymeansofquantumabsorption.Infraredsensing
insnakesdependsonakindofnaturalthermalimaging,inwhichtinypacketsofcellularwaterareraisedintemperatureby
theinfraredradiation.EMRinthisrangecausesmolecularvibrationandheatingeffects,whichishowtheseanimalsdetect
it.

Abovetherangeofvisiblelight,ultravioletlightbecomesinvisibletohumans,mostlybecauseitisabsorbedbythecornea
below360nanometersandtheinternallensbelow400.Furthermore,therodsandconeslocatedintheretinaofthehuman
eyecannotdetecttheveryshort(below360nm)ultravioletwavelengthsandareinfactdamagedbyultraviolet.Many
animalswitheyesthatdonotrequirelenses(suchasinsectsandshrimp)areabletodetectultraviolet,byquantumphoton
absorptionmechanisms,inmuchthesamechemicalwaythathumansdetectvisiblelight.

Varioussourcesdefinevisiblelightasnarrowlyas420to680[6][7]toasbroadlyas380to800nm.[8][9]Underideal
laboratoryconditions,peoplecanseeinfrareduptoatleast1050nm[10]childrenandyoungadultsmayperceiveultraviolet
wavelengthsdowntoabout310to313nm.[11][12][13]

Plantgrowthisalsoaffectedbythecolorspectrumoflight,aprocessknownasphotomorphogenesis.

Speedoflight
Thespeedoflightinavacuumisdefinedtobeexactly299,792,458m/s(approx.186,282milespersecond).Thefixed
valueofthespeedoflightinSIunitsresultsfromthefactthatthemetreisnowdefinedintermsofthespeedoflight.All
formsofelectromagneticradiationmoveatexactlythissamespeedinvacuum.

Differentphysicistshaveattemptedtomeasurethespeedoflightthroughouthistory.Galileoattemptedtomeasurethespeed
oflightintheseventeenthcentury.AnearlyexperimenttomeasurethespeedoflightwasconductedbyOleRmer,a
Danishphysicist,in1676.Usingatelescope,RmerobservedthemotionsofJupiterandoneofitsmoons,Io.Noting
discrepanciesintheapparentperiodofIo'sorbit,hecalculatedthatlighttakesabout22minutestotraversethediameterof
Earth'sorbit.[14]However,itssizewasnotknownatthattime.IfRmerhadknownthediameteroftheEarth'sorbit,he
wouldhavecalculatedaspeedof227,000,000m/s.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 2/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

Another,moreaccurate,measurementofthespeedoflightwasperformedinEuropebyHippolyteFizeauin1849.Fizeau
directedabeamoflightatamirrorseveralkilometersaway.Arotatingcogwheelwasplacedinthepathofthelightbeamas
ittraveledfromthesource,tothemirrorandthenreturnedtoitsorigin.Fizeaufoundthatatacertainrateofrotation,the
beamwouldpassthroughonegapinthewheelonthewayoutandthenextgaponthewayback.Knowingthedistanceto
themirror,thenumberofteethonthewheel,andtherateofrotation,Fizeauwasabletocalculatethespeedoflightas
313,000,000m/s.

LonFoucaultcarriedoutanexperimentwhichusedrotatingmirrorstoobtainavalueof298,000,000m/sin1862.Albert
A.Michelsonconductedexperimentsonthespeedoflightfrom1877untilhisdeathin1931.HerefinedFoucault'smethods
in1926usingimprovedrotatingmirrorstomeasurethetimeittooklighttomakearoundtripfromMountWilsontoMount
SanAntonioinCalifornia.Theprecisemeasurementsyieldedaspeedof299,796,000m/s.[15]

Theeffectivevelocityoflightinvarioustransparentsubstancescontainingordinarymatter,islessthaninvacuum.For
example,thespeedoflightinwaterisabout3/4ofthatinvacuum.

Twoindependentteamsofphysicistsweresaidtobringlighttoa"completestandstill"bypassingitthroughaBoseEinstein
condensateoftheelementrubidium,oneteamatHarvardUniversityandtheRowlandInstituteforScienceinCambridge,
Massachusetts,andtheotherattheHarvardSmithsonianCenterforAstrophysics,alsoinCambridge.[16]However,the
populardescriptionoflightbeing"stopped"intheseexperimentsrefersonlytolightbeingstoredintheexcitedstatesof
atoms,thenreemittedatanarbitrarylatertime,asstimulatedbyasecondlaserpulse.Duringthetimeithad"stopped"it
hadceasedtobelight.

Optics
Thestudyoflightandtheinteractionoflightandmatteristermedoptics.Theobservationandstudyofopticalphenomena
suchasrainbowsandtheauroraborealisoffermanycluesastothenatureoflight.

Refraction

Refractionisthebendingoflightrayswhenpassingthroughasurfacebetween
onetransparentmaterialandanother.ItisdescribedbySnell'sLaw:

where1istheanglebetweentherayandthesurfacenormalinthefirst
medium,2istheanglebetweentherayandthesurfacenormalinthesecond
medium,andn1andn2aretheindicesofrefraction,n=1inavacuumandn>1
inatransparentsubstance.

Whenabeamoflightcrossestheboundarybetweenavacuumandanother
medium,orbetweentwodifferentmedia,thewavelengthofthelightchanges,
butthefrequencyremainsconstant.Ifthebeamoflightisnotorthogonal(or
rathernormal)totheboundary,thechangeinwavelengthresultsinachangein
thedirectionofthebeam.Thischangeofdirectionisknownasrefraction.
Anexampleofrefractionoflight.The
Therefractivequalityoflensesisfrequentlyusedtomanipulatelightinorderto
strawappearsbent,becauseofrefractionof
changetheapparentsizeofimages.Magnifyingglasses,spectacles,contact
lightasitentersliquidfromair.
lenses,microscopesandrefractingtelescopesareallexamplesofthis
manipulation.

