Population Ageing

DOI 10.1007/s12062-016-9142-6

Socio-Cultural Connections and Ruptures: Social Roles

of Older Adults in Chile

Marcelo Pia-Moran 1 & Leidy Y. Garca 1

Received: 12 June 2015 / Accepted: 12 February 2016

# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract This research focused on determining the sociocultural factors that build the
social perception of the social roles of senior citizens in Chile in the 20022012 period.
For this purpose, public opinion was studied in newspapers El Mercurio and La Cuarta.
Specialized opinion included the Senior Citizen Program of Pontificia Universidad
Catlica de Chile, the National Service for Senior Citizens, the Social Observatory for
Aging and Old Age of Universidad de Chile, and the Society of Geriatrics and
Gerontology of Chile. A comprehensive methodology was used, along with a biblio-
graphical four-stage design. The following ten sociocultural factors were identified: Health
and Quality of Life, Studies and Data, Social Images of Aging, Gerontological Concepts
and Sociopolitical Participation, Gerontological Policies, Plans and Principles, Aging,
Production and Gender, Institutionalization, Demographic Growth, Gerontological
Training, and Exclusion and Old Age. This work suggests modifying the conceptual
premise that emphasizes the inexistence of a social role for elderly people with a vision
centered on the heterogeneity of social roles under permanent sociocultural construction.

Keywords Social roles . Sociocultural construction . Aging and culture

Introduction

Over the past few decades, an increasing amount of research has been conducted in the
field of the sociology of aging. These studies are framed within the following perspec-
tives: structural-functionalist, Marxist, symbolic interactionism and political economy

* Marcelo Pia-Moran
pina_moran@hotmail.com

Leidy Y. Garca
legarcia@ucm.cl

1
Facultad de Ciencias Sociales y Econmicas, Universidad Catlica del Maule, Av. San Miguel
3605, Talca, Chile
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

of old age (Snchez 2000). This investigation is based on the theory of roles for elderly
people and is complemented with the cultural dimension proposed by the sociology of
culture developed by Williams (1975, 1981). The authors chose the disciplinary
approach of the sociology of aging with an emphasis on the cultural dimension for
two reasons. First, it is necessary to pursue a disciplinary perspective in order to analyze
the problem in depth, regardless of the interdisciplinary perspective of gerontology.
Second, the issue of social roles has been studied mainly from a sociological
perspective.
Furthermore, the topic of social roles has been emphasized in several international
discussions and proposals regarding aging and old age. For example, the First World
Assembly on Aging in Vienna (1982) mentions that Bthroughout history, this has
allowed elderly people to educate younger people and pass on values to them; this
role has guaranteed the survival and progress of mankind^ (Naciones Unidas 1982: 10).
The Second World Assembly on Aging in Madrid (2002) noted that Bthe potential of
elderly people is a solid foundation for future development. It allows society to
increasingly resort to the competencies, experience and wisdom contributed by older
citizens, not only in order to assume the initiative of their own improvement, but also to
actively take part in the improvement of society as a whole^ (Naciones Unidas 2003:
3). The Regional Implementation Strategy for Latin America and the Caribbean of the
Madrid International Plan of Action on Aging specifies that Bthe role of elderly people
in the transmission of local culture and stories to new generations must be promoted,
allowing the preservation of the traditions and cultural roots of local communities^
(Cepal 2004: 15).
In Chile, the 1996 National Policy for Senior Citizens highlights that Bfrom a
sociocultural point of view, the role of senior citizens in our current society is
inexistent, and this absence is linked to negative appreciations regarding old age.
The core of this reality constitutes the vicious circle of exclusion that affects this
group and reduces it to a passive role in relation to its problems^ (Gobierno de Chile
1996: 5). Also, the 20122015 Integral Policy on Positive Aging for Chile mentions
that BChile needs a cultural change in order to turn its attention towards senior
citizens and understand the value of their contribution to the social structure^
(Gobierno de Chile 2012: 7). It also specifies that Bthe vision that we are having
as a society regarding the aging process, that is, the social construction we make of
old age, must be revised^ (Gobierno de Chile 2012: 15). In this sense, this work is
focused on determining which sociocultural factors build the social perception of
the social roles of elderly people in Chile between 2002 and 2012. This period was
selected because it is interesting to analyze the public and specialized debates that
have taken place in Chile since the Second World Assembly on Aging in 2002 and
the Second Examination and Evaluation of the Madrid International Plan of Action
on Aging held on February 615, 2013 in New York. This study challenges the
conceptual foundations that specify the inexistence of a social role for elderly
people and poses the assumption that social roles are being permanently constructed
and they are defined by a heterogeneity of sociocultural factors linked to healthcare,
political, economic, family and gerontological training dimensions.
In order to investigate the construction perspective of the social roles, a comprehen-
sive methodology was considered based on the epistemological approach of Alfred
Schutz social phenomenology. His contribution to the qualitative analysis of data is
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