Lightsources
Therearemanysourcesoflight.Themostcommonlightsourcesarethermal:abodyatagiventemperatureemitsa
characteristicspectrumofblackbodyradiation.Asimplethermalsourceissunlight,theradiationemittedbythe
chromosphereoftheSunataround6,000kelvins(5,730degreesCelsius10,340degreesFahrenheit)peaksinthevisible
regionoftheelectromagneticspectrumwhenplottedinwavelengthunits[17]androughly44%ofsunlightenergythat
reachesthegroundisvisible.[18]Anotherexampleisincandescentlightbulbs,whichemitonlyaround10%oftheirenergy
asvisiblelightandtheremainderasinfrared.Acommonthermallightsourceinhistoryistheglowingsolidparticlesin
flames,butthesealsoemitmostoftheirradiationintheinfrared,andonlyafractioninthevisiblespectrum.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 3/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

Thepeakoftheblackbodyspectrumisinthedeepinfrared,atabout10
micrometrewavelength,forrelativelycoolobjectslikehumanbeings.Asthe
temperatureincreases,thepeakshiftstoshorterwavelengths,producingfirsta
redglow,thenawhiteone,andfinallyabluewhitecolourasthepeakmoves
outofthevisiblepartofthespectrumandintotheultraviolet.Thesecolourscan
beseenwhenmetalisheatedto"redhot"or"whitehot".Bluewhitethermal
emissionisnotoftenseen,exceptinstars(thecommonlyseenpurebluecolour
inagasflameorawelder'storchisinfactduetomolecularemission,notably
byCHradicals(emittingawavelengthbandaround425nm,andisnotseenin
starsorpurethermalradiation).

Atomsemitandabsorblightatcharacteristicenergies.Thisproduces"emission Acloudilluminatedbysunlight
lines"inthespectrumofeachatom.Emissioncanbespontaneous,asinlight
emittingdiodes,gasdischargelamps(suchasneonlampsandneonsigns,
mercuryvaporlamps,etc.),andflames(lightfromthehotgasitselfso,forexample,sodiuminagasflameemits
characteristicyellowlight).Emissioncanalsobestimulated,asinalaseroramicrowavemaser.

Decelerationofafreechargedparticle,suchasanelectron,canproducevisibleradiation:cyclotronradiation,synchrotron
radiation,andbremsstrahlungradiationareallexamplesofthis.Particlesmovingthroughamediumfasterthanthespeedof
lightinthatmediumcanproducevisibleCherenkovradiation.Certainchemicalsproducevisibleradiationby
chemoluminescence.Inlivingthings,thisprocessiscalledbioluminescence.Forexample,firefliesproducelightbythis
means,andboatsmovingthroughwatercandisturbplanktonwhichproduceaglowingwake.

Certainsubstancesproducelightwhentheyareilluminatedbymoreenergeticradiation,aprocessknownasfluorescence.
Somesubstancesemitlightslowlyafterexcitationbymoreenergeticradiation.Thisisknownasphosphorescence.
Phosphorescentmaterialscanalsobeexcitedbybombardingthemwithsubatomicparticles.Cathodoluminescenceisone
example.Thismechanismisusedincathoderaytubetelevisionsetsandcomputermonitors.

Certainothermechanismscanproducelight:

Bioluminescence
Cherenkovradiation
Electroluminescence
Scintillation
Sonoluminescence
Triboluminescence

Whentheconceptoflightisintendedtoincludeveryhighenergyphotons
(gammarays),additionalgenerationmechanismsinclude:

Particleantiparticleannihilation Acityilluminatedbycolorfulartificial
Radioactivedecay lighting

Unitsandmeasures
Lightismeasuredwithtwomainalternativesetsofunits:radiometryconsistsofmeasurementsoflightpoweratall
wavelengths,whilephotometrymeasureslightwithwavelengthweightedwithrespecttoastandardisedmodelofhuman
brightnessperception.Photometryisuseful,forexample,toquantifyIllumination(lighting)intendedforhumanuse.TheSI
unitsforbothsystemsaresummarisedinthefollowingtables.

Table1.SIradiometryunits

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 4/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

Quantity Unit Dimension

Notes
Name Symbol[nb1] Name Symbol Symbol

Qe[nb2] Energyofelectromagnetic
Radiantenergy joule J ML2T2
radiation.
Radiantenergyperunit
Radiantenergydensity we joulepercubicmetre J/m3 ML1T2
volume.
Radiantenergyemitted,
reflected,transmittedor
Radiantflux e[nb2] watt WorJ/s ML2T3 received,perunittime.This
issometimesalsocalled
"radiantpower".
Radiantfluxperunit
e,[nb3] wattperhertz W/Hz ML2T2 frequencyorwavelength.
Spectralflux or or or or Thelatteriscommonly
e,[nb4] wattpermetre W/m MLT3 measuredin
Wsr1m2nm1.
Radiantfluxemitted,
[nb5] reflected,transmittedor
Radiantintensity Ie, wattpersteradian W/sr ML2T3
received,perunitsolidangle.
Thisisadirectionalquantity.
wattpersteradianper Radiantintensityperunit
Ie,,[nb3] hertz Wsr1Hz1 ML2T2 frequencyorwavelength.
Spectralintensity or or or or Thelatteriscommonly
Ie,,[nb4] wattpersteradianper Wsr1m1 MLT3 measuredinWsr1nm1.
metre Thisisadirectionalquantity.
Radiantfluxemitted,
reflected,transmittedor
receivedbyasurface,per
wattpersteradianper unitsolidangleperunit
Radiance Le, [nb5] Wsr1m2 MT3
squaremetre projectedarea.Thisisa
directionalquantity.Thisis
sometimesalsoconfusingly
called"intensity".
Radianceofasurfaceper
unitfrequencyor
wattpersteradianper wavelength.Thelatteris
Le,,[nb3] squaremetreperhertz Wsr1m2Hz1 MT2
commonlymeasuredin
Spectralradiance or or or or
Wsr1m2nm1.Thisisa
Le,,[nb4] wattpersteradianper Wsr1m3 ML1T3
squaremetre,permetre directionalquantity.Thisis
sometimesalsoconfusingly
called"spectralintensity".
Radiantfluxreceivedbya
Irradiance [nb2] surfaceperunitarea.Thisis
Ee wattpersquaremetre W/m2 MT3
Fluxdensity sometimesalsoconfusingly
called"intensity".
Irradianceofasurfaceper
unitfrequencyor
wavelength.Thisis
wattpersquaremetre sometimesalsoconfusingly
Ee,[nb3] perhertz Wm2Hz1 MT2 called"spectralintensity".
Spectralirradiance
or or or or NonSIunitsofspectralflux
Spectralfluxdensity
Ee,[nb4] wattpersquaremetre, W/m3 ML1T3 densityincludeJansky=
permetre 1026Wm2Hz1andsolar
fluxunit(1SFU=1022
Wm2Hz1=104Jy).
Radiosity Je[nb2] wattpersquaremetre W/m2 MT3 Radiantfluxleaving
(emitted,reflectedand
transmittedby)asurfaceper
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 5/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