valued, considering the findings as expressions that refer to the intersubjective

world (Schutz 1962) experienced by public and specialized opinion according to
the social roles of senior citizens. It includes a bibliographical design with four
work stages. 1 Regarding the collection of secondary information, a purposive
sample of the public opinion was obtained through the selection of 1050 articles
on aging and old age from El Mercurio and La Cuarta newspapers. For the
specialized opinion, researchers, national and international experts, and public
and private organizations in the area of social gerontology were consulted, from
which 149 documents (articles and scientific books) were analyzed. In other words,
the study analyzes a total of 1199 publications.

Two Theoretical Approaches for Social Gerontology

For the purpose of this research, two theoretical approaches shall be described. The first
is the structural-functionalist approach, as the theory of roles is based on that conceptual
approach and was used as the basis for the formulation of the research problem. The
second is the perspective of critical gerontology, which considers that knowledge about
aging and old age is positioned within a context that includes historical, social, political
and cultural dimensions. Based on this vision, this work suggests that social roles are
under construction and that the sociology of culture developed by Williams (1975,
1981) allows conceptually analyzing the significant system and practices that configure
the social roles of older people in Chile.

Structural-Functionalist Approach

The structural-functionalist approach was developed by Parsons (1968) and has greatly
influenced social gerontology. The theory of structural functionalism holds that social
behavior is best analyzed once the balance needed by the social system is understood.
This theory visualizes social behavior within the structure of society.
According to this approach, systems have characteristics such as order and
interdependence, and incline towards an internal equilibrium. The most important
elements are norms, social roles and socialization. Norms are shared rules regarding
appropriate social behavior. Social roles imply a set of expectations associated to
behaviors ascribed to a specific social position. Socialization is the process through
which individuals internalize the norms and values of society. Social control and
socialization are the main mechanisms that allow the social system to maintain its
equilibrium. At the same time, individuals are part of this social order and satisfy
the corresponding needs of the system. The functionalist theory specifies the
normative aspects of social order and highlights consensus and conformity as key
elements.
In gerontology, the role theory developed by Rosow (1974) emerges from this
approach. It is centered on the sociology of aging and indicates that in the course of
life (Snchez 2000), individuals play a great number of roles that influence personal

1
They are described in the investigation methodology
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

self-concept and self-esteem. Social roles are developed according to a chronologically

defined sequence. With age, not only the roles assigned to the individuals change, but
also the way in which they are developed. In this regard, Calasanti (2003) states that
institutional practices and discriminatory attitudes against older people transcend social
relationships, as well as the senior individuals sense of self.
Similarly, the adaptation of an individual to their aging process depends on how they
assume the changes in the roles2 that social beliefs assign to them based on their age
and the way in which they meet the expectations associated with the role. Socialization,
which allows individuals to interactively adapt to the requirements of their environ-
ment, is the foundation of this process. From this perspective, aging involves incorpo-
rating the roles that correspond to a specific age. However, it is relevant to consider that
the change in roles not only depends on their assignment by society according to age,
but is also conditioned by the changing circumstances in the ages of the subjects. For
example, the roles of son and father exist (or not) depending on the appearance (or not)
of the counterpart of the corresponding complementary role. Another noteworthy
aspect is that roles are not only determined by the individuals age, but also by the
social structures that are part of the aging process and relate to the individuals and
functions (roles) (Riley et al. 1972).
In turn, Ricardo Moragas (2001) argues that aging is a process that implies a loss of
roles. With retirement, a final role is acquired, which is identified as a Brole without a
role.^ This phenomenon implies that the individual lacks norms due to the lack of role
expectations (active and passive), which influences their self-concept and self-esteem.
This process occurs when the individual enters retirement after a long work-life with
the ensuing rupture of the aspirations that had given purpose to their life. When they
move away from the working world, the industrial society considers them unproduc-
tive. And individuals who do not produce are not valued. In this regard, Clarke et al.
(2011) state that the term Bold^ is used to highlight the negative social status3 that is
associated with older adults, deepening their social stigma. The aforementioned be-
comes important as the roles performed by the individual influence their personal self-
concept and self-esteem.
From this perspective, it is mentioned that the main source of status is the work and
occupation carried out by the subject. As a result of these changes, advanced age
becomes a stage of life without roles. A retired person lacks the behavior expectations
established by society. In addition, their accumulated knowledge and experience are not
valued.

Critical Gerontology

Critical gerontology is supported by the foundations of contemporary social theory,

mainly the contributions of a group of philosophers and social theorists who have
influenced the reflection of social and human sciences, Bboth the tradition of the

2
For analytical purposes, the role is considered as the most relevant unit of the social structures. The role
implies expectations regarding the actions of the actor and those who interact. Parsons (1968).
3
It is worth mentioning that the term Bold^ is not always used in a pejorative manner; it depends on the
historical-cultural context analyzed. Pia (2014a, b).
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

Frankfurt School and the contributions of Habermas, Foucault, Bourdieu, Giddens,

Morin, Lacan, Guattari, Lipovetsky, Vattimo and Bauman have shaped a new ontolog-
ical, gnoseological and epistemological vision in order to analyze the knowledge, work,
culture and organization of society^ (Yuni and Urbano 2008:153).
Yuni and Urbano (2008) state that traditional gerontology tends to maintain the
social order, the distribution of power and the legitimacy of the scientific order. A circle
is generated in which scientific knowledge urges the preservation of certain dominant
values, representations, positions and social roles. Critical gerontology emphasizes that
the categories of analysis are sociocultural constructions and proposes an exhaustive
revision that reflects on the links and ruptures that exist among the sociocultural
meanings assigned to the aging process and old age, with the discourses expressed at
a scientific and social level.
This research opts for the critical dimension and also considers that the knowledge
of social gerontology is positioned within a context that includes dimensions that are
historical, social, political and cultural. Based on this last dimension, the study con-
siders the approach of Raymond Williams sociology of culture in order to understand
the social perception of public and specialized opinion of the social roles of senior
adults. The analysis of the culture (McGuigan and Moran 2014) should consider the
following:

1. The anthropological and sociological meanings of the culture as Ba differentiated

way of life^ in which a specific Bsignificant system^ is considered essential and is
essentially implicated in all forms of social activity.
2. The more specialized meaning of the culture, such as artistic and intellectual
activities, which includes not only traditional forms of production but also all of
the Bsignificant practices^ such as language, the arts, journalism, fashion and
marketing (Williams 1981).

This study also considers the analysis category of Williams known as Bstructure of
feeling^, which refers to the culture that is analyzed at a specific moment in history.
Merging this concept with the groundbreaking perspective of critical gerontology, the
analysis focused on the significant system and the significant practices that are present
in the culture perceived by the public and specialized opinion of senior citizens in Chile
during the 20022012 period.

Methodology

The used methodology is linked to three theoretical approaches considered in this

study. The theoretical foundations of critical gerontology were applied to the problem-
posing and analysis process, which suggest conducting an exhaustive review that
analyzes the links and ruptures that exist among the sociocultural meanings assigned
to the process of aging and old age, linked to the structure of feeling category proposed
by Williams, which delves into the significant practices posed at a scientific and social
level. For the qualitative data analysis, the epistemological approach of Schutz social
phenomenology was also considered, which allowed deepening our understanding of
the findings.
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