unitarea.Thisissometimes
alsoconfusinglycalled
"intensity".
Radiosityofasurfaceper
wattpersquaremetre unitfrequencyor
Je,[nb3] perhertz Wm2Hz1 MT2 wavelength.Thelatteris
Spectralradiosity or or or or commonlymeasuredin
2 1
Je,[nb4] wattpersquaremetre, W/m3 1 3
ML T Wm nm .Thisis
permetre sometimesalsoconfusingly
called"spectralintensity".
Radiantfluxemittedbya
surfaceperunitarea.Thisis
theemittedcomponentof
radiosity."Radiant
Radiantexitance Me[nb2] wattpersquaremetre W/m2 MT3
emittance"isanoldtermfor
thisquantity.Thisis
sometimesalsoconfusingly
called"intensity".
Radiantexitanceofasurface
perunitfrequencyor
wattpersquaremetre wavelength.Thelatteris
Me,[nb3] perhertz Wm2Hz1 MT2 commonlymeasuredin
Spectralexitance or or or or Wm2nm1."Spectral
Me,[nb4] wattpersquaremetre, W/m3 1 3
ML T emittance"isanoldtermfor
permetre thisquantity.Thisis
sometimesalsoconfusingly
called"spectralintensity".
Radiantenergyreceivedbya
surfaceperunitarea,or
equivalentlyirradianceofa
Radiantexposure He joulepersquaremetre J/m2 MT2 surfaceintegratedovertime
ofirradiation.Thisis
sometimesalsocalled
"radiantfluence".
Radiantexposureofa
joulepersquaremetre surfaceperunitfrequencyor
He,[nb3] perhertz Jm2Hz1 MT1 wavelength.Thelatteris
Spectralexposure or or or or commonlymeasuredin
He,[nb4] joulepersquaremetre, J/m3 ML T Jm2nm1.Thisis
1 2
permetre sometimesalsocalled
"spectralfluence".
Radiantexitanceofasurface,
Hemispherical dividedbythatofablack
1
emissivity bodyatthesametemperature
asthatsurface.
Spectralexitanceofa
Spectralhemispherical surface,dividedbythatofa
or 1
emissivity blackbodyatthesame

temperatureasthatsurface.
Radianceemittedbya
surface,dividedbythat
Directionalemissivity 1 emittedbyablackbodyat
thesametemperatureasthat
surface.
, Spectralradianceemittedby
Spectraldirectional asurface,dividedbythatofa
or 1
emissivity blackbodyatthesame
,
temperatureasthatsurface.
Hemispherical A 1 Radiantfluxabsorbedbya
absorptance surface,dividedbythat
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 6/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

receivedbythatsurface.This
shouldnotbeconfusedwith
"absorbance".
Spectralfluxabsorbedbya
A surface,dividedbythat
Spectralhemispherical
or 1 receivedbythatsurface.This
absorptance
A shouldnotbeconfusedwith
"spectralabsorbance".
Radianceabsorbedbya
surface,dividedbythe
Directional A 1 radianceincidentontothat
absorptance
surface.Thisshouldnotbe
confusedwith"absorbance".
Spectralradianceabsorbed
A, byasurface,dividedbythe
Spectraldirectional spectralradianceincident
or 1
absorptance ontothatsurface.Thisshould
A,
notbeconfusedwith
"spectralabsorbance".
Radiantfluxreflectedbya
Hemispherical
R 1 surface,dividedbythat
reflectance
receivedbythatsurface.
R Spectralfluxreflectedbya
Spectralhemispherical
or 1 surface,dividedbythat
reflectance
R receivedbythatsurface.
Radiancereflectedbya
Directionalreflectance R 1 surface,dividedbythat
receivedbythatsurface.
R, Spectralradiancereflectedby
Spectraldirectional
or 1 asurface,dividedbythat
reflectance
R, receivedbythatsurface.
Radiantfluxtransmittedbya
Hemispherical
T 1 surface,dividedbythat
transmittance
receivedbythatsurface.
T Spectralfluxtransmittedbya
Spectralhemispherical
or 1 surface,dividedbythat
transmittance
T receivedbythatsurface.
Radiancetransmittedbya
Directional T 1 surface,dividedbythat
transmittance
receivedbythatsurface.
T, Spectralradiancetransmitted
Spectraldirectional
or 1 byasurface,dividedbythat
transmittance
T, receivedbythatsurface.
Radiantfluxabsorbedand
Hemispherical scatteredbyavolumeper
reciprocalmetre m1 L1
attenuationcoefficient unitlength,dividedbythat
receivedbythatvolume.
Spectralradiantflux
absorbedandscatteredbya
Spectralhemispherical
or reciprocalmetre m1 L1 volumeperunitlength,
attenuationcoefficient
dividedbythatreceivedby
thatvolume.
Radianceabsorbedand
Directionalattenuation scatteredbyavolumeper
reciprocalmetre m1 L1
coefficient unitlength,dividedbythat
receivedbythatvolume.
Spectraldirectional , reciprocalmetre m1 L1 Spectralradianceabsorbed
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 7/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

attenuationcoefficient or andscatteredbyavolumeper
, unitlength,dividedbythat
receivedbythatvolume.
Seealso:SIRadiometryPhotometry(Compare)

Table2.SIphotometryquantities
Quantity Unit Dimension
Notes
Name Symbol[nb6] Name Symbol Symbol

Luminousenergy Qv[nb7] lumensecond lms TJ[nb8] Unitsaresometimescalledtalbots.