The research bibliographical design4 considered four work stages.5 The first phase
formed the purposive sample of public and specialized research sources in order to
understand the specialized and public opinion of the social roles of elderly people in
Chile between 2002 and 2012. For the public opinion, articles were selected that focused
on aging and old age themes. According to the National Advertisers Association
(ANDA) and the Chilean Association of Advertising Agencies (ACHAP), El
Mercurio newspaper belongs to the group of highest circulation, and La Cuarta is one
of the most read (VALIDA 2013). For the specialized opinion, national and international
researchers and experts on social gerontology were consulted. The techniques devel-
oped included gathering works from archives at newspaper libraries, libraries, journals
and documents published by the corresponding institutions.
During the second work stage, a selection was made of the articles collected. For the
case of the specialized opinion, publications were selected that focused on the themes
of aging and old age that had been developed by the corresponding institution or were
published by academics and/or professionals representing this institution. The distribu-
tion was made in this manner: National Service for Senior Citizens (Senama), 18
publications; Social Observatory on Aging and Old Age of Universidad de Chile, 42
publications; Chilean Geriatrics and Gerontology Society, 65 publications; Senior
Citizen Program of Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile, 24 study books. In the
case of public opinion, all the publications referring to topics of aging and old age were
reviewed, including every day from January 1st 2002 to December 31st 2012. For La
Cuarta newspaper, the publications collected are 925 printed documents. In the case of
El Mercurio, the publications selected are 125. For the public opinion, there are 1050
publications, and for the specialized opinion there are 149. The total number of
publications collected is 1199. (Table 1).
During the third work stage, a comprehensive 6 analysis 7 of the 1199 publications
collected was conducted. The analysis of the qualitative data included a method of
analysis that according to Taylor and Bogdan Bproposes a method for the treatment of
the data that is articulated around their comprehension and on the tracking of meaning

4
According to Restituto Sierra, the possible types of designs are practically countless, and this is not a closed
concept but one open to the imagination of the researchers. BConsidering the nature of the investigation, the
theoretical or bibliographical designs, as well as the empirical ones, can be distinguished^ (Sierra 1994: 331).
5
This investigation contemplated 3 years of work, from October 2012 to October 2015. Each year, a progress
report was delivered that was reviewed by the investigators of the National Science and Technology
Commission through the National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development of Chile. This process
of validating the research results and reports with external observers is known as respondent validation or
negotiation (Serrano 1998). At this point, it is also worth mentioning that the external evaluators provided
satisfactory assessments regarding goal fulfillment, methodology and method of analysis.
6
Miguel ngel Santos (1998) groups the qualitative data analyses in: functional tree analysis, epistemological
tree analysis, comprehensive analysis, open analysis and meaningful analysis. This study opted for the
comprehensive analysis in accordance with the approaches of Taylor and Bogdan (1998).
7
The triangulation implies that the data must be collected from different points of view and that multiple
comparisons of a phenomenon must be conducted using diverse perspective and multiple procedures (see
Serrano 1998). The triangulation of investigators starts in this work stage. It is also called intersubjective
verification (Serrano 1998), and it is consistent with the intersubjective perspective proposed by the social
phenomenology of Schutz that is considered in this study. The lead investigator Dr. Marcelo Pia Morn and
the Research Collaborator as technical staff Master and Dr. Mara Gladys Olivo Viana conducted the
reading and comprehensive analysis of the documents. This process was carried out from September 2013 to
September 2014 (12 months). It is worth mentioning that they have previous experience in two joint
investigations where this triangulation process was also conducted.
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

Table 1 Publications analyzed

Type Institution Period Quantity

Specialized National Service for Senior Citizens (Senama) 20052012 18

Opinion Social Observatory on Aging and Old Age 20052012 42
of Universidad de Chile
Chilean Geriatrics and Gerontology Society 20052012 65
Senior Citizen Program of Pontificia 200204-06-07- 08-09-10-11-12 24
Universidad Catlica de Chile
Public Opinion La Cuarta 01/01/2002 to 12/31/12 925
El Mercurio 125
Total 1199

The years described in the specialized opinion correspond to the information provided by the representatives
of the institutions. For La Cuarta newspaper, the data was gathered through a revision process at the National
Library. For El Mercurio, all the publications referring to topics of aging and old age were requested from the
Department of Information