Luminousflux/
v[nb7] lumen(=cdsr) lm J[nb8] Luminousenergyperunittime.
luminouspower
candela
Luminousintensity Iv
(=lm/sr)
cd J[nb8] Luminousfluxperunitsolidangle.

Luminousfluxperunitsolidangleper
candelaper
Luminance Lv cd/m2 L2J unitprojectedsourcearea.Unitsare
squaremetre
sometimescallednits.
Illuminance Ev lux(=lm/m2) lx L2J Luminousfluxincidentonasurface.
Luminousexitance/ Mv lux lx L2J Luminousfluxemittedfromasurface.
luminousemittance
Luminousexposure Hv luxsecond lxs L2TJ
Luminousenergy lumensecond
v lmsm3 L3TJ
density percubicmetre
Ratioofluminousfluxtoradiantfluxor
Luminousefficacy [nb7] lumenperwatt lm/W M1L2T3J powerconsumption,dependingon
context.
Luminousefficiency/
V 1
luminouscoefficient
Seealso:SIPhotometryRadiometry(Compare)

Thephotometryunitsaredifferentfrommostsystemsofphysicalunitsinthattheytakeintoaccounthowthehumaneye
respondstolight.Theconecellsinthehumaneyeareofthreetypeswhichresponddifferentlyacrossthevisiblespectrum,
andthecumulativeresponsepeaksatawavelengthofaround555nm.Therefore,twosourcesoflightwhichproducethe
sameintensity(W/m2)ofvisiblelightdonotnecessarilyappearequallybright.Thephotometryunitsaredesignedtotake
thisintoaccount,andthereforeareabetterrepresentationofhow"bright"alightappearstobethanrawintensity.They
relatetorawpowerbyaquantitycalledluminousefficacy,andareusedforpurposeslikedetermininghowtobestachieve
sufficientilluminationforvarioustasksinindoorandoutdoorsettings.Theilluminationmeasuredbyaphotocellsensor
doesnotnecessarilycorrespondtowhatisperceivedbythehumaneye,andwithoutfilterswhichmaybecostly,photocells
andchargecoupleddevices(CCD)tendtorespondtosomeinfrared,ultravioletorboth.

Lightpressure
Lightexertsphysicalpressureonobjectsinitspath,aphenomenonwhichcanbededucedbyMaxwell'sequations,butcan
bemoreeasilyexplainedbytheparticlenatureoflight:photonsstrikeandtransfertheirmomentum.Lightpressureisequal
tothepowerofthelightbeamdividedbyc,thespeedoflight.Duetothemagnitudeofc,theeffectoflightpressureis
negligibleforeverydayobjects.Forexample,aonemilliwattlaserpointerexertsaforceofabout3.3piconewtonsonthe
objectbeingilluminatedthus,onecouldliftaU.S.pennywithlaserpointers,butdoingsowouldrequireabout30billion1
mWlaserpointers.[19]However,innanometrescaleapplicationssuchasnanoelectromechanicalsystems(|NEMS),the
effectoflightpressureismoresignificant,andexploitinglightpressuretodriveNEMSmechanismsandtoflipnanometre
scalephysicalswitchesinintegratedcircuitsisanactiveareaofresearch.[20]Atlargerscales,lightpressurecancause
asteroidstospinfaster,[21]actingontheirirregularshapesasonthevanesofawindmill.Thepossibilityofmakingsolar
sailsthatwouldacceleratespaceshipsinspaceisalsounderinvestigation.[22][23]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 8/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

AlthoughthemotionoftheCrookesradiometerwasoriginallyattributedtolightpressure,thisinterpretationisincorrectthe
characteristicCrookesrotationistheresultofapartialvacuum.[24]ThisshouldnotbeconfusedwiththeNicholsradiometer,
inwhichthe(slight)motioncausedbytorque(thoughnotenoughforfullrotationagainstfriction)isdirectlycausedbylight
pressure.[25]Asaconsequenceoflightpressure,Einstein[26]in1909predictedtheexistenceof"radiationfriction"which
wouldopposethemovementofmatter.Hewrote,radiationwillexertpressureonbothsidesoftheplate.Theforcesof
pressureexertedonthetwosidesareequaliftheplateisatrest.However,ifitisinmotion,moreradiationwillbereflected
onthesurfacethatisaheadduringthemotion(frontsurface)thanonthebacksurface.Thebackwardactingforceofpressure
exertedonthefrontsurfaceisthuslargerthantheforceofpressureactingontheback.Hence,astheresultantofthetwo
forces,thereremainsaforcethatcounteractsthemotionoftheplateandthatincreaseswiththevelocityoftheplate.Wewill
callthisresultant'radiationfriction'inbrief.

Historicaltheoriesaboutlight,inchronologicalorder
ClassicalGreeceandHellenism

InthefifthcenturyBC,Empedoclespostulatedthateverythingwascomposedoffourelementsfire,air,earthandwater.He
believedthatAphroditemadethehumaneyeoutofthefourelementsandthatshelitthefireintheeyewhichshoneout
fromtheeyemakingsightpossible.Ifthisweretrue,thenonecouldseeduringthenightjustaswellasduringtheday,so
Empedoclespostulatedaninteractionbetweenraysfromtheeyesandraysfromasourcesuchasthesun.[27]

Inabout300BC,EuclidwroteOptica,inwhichhestudiedthepropertiesoflight.Euclidpostulatedthatlighttravelledin
straightlinesandhedescribedthelawsofreflectionandstudiedthemmathematically.Hequestionedthatsightistheresult
ofabeamfromtheeye,forheaskshowoneseesthestarsimmediately,ifoneclosesone'seyes,thenopensthematnight.
Ofcourseifthebeamfromtheeyetravelsinfinitelyfastthisisnotaproblem.[28]

In55BC,Lucretius,aRomanwhocarriedontheideasofearlierGreekatomists,wrotethat"Thelight&heatofthesun
thesearecomposedofminuteatomswhich,whentheyareshovedoff,losenotimeinshootingrightacrosstheinterspaceof
airinthedirectionimpartedbytheshove."(fromOnthenatureoftheUniverse).Despitebeingsimilartolaterparticle
theories,Lucretius'sviewswerenotgenerallyaccepted.Ptolemy(c.2ndcentury)wroteabouttherefractionoflightinhis
bookOptics.[29]

ClassicalIndia

InancientIndia,theHinduschoolsofSamkhyaandVaisheshika,fromaroundtheearlycenturiesADdevelopedtheorieson
light.AccordingtotheSamkhyaschool,lightisoneofthefivefundamental"subtle"elements(tanmatra)outofwhich
emergethegrosselements.Theatomicityoftheseelementsisnotspecificallymentionedanditappearsthattheywere
actuallytakentobecontinuous.[30]Ontheotherhand,theVaisheshikaschoolgivesanatomictheoryofthephysicalworld
onthenonatomicgroundofether,spaceandtime.(SeeIndianatomism.)Thebasicatomsarethoseofearth(prthivi),water
(pani),fire(agni),andair(vayu)Lightraysaretakentobeastreamofhighvelocityoftejas(fire)atoms.Theparticlesof
lightcanexhibitdifferentcharacteristicsdependingonthespeedandthearrangementsofthetejasatoms.TheVishnu
Puranareferstosunlightas"thesevenraysofthesun".[30]

TheIndianBuddhists,suchasDigngainthe5thcenturyandDharmakirtiinthe7thcentury,developedatypeofatomism
thatisaphilosophyaboutrealitybeingcomposedofatomicentitiesthataremomentaryflashesoflightorenergy.They
viewedlightasbeinganatomicentityequivalenttoenergy.[30]

Descartes

RenDescartes(15961650)heldthatlightwasamechanicalpropertyoftheluminousbody,rejectingthe"forms"ofIbnal
HaythamandWiteloaswellasthe"species"ofBacon,Grosseteste,andKepler.[31]In1637hepublishedatheoryofthe
refractionoflightthatassumed,incorrectly,thatlighttravelledfasterinadensermediumthaninalessdensemedium.
Descartesarrivedatthisconclusionbyanalogywiththebehaviourofsoundwaves.AlthoughDescarteswasincorrectabout
therelativespeeds,hewascorrectinassumingthatlightbehavedlikeawaveandinconcludingthatrefractioncouldbe
explainedbythespeedoflightindifferentmedia.

Descartesisnotthefirsttousethemechanicalanalogiesbutbecauseheclearlyassertsthatlightisonlyamechanical
propertyoftheluminousbodyandthetransmittingmedium,Descartes'theoryoflightisregardedasthestartofmodern
physicaloptics.[31]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 9/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

Particletheory

PierreGassendi(15921655),anatomist,proposedaparticletheoryoflightwhichwas
publishedposthumouslyinthe1660s.IsaacNewtonstudiedGassendi'sworkatanearly
age,andpreferredhisviewtoDescartes'theoryoftheplenum.Hestatedinhis
HypothesisofLightof1675thatlightwascomposedofcorpuscles(particlesofmatter)
whichwereemittedinalldirectionsfromasource.OneofNewton'sargumentsagainst
thewavenatureoflightwasthatwaveswereknowntobendaroundobstacles,while
lighttravelledonlyinstraightlines.Hedid,however,explainthephenomenonofthe
diffractionoflight(whichhadbeenobservedbyFrancescoGrimaldi)byallowingthata
lightparticlecouldcreatealocalisedwaveintheaether.

Newton'stheorycouldbeusedtopredictthereflectionoflight,butcouldonlyexplain
refractionbyincorrectlyassumingthatlightaccelerateduponenteringadensermedium
becausethegravitationalpullwasgreater.Newtonpublishedthefinalversionofhis
theoryinhisOpticksof1704.Hisreputationhelpedtheparticletheoryoflighttohold
swayduringthe18thcentury.TheparticletheoryoflightledLaplacetoarguethata PierreGassendi.
bodycouldbesomassivethatlightcouldnotescapefromit.Inotherwords,itwould
becomewhatisnowcalledablackhole.Laplacewithdrewhissuggestionlater,aftera
wavetheoryoflightbecamefirmlyestablishedasthemodelforlight(ashasbeenexplained,neitheraparticleorwave
theoryisfullycorrect).AtranslationofNewton'sessayonlightappearsinThelargescalestructureofspacetime,by
StephenHawkingandGeorgeF.R.Ellis.

ThefactthatlightcouldbepolarizedwasforthefirsttimequalitativelyexplainedbyNewtonusingtheparticletheory.
tienneLouisMalusin1810createdamathematicalparticletheoryofpolarization.JeanBaptisteBiotin1812showedthat
thistheoryexplainedallknownphenomenaoflightpolarization.Atthattimethepolarizationwasconsideredastheproofof
theparticletheory.