through the search for fundamental categories in the facts described. The meaning
networks must be penetrated in order to understand what really happens and why it
happens in that social framework^ (Santos 1998: 48). This process was conducted
through the search for fundamental categories in accordance with the objectives of this
investigation. The steps were the following: First, an interpretive reading of the
information gathered regarding public and specialized opinion. For this purpose, all
the relevant publications and articles were scanned. Second, a recording of the general
topics. Third, a formulation of emerging topics. Fourth, a classification of the informa-
tion according to the previous categories of the investigation: daily life needs of the
elderly, socioeconomic production of the elderly, family tasks to be carried out by
elderly people in a retirement phase, and sociopolitical participation of elderly people.
Fifth, a description of emerging subcategories. Sixth, a development of an analysis
matrix that includes information in accordance with the categories and subcategories of
investigation.
For the development of the triangulation among investigators in this stage, the
intersubjective verification process was conducted through discussions and debates
around the interpretive reading, the recording of general and emerging topics, the
classification in categories and subcategories of study, and the development of the
analysis matrix. As was previously mentioned, the respondent validation or negotiation
was also considered, which included the review and observation of all these progress
reports by investigators from the National Science and Technology Commission
through the National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development of Chile.
In the fourth work stage of qualitative-comprehensive data analysis, the central
subcategories of the study were identified. For this purpose, the investigators that
carried out the process of information triangulation selected pages 8 from the public

8
For the specialized opinion, the page distribution is the following: National Service for Senior Citizens
(SENAMA), 167. Senior Citizen Program of Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile, 167. Social
Observatory on Aging and Old Age of Universidad de Chile, 165. Geriatrics Society, 110. The public opinion
contemplated for La Cuarta newspaper: 166. El Mercurio newspaper: 118. The total is 893 pages.
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

and specialized opinion that represent the general comprehensive analysis matrix in
order to enter them into the NNivo9 program. This way, a codification of the subcat-
egories identified in the third stage was conducted in nodes according to each research
objective. The triangulation of investigators implied re-reading the pages selected and
the organized subcategories with the corresponding quotes. It also allowed developing
the triangulation of information sources, where the investigators Pia and Olivo
identified the central subcategories that were most significant and influential in the
public and specialized opinion, which were identified as sociocultural factors that build
the social roles.

Results

The categories and subcategories of the investigation are described below according to
the information sources.10 It is the result of all the stages of the research design, which
includes the comprehensive analysis of all the documents and the nodes organized by
the NVivo program. Table 2 shows the main findings for the public and specialized
opinion.

I. Daily Life Needs

The gerontological training includes the academic production of articles and books
focused on topics such as: definition of gerontology, social gerontology and its values
of attention; definition of geriatrics and its complementation with gerontology; demo-
graphic background and definition of successful aging (PAM). It is one of the chal-
lenges this country must take on in order to improve the social conditions associated
with the process of retirement and social participation (Mercurio). It appears in news
articles focused on the creation of the first basic care handbook (Cuarta), gerontological
training courses that were conducted in some regions and interviews to elderly people
that stand out at a national level, who pose the need for younger people to know the
implications of the aging process (Senama).
Raising awareness of abuse, mistreatment and violence towards the elderly (SGG) is
also mentioned, as well as abandonment and the establishments for elderly people
(Mercurio). In addition, situations where elderly people have been involved are also
described, such as: old man murders junkie son and prostitute cuts an elderly persons
finger to steal their ring (Cuarta).
The social images of aging appear linked to social benefits, the rights of the elderly
(Cuarta), learning experiences of the elderly and social participation (Mercurio),
cultural gender construction, images of university students regarding old age, existing
perception in the media (OUCH), stereotypes of students and teachers in health-related

9
The N-Vivo program was chosen because it allowed delving into the information of the subcategories. Based
on the comprehensive methodology of the investigation, the programs contribution was sought for the
analysis of qualitative data.
10
In order to present the results, the information sources are described in the following manner: Senior Citizen
Program of Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile (PAM). National Service for Senior Citizens (Senama).
Social Observatory on Aging and Old Age of Universidad de Chile (OUCH). Chilean Geriatrics and
Gerontology Society (SGG). Diario La Cuarta (Cuarta). Diario El Mercurio (Mercurio).
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

Table 2 Categories, emerging subcategories and main finding for public and specialized opinion