Wavetheory

Toexplaintheoriginofcolors,RobertHooke(16351703)developeda"pulsetheory"andcomparedthespreadingoflight
tothatofwavesinwaterinhis1665workMicrographia("ObservationIX").In1672Hookesuggestedthatlight'svibrations
couldbeperpendiculartothedirectionofpropagation.ChristiaanHuygens(16291695)workedoutamathematicalwave
theoryoflightin1678,andpublisheditinhisTreatiseonlightin1690.Heproposedthatlightwasemittedinalldirections
asaseriesofwavesinamediumcalledtheLuminiferousether.Aswavesarenotaffectedbygravity,itwasassumedthat
theysloweddownuponenteringadensermedium.[32]

Thewavetheorypredictedthatlightwavescouldinterferewitheachotherlikesound
waves(asnotedaround1800byThomasYoung).Youngshowedbymeansofa
diffractionexperimentthatlightbehavedaswaves.Healsoproposedthatdifferent
colourswerecausedbydifferentwavelengthsoflight,andexplainedcolourvisionin
termsofthreecolouredreceptorsintheeye.Anothersupporterofthewavetheorywas
LeonhardEuler.HearguedinNovatheorialucisetcolorum(1746)thatdiffraction
couldmoreeasilybeexplainedbyawavetheory.In1816AndrMarieAmpregave
AugustinJeanFresnelanideathatthepolarizationoflightcanbeexplainedbythe
wavetheoryiflightwereatransversewave.[33]

Later,Fresnelindependentlyworkedouthisownwavetheoryoflight,andpresentedit
totheAcadmiedesSciencesin1817.SimonDenisPoissonaddedtoFresnel's
mathematicalworktoproduceaconvincingargumentinfavourofthewavetheory,
helpingtooverturnNewton'scorpusculartheory.Bytheyear1821,Fresnelwasableto
showviamathematicalmethodsthatpolarisationcouldbeexplainedbythewavetheory
oflightandonlyiflightwasentirelytransverse,withnolongitudinalvibration ChristiaanHuygens.
whatsoever.

Theweaknessofthewavetheorywasthatlightwaves,likesoundwaves,wouldneedamediumfortransmission.The
existenceofthehypotheticalsubstanceluminiferousaetherproposedbyHuygensin1678wascastintostrongdoubtinthe
latenineteenthcenturybytheMichelsonMorleyexperiment.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 10/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

Newton'scorpusculartheoryimpliedthatlightwouldtravelfasterinadensermedium,
whilethewavetheoryofHuygensandothersimpliedtheopposite.Atthattime,the
speedoflightcouldnotbemeasuredaccuratelyenoughtodecidewhichtheorywas
correct.ThefirsttomakeasufficientlyaccuratemeasurementwasLonFoucault,in
1850.[34]Hisresultsupportedthewavetheory,andtheclassicalparticletheorywas
finallyabandoned,onlytopartlyreemergeinthe20thcentury. ThomasYoung'ssketchofa
doubleslitexperimentshowing
Electromagnetictheory diffraction.Young'sexperiments
supportedthetheorythatlight
In1845,MichaelFaradaydiscoveredthattheplaneofpolarisationoflinearlypolarised consistsofwaves.
lightisrotatedwhenthelightraystravelalongthemagneticfielddirectioninthe
presenceofatransparentdielectric,aneffectnowknownas
Faradayrotation.[35]Thiswasthefirstevidencethatlightwas
relatedtoelectromagnetism.In1846hespeculatedthatlight
mightbesomeformofdisturbancepropagatingalong
magneticfieldlines.[35]Faradayproposedin1847thatlight
wasahighfrequencyelectromagneticvibration,whichcould
propagateevenintheabsenceofamediumsuchastheether.

Faraday'sworkinspiredJamesClerkMaxwelltostudy
electromagneticradiationandlight.Maxwelldiscoveredthat
selfpropagatingelectromagneticwaveswouldtravelthrough
spaceataconstantspeed,whichhappenedtobeequaltothe A3dimensionalrenderingoflinearlypolarisedlightwave
previouslymeasuredspeedoflight.Fromthis,Maxwell frozenintimeandshowingthetwooscillatingcomponentsof
concludedthatlightwasaformofelectromagneticradiation: lightanelectricfieldandamagneticfieldperpendicularto
hefirststatedthisresultin1862inOnPhysicalLinesofForce. eachotherandtothedirectionofmotion(atransversewave).
In1873,hepublishedATreatiseonElectricityandMagnetism,
whichcontainedafullmathematicaldescriptionofthe
behaviourofelectricandmagneticfields,stillknownasMaxwell'sequations.Soonafter,HeinrichHertzconfirmed
Maxwell'stheoryexperimentallybygeneratinganddetectingradiowavesinthelaboratory,anddemonstratingthatthese
wavesbehavedexactlylikevisiblelight,exhibitingpropertiessuchasreflection,refraction,diffraction,andinterference.
Maxwell'stheoryandHertz'sexperimentsleddirectlytothedevelopmentofmodernradio,radar,television,electromagnetic
imaging,andwirelesscommunications.

Inthequantumtheory,photonsareseenaswavepacketsofthewavesdescribedintheclassicaltheoryofMaxwell.The
quantumtheorywasneededtoexplaineffectsevenwithvisuallightthatMaxwell'sclassicaltheorycouldnot(suchas
spectrallines).

Quantumtheory

In1900MaxPlanck,attemptingtoexplainblackbodyradiationsuggestedthatalthoughlightwasawave,thesewaves
couldgainorloseenergyonlyinfiniteamountsrelatedtotheirfrequency.Planckcalledthese"lumps"oflightenergy
"quanta"(fromaLatinwordfor"howmuch").In1905,AlbertEinsteinusedtheideaoflightquantatoexplainthe
photoelectriceffect,andsuggestedthattheselightquantahada"real"existence.In1923ArthurHollyComptonshowedthat
thewavelengthshiftseenwhenlowintensityXraysscatteredfromelectrons(socalledComptonscattering)couldbe
explainedbyaparticletheoryofXrays,butnotawavetheory.In1926GilbertN.Lewisnamedtheselightquantaparticles
photons.[36]

Eventuallythemoderntheoryofquantummechanicscametopicturelightas(insomesense)bothaparticleandawave,and
(inanothersense),asaphenomenonwhichisneitheraparticlenorawave(whichactuallyaremacroscopicphenomena,
suchasbaseballsoroceanwaves).Instead,modernphysicsseeslightassomethingthatcanbedescribedsometimeswith
mathematicsappropriatetoonetypeofmacroscopicmetaphor(particles),andsometimesanothermacroscopicmetaphor
(waterwaves),butisactuallysomethingthatcannotbefullyimagined.AsinthecaseforradiowavesandtheXrays
involvedinComptonscattering,physicistshavenotedthatelectromagneticradiationtendstobehavemorelikeaclassical
waveatlowerfrequencies,butmorelikeaclassicalparticleathigherfrequencies,butnevercompletelylosesallqualitiesof
oneortheother.Visiblelight,whichoccupiesamiddlegroundinfrequency,caneasilybeshowninexperimentstobe
describableusingeitherawaveorparticlemodel,orsometimesboth.

Seealso
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 11/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia

Automotivelighting LightFantastic(TVseries) Photon

Ballisticphoton Lightmill RightsofLight
Colortemperature LightPainting Risksandbenefitsofsun
Fermat'sprinciple Lightpollution exposure
Huygens'principle Lighttherapy Spectroscopy
Incandescentlightbulb Lighting Visiblespectrum
InternationalCommissionon Listoflightsources Waveparticleduality
Illumination Luminescence:TheJournalof
JournalofLuminescence BiologicalandChemical
Lightart Luminescence
Lightbeaminparticularabout Photicsneezereflex
lightbeamsvisiblefromtheside Photometry

Notes
1.Standardsorganizationsrecommendthatradiometricquantitiesshouldbedenotedwithsuffix"e"(for"energetic")toavoid
confusionwithphotometricorphotonquantities.
2.Alternativesymbolssometimesseen:WorEforradiantenergy,PorFforradiantflux,Iforirradiance,Wforradiantexitance.
3.Spectralquantitiesgivenperunitfrequencyaredenotedwithsuffix""(Greek)nottobeconfusedwithsuffix"v"(for"visual")
indicatingaphotometricquantity.
4.Spectralquantitiesgivenperunitwavelengtharedenotedwithsuffix""(Greek).
5.Directionalquantitiesaredenotedwithsuffix""(Greek).
6.Standardsorganizationsrecommendthatphotometricquantitiesbedenotedwithasuffix"v"(for"visual")toavoidconfusionwith
radiometricorphotonquantities.Forexample:USAStandardLetterSymbolsforIlluminatingEngineeringUSASZ7.11967,
Y10.181967
7.Alternativesymbolssometimesseen:Wforluminousenergy,PorFforluminousflux,andorKforluminousefficacy.
8."J"hereisthesymbolforthedimensionofluminousintensity,notthesymbolfortheunitjoules.

References
1.CIE(1987).InternationalLightingVocabulary(http://www.cie.co.at/publ/abst/17489.html).Number17.4.CIE,4thedition.ISBN
9783900734077.
BytheInternationalLightingVocabulary,thedefinitionoflightis:Anyradiationcapableofcausingavisualsensationdirectly.
2.Pal,G.K.Pal,Pravati(2001)."chapter52".TextbookofPracticalPhysiology(https://books.google.com/books?id=CcJvIiesqp8C&
pg=PA387)(1sted.).Chennai:OrientBlackswan.p.387.ISBN9788125020219.Retrieved11October2013."Thehumaneye
hastheabilitytorespondtoallthewavelengthsoflightfrom400700nm.Thisiscalledthevisiblepartofthespectrum."
3.Buser,PierreA.Imbert,Michel(1992).Vision(https://books.google.com/books?id=NSZvt8Ld28C&pg=PA50).MITPress.p.50.
ISBN9780262023368.Retrieved11October2013."Lightisaspecialclassofradiantenergyembracingwavelengthsbetween
400and700nm(orm),or4000to7000."
4.GregoryHallockSmith(2006).Cameralenses:fromboxcameratodigital(https://books.google.com/?id=6mb0C0cFCEYC&pg=P
A4).SPIEPress.p.4.ISBN9780819460936.
5.NarinderKumar(2008).ComprehensivePhysicsXII(https://books.google.com/?id=IryMtwHHngIC&pg=PA1416).Laxmi
Publications.p.1416.ISBN9788170085928.
6.Laufer,Gabriel(13July1996).IntroductiontoOpticsandLasersinEngineering(https://books.google.com/books?id=4MxLPYMS
5TUC&pg=PA11).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.11.ISBN9780521452335.Retrieved20October2013.
7.Bradt,Hale(2004).AstronomyMethods:APhysicalApproachtoAstronomicalObservations(https://books.google.com/books?id=h
p7vyaGvhLMC&pg=PA26).CambridgeUniversityPress.p.26.ISBN9780521535519.Retrieved20October2013.
8.Ohannesian,LenaStreeter,Anthony(9November2001).HandbookofPharmaceuticalAnalysis(https://books.google.com/books?i
d=DwPb4wgqseYC&pg=PA187).CRCPress.p.187.ISBN9780824741945.Retrieved20October2013.
9.Ahluwalia,V.K.Goyal,Madhuri(1January2000).ATextbookofOrganicChemistry(https://books.google.com/books?id=tJNJnn0
M75MC&pg=PA110).Narosa.p.110.ISBN9788173191596.Retrieved20October2013.
10.Sliney,DavidH.Wangemann,RobertT.Franks,JamesK.Wolbarsht,MyronL.(1976)."Visualsensitivityoftheeyetoinfrared
laserradiation"(http://www.opticsinfobase.org/josa/abstract.cfm?uri=josa664339).JournaloftheOpticalSocietyofAmerica.66
(4):339341.doi:10.1364/JOSA.66.000339(https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSA.66.000339).(Subscriptionrequired(help))."Thefoveal
sensitivitytoseveralnearinfraredlaserwavelengthswasmeasured.Itwasfoundthattheeyecouldrespondtoradiationat
wavelengthsatleastasfaras1064nm.Acontinuous1064nmlasersourceappearedred,buta1060nmpulsedlasersource
appearedgreen,whichsuggeststhepresenceofsecondharmonicgenerationintheretina."
11.Lynch,DavidK.Livingston,WilliamCharles(2001).ColorandLightinNature(https://books.google.com/books?id=4Abp5Fdhsk
AC&pg=PA231)(2nded.).Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.p.231.ISBN9780521775045.Retrieved12October
2013."Limitsoftheeye'soverallrangeofsensitivityextendsfromabout310to1050nanometers"
12.Dash,MadhabChandraDash,SatyaPrakash(2009).FundamentalsOfEcology3E(https://books.google.com/books?id=7mW4us4
Yg8C&pg=PA213).TataMcGrawHillEducation.p.213.ISBN9781259081095.Retrieved18October2013."Normallythe
humaneyerespondstolightraysfrom390to760nm.Thiscanbeextendedtoarangeof310to1,050nmunderartificial
conditions."