Category Emerging Subcategories Main result

Daily life needs of elderly
people
Demographic growth
Socioeconomic production of
elderly people
Family tasks to be completed
by elderly people at the
retirement stage
Sociopolitical participation of
elderly people
Gerontological training Public opinion: social participation, social
Abuse, mistreatment, benefits and aging policies. Specialized
and violence opinion: gerontological concepts, abuse and
mistreatment, gender, stereotypes, healthy
Social images of aging aging, sexuality and quality of life.
Gerontological policies,
plans and principles
Health and quality of
life
Studies and data
Exclusion and old age Public opinion: culture of work with elderly
Gerontology and people, family support and poverty at old age.
development Specialized opinion: change in roles, status
and positions of elderly people, lifestyles,
Retirement as a paradigm of productive aging and successful
sociocultural and aging.
economic process
Aging, production and
gender
Education and family Public opinion: family care and assistance, social
care contribution of the role of grandparent and
Income continuance of previous tasks. Specialized
opinion: family education, intergenerational
Institutionalization responsibility, social roles, gender and
Active aging model retirement, family and community networks.
Networks
Social capital and aging Public opinion: active participation, social
Demands participation policies, rights, health and development.
Specialized opinion: active aging, citizenship,
Gerontological concepts association forming, social support and
and sociopolitical quality of life, citizen participation, free time,
participation gender and aging policies, and critical
gerontology.

Source: Generated by the authors based on the process of analysis developed by Pia and Olivo

careers (SGG) and in proposals aiming to achieve a cultural change in the population
regarding the treatment and appreciation of elderly people (Senama).
Gerontological policies, plans and principles are associated with the implementation
of public policies in healthcare for senior citizens (Mercurio), strengthening intergen-
erational solidarity (Senama), proposing the need for a new intergenerational social
contract and in reflections that state that the opportunities offered by Chile have
improved, but are still discriminatory (PAM).
Health and Quality of Life includes articles related with exercises to counteract the
effects of a sedentary lifestyle, a vaccination campaign against influenza (Cuarta), the
Mediterranean aging model, the influence of the traditional medical model on the
concept of aging, recommendations for achieving healthy aging (PAM), sexual inac-
tivity of elderly people and access to health services (OUCH). It also incorporates
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

nutritional evaluation and risk factors in elderly people, sexuality in senior citizens,
music therapy in elderly people with Parkinsons disease, laughter therapy, quality of
life in elderly people living with AIDS and use of medicinal plants in elderly people
(SGG).
Studies and Data shows topics related to elderly people and their family (Mercurio),
social participation, social benefits and policies (Cuarta). It also mentions that elderly
people not only need financial aid, but also understanding and love. There are refer-
ences to inadequate transportation means and the inability to give the preferential seat
to older people (Senama). Similarly, there is information regarding new technologies
and old age, access to health services (OUCH), the effects of physical activity in the
quality of life of elderly people, characteristics of the staff that works in long-term stay
establishments, the attitudes of a group of elderly people faced with a terminal illness,
descriptions of the epidemiological profile and comparisons between the Mapuche and
non-Mapuche population older than 65, as well as the driving characteristics of a group
of elderly people (SGG).
Demographic growth stands out in all the sources reviewed and it appears in
chronicles, news reports, publications of articles and books, for example, in remote
diploma courses on gerontological themes for professionals (PAM). Its relevance as a
social problem that must be addressed in the allocation of social benefits (Cuarta) and
old age policies (Mercurio) is noted. Also in the challenges that the conditions offered
by the country implicate for their quality of life (Senama, PAM) and the relevance of
the gender topic (OUCH).

II. Socioeconomic Production

Exclusion and Old Age imply new exclusions and marginality in old age (OUCH). For
example, from an economic perspective, we can mention the case of an old woman
who lost her apartment because she could not pay a loan (Cuarta). There are stereotypes
regarding the production of elderly people, generational exclusion and their influence in
the labor market and the production system (OUCH). In the social aspect, it implies
deep changes in the system of roles, status and social positions of the different
categories and strata. A central element in old age is social integration, as the loss of
occupation and income affects the deterioration of the social identity of elderly people
(PAM). A labor culture must be promoted (Mercurio), as those who belong to higher
socioeconomic sectors have fewer problems than those who face poverty and misery
situations (Senama). Elderly people without children work more years to secure their
minimum pension (Mercurio), and the lifestyle components of the economically active
population 65 and older must be studied (SGG).
Gerontology and development includes references such as the inauguration of the
Instituto del Envejecimiento (Aging Institute) (Mercurio) and reflections regarding how
Chilean society exhibits unequal development possibilities for the elderly (Senama).
There is information regarding figures that account for an increase in poor elderly people
and news articles regarding the diversity of sociocultural situations faced by aging, such
as the case of an old woman who sold marihuana and was brought to trial (Cuarta).
Retirement as a sociocultural and economic process refers to the paradigm of
productive aging, to the participation of the elderly in the work force (OUCH), and it
is specified that after retiring, the pension money is not even enough for medication
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

(Cuarta). There are records that state that the high depression prevalence in the older
population implies a loss of self-esteem, and from an economic perspective, efforts and
investments in successful aging are justified (PAM). There are also descriptions of the
lifestyles of elderly people by income quintiles and comments on an evaluation of the
nutritional content of the food in long-stay centers for elderly people of medium
socioeconomic level (SGG). The newspapers show that wealthy families divide their
expenses in order to care for their relatives and those with a lower income live with
their elderly relatives (Mercurio). There are also news articles that emphasize the
activities of elderly people, such as: 80 year old man is the king of reggaeton and a
radio critic, a farmer old man donates 100 million pesos for the construction of a
stadium with his name, natural and aphrodisiac recipe contest for elderly people
(Cuarta) and elderly people who participate in parades (Mercurio).
Aging, production and gender notes that in the economic dimension, the populations
aging will have an effect on growth, savings, investment and consumption (PAM).
There are reflections on the transformations of the labor market from a critical and
gender perspective, an analysis of the elderly, poverty and social investment (OUCH),
credits for small enterprises by elderly people (Mercurio), poverty in elderly people
(Cuarta) and the correlation between the wealth of the country and the increase of the
age average (OUCH).

III. Family Tasks at the Retirement Stage

Education and family care shows that health prevention through self-care provides
elderly people, their families and/or caregivers the tools for a healthy old age (PAM).
Children do not assume the responsibility of caring for their parent (Cuarta), and the
family must learn to live with the elderly (Mercurio). It is suggested that for the elderly,
being a grandparent is a reward at old age, and it is indicated that women in particular
collaborate with the care and training of children and young family members (PAM).
There are works that refer to the importance of educating the relatives of the hospitalized
user and the excessive work load of the family caregiver in elderly patients with cognitive
impairment (SGG).
Income appears in news articles that stress that grandparents are the economic
support for many families (Cuarta) and that elderly people who are entrepreneurs have
benefits at a family level (Mercurio). The relevance of continuing to work is also noted,
as interrupting intellectual activity is harmful to the elderly (Senama).
Institutionalization appears linked to news articles such as a fire in the house of an old
woman (Cuarta), references centered around expressing that this topic is not only the
responsibility of the state, but also of the civil society and that there are elderly people
who are afraid of confinement in institutions (Mercurio). Also as a form of mistreatment
in centers that provide assistance to elderly people (Senama) and institutions that raise an
assistance-oriented treatment paradigm for old age and aging (OUCH).
The active aging model notes that radical changes are not always good; there must
be a continuance of previous tasks (Mercurio). It is also mentioned that the social policy
of aging aims at strengthening the intergenerational responsibility within the family and
the community (Senama). The relevance of sociocultural production in old age is
highlighted, as well as the transformation of their social roles, gender, family structures,
the subfield of the generations (OUCH), mothers and fathers who have set an example
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

for their children and grandchildren (Mercurio), elderly people who get married
(Cuarta) and rural elderly people who are more family and socially included (PAM).
There are investigations that refer to the systematization of experiences in family health
centers, descriptions of elderly people being assisted at a rural Cesfam, anticipated
guidelines for elderly people and their families, and assessment of the needs of the
relatives of elderly people with dementia (SGG).
There are also descriptions of topics such as retirement and preretirement in the
social management of old age (OUCH), that retirement is not something just for men
(Mercurio), nuclear family versus family cooperation (OUCH), robberies to houses
owned by elderly people (Cuarta), about discussing the topic of death with the family
(Mercurio) and how exercise is good for house chores (Cuarta). There are studies
regarding the assessment of elderly people diagnosed with domestic violence and
psychosocial intervention for the relatives of patients with dementia (SGG).
Networks includes mentions to how family and community networks offer oppor-
tunities for solidarity (PAM). It must not be forgotten that the elderly are an example for
younger generations (Mercurio) and that schools should invite elderly people to talk
about the history of the neighborhood (Senama). In general, elderly parents provide
more help and services to their children and grandchildren than what they receive from
them (PAM). Training and awareness must be provided regarding the topic of elderly
people to families and the community, as in councils, the elderly report mistreatment
from their relatives (Senama).