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 12/13
18.05.2017. LightWikipedia
13.Saidman,Jean(15May1933)."Surlavisibilitdel'ultravioletjusqu'lalongueurd'onde3130"(http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:/1214
8/bpt6k3148d)[Thevisibilityoftheultraviolettothewavelengthof3130].Comptesrendusdel'Acadmiedessciences(inFrench).
196:15379.
14."ScientificMethod,StatisticalMethodandtheSpeedofLight"(http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?view=b
ody&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.ss/1009212817).StatisticalScience.15(3):254278.2000.doi:10.1214/ss/1009212817(https://doi.o
rg/10.1214%2Fss%2F1009212817).MR1847825(https://www.ams.org/mathscinetgetitem?mr=1847825).
15.Michelson,,A.A.(January1927)."MeasurementsofthevelocityoflightbetweenMountWilsonandMountSanAntonio"(http://a
dsabs.harvard.edu/full/1927ApJ....65....1M).AstrophysicalJournal.65:1.Bibcode:1927ApJ....65....1M(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/1927ApJ....65....1M).doi:10.1086/143021(https://doi.org/10.1086%2F143021).Retrieved12March2014.
16.HarvardNewsOffice(20010124)."HarvardGazette:Researchersnowabletostop,restartlight"(http://www.news.harvard.edu/ga
zette/2001/01.24/01stoplight.html).News.harvard.edu.Retrieved20111108.
17.http://thulescientific.com/LYNCH%20&%20Soffer%20OPN%201999.pdf
18."ReferenceSolarSpectralIrradiance:AirMass1.5"(http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/spectra/am1.5/).Retrieved20091112.
19.Tang,Hong(1October2009)."MayTheForceofLightBeWithYou".IEEESpectrum.46(10):4651.
doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2009.5268000(https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMSPEC.2009.5268000).
20.See,forexample,nanooptomechanicalsystemsresearchatYaleUniversity(http://www.eng.yale.edu/tanglab/research.htm).
21.KathyA.(20040205)."AsteroidsGetSpunBytheSun"(http://discovermagazine.com/2004/feb/asteroidsgetspunbythesun/).
DiscoverMagazine.
22."SolarSailsCouldSendSpacecraft'Sailing'ThroughSpace"(http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/roboticexplorers/solar_sails.htm
l).NASA.20040831.
23."NASAteamsuccessfullydeploystwosolarsailsystems"(http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/news/releases/2004/04208.h
tml).NASA.20040809.
24.P.Lebedev,UntersuchungenberdieDruckkrftedesLichtes,Ann.Phys.6,433(1901).
25.Nichols,E.FHull,G.F.(1903)."ThePressureduetoRadiation"(https://books.google.com/books?id=8n8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA5
PA327&dq=torsion+balance+radiation).TheAstrophysicalJournal.17(5):315351.Bibcode:1903ApJ....17..315N(http://adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/1903ApJ....17..315N).doi:10.1086/141035(https://doi.org/10.1086%2F141035).
26.Einstein,A.(1909).Onthedevelopmentofourviewsconcerningthenatureandconstitutionofradiation.Translatedin:The
CollectedPapersofAlbertEinstein,vol.2(PrincetonUniversityPress,Princeton,1989).Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversity
Press.p.391.
27.Singh,S.(2009)."FundamentalsofOpticalEngineering".DiscoveryPublishingHouse.ISBN9788183564366.
28.O'Connor,JJRobertson,EF(August2002)."Lightthroughtheages:AncientGreecetoMaxwell"(http://wwwgroups.dcs.stand.
ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Light_1.html).
29.PtolemyandA.MarkSmith(1996).Ptolemy'sTheoryofVisualPerception:AnEnglishTranslationoftheOpticswithIntroduction
andCommentary.DianePublishing.p.23.ISBN0871698625.
30.http://www.sifuae.com/sif/wpcontent/uploads/2015/04/ShastraPratibha2015SeniorsBooklet.pdf
31.Theoriesoflight,fromDescartestoNewtonA.I.SabraCUPArchive,1981pg48ISBN0521284368,ISBN9780521284363
32.FokkoJanDijksterhuis,LensesandWaves:ChristiaanHuygensandtheMathematicalScienceofOpticsinthe17thCentury(http
s://books.google.com/books?id=cPFevyomPUIC),KluwerAcademicPublishers,2004,ISBN1402026978
33.JamesR.Hofmann,AndrMarieAmpre:EnlightenmentandElectrodynamics,CambridgeUniversityPress,1996,p.222.
34.DavidCassidyGeraldHoltonJamesRutherford(2002).UnderstandingPhysics(https://books.google.com/?id=rpQo7f9F1xUC&p
g=PA382).Birkhuser.ISBN0387987568.
35.Longair,Malcolm(2003).TheoreticalConceptsinPhysics.p.87.
36. Barrow,GordonM.(1962).IntroductiontoMolecularSpectroscopy(https://archive.org/details/IntroductionToMolecularSpectrosc
opy)(ScannedPDF).McGrawHill.LCCN6212478(https://lccn.loc.gov/6212478).

Externallinks
MediarelatedtoLightatWikimediaCommons
ThedictionarydefinitionoflightatWiktionary
QuotationsrelatedtoLightatWikiquote

Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light&oldid=776470249"

Categories: Light Radiation

Thispagewaslasteditedon21April2017,at05:29.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.Byusing
thissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.WikipediaisaregisteredtrademarkoftheWikimedia
Foundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light 13/13