IV. Sociopolitical Participation

In Social capital and aging, there are indications that the new paradigm defines elderly
people as active participants in society (Mercurio) and that the National Policy for Senior
Citizens contemplates autonomy, active aging and full citizenship (Senama). However,
elderly people organize in groups, but their initiatives are very disperse and are unable to
generate demands that have any political influence (Mercurio). Another instrumental
objective of the policy is to promote the associations of elderly people at all levels:
community, regional and national, or through functional organizations that are not
territorial (Senama). More policies are demanded from the State that prioritize this group
(Cuarta) and incorporate elderly people into the design and monitoring of the policies that
affect them through their participation with the right to voice and vote in the advisory
councils of the institutions in charge of old age affairs at a national level (PAM).
Characteristics of the social structure that relate to the quality of life of the elderly are
emphasized (SGG), and also that elderly people must unite and that communal unions
have been a decisive contribution in this area (Senama). A critical gerontology is
needed that analyzes topics such as: the participation of the elderly, aging and social
exclusion, social capital and aging; elderly people, association forming and social
capital, critical theory and aging, the elderly in history, political and social impacts of
aging and lifestyles of economically active elderly people (OUCH).
Demands participation shows that community councils for the elderly have become
an instance for dialogue with the authorities where the organizations of elderly people
have been able to express their main concerns and fears regarding the different areas of
their lives (Senama). It is indicated that more than 100 elderly people take part in the
Bwalk for the dignity of the white heads^, whose goal was to demand their rights and for
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

society not to treat them as invisible (Cuarta), that participation in workshops at munic-
ipalities or cultural corporations is similar to taking courses at the University (Mercurio)
and that recognizing their autonomy, that is, the ability of the elderly to be independent is
a central point on which actions in favor of this group are based (Senama).
A perceived and noteworthy reality is the elderly person and their citizen participa-
tion (OUCH). In addition, the participation of elderly people in various voluntary work
activities, the end of activities governed by fixed hours, the reduction or end of work
and/or family responsibilities and the security that many obtain from depending on a
pension allow having enough free time to devote to solidary activities (PAM). The
importance of a board of public and private benefits for the elderly is described, as well
as a gerontological diagnose and proposal aimed at the elderly (SGG).

Gerontological Concepts and Sociopolitical Participation The aging of the popula-

tion influences the structures of family, society, health, education and the need for social
and medical services. The health of the elderly will be a key element for the economic
and social development of all countries (Mercurio), and it is necessary to include an
individual and collective cultural and cognitive assessment (SGG). One of the areas
most developed as a space that invites the elderly to participate is the one related to
recreation and a good use of free time (PAM). One example is the Blive life, all life^
rally at Estadio Nacional (Cuarta). The gender category is also highlighted, as well as
the political characteristics of aging (OUCH). The Latin American Strategy is an
important framework for establishing consensual measures, as well as their application
in accordance with the reality of each country. This means that governments, interna-
tional organizations and the civil society should collaborate in the implementation and
monitoring of the proposals in order to improve the quality of life of the elderly in Latin
America and the Caribbean (PAM).

Central subcategories

The central subcategories that make up the sociocultural factors that build the social
roles of elderly people are the following:

Health and Quality of Life

The Madrid International Plan of Action on Aging indicates that Bthe countries with a
larger population will have to increasingly promote active aging through policies of
health prevention, permanent learning and a flexible work life^ (Naciones Unidas
2003:76). In this sense, the concept of active aging was established by the World
Health Organization (WHO) in 1999, which was defined as Bthe optimization process
for health, participation and security opportunities with the purpose of improving the
quality of life as people grow old^. The term Bactive^ refers to the continuous
individual and collective participation of senior citizens in social, economic, cultural,
spiritual and civic aspects, and not only to the ability to be physically active or
participate in the work force^ (Mendoza et al. 2009: 68).
From this perspective, this study considers essential to strengthen the exercise of
active social roles as a factor that facilitates the autonomy and decision making capacity
of elderly people, thus improving their quality of life.
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

Studies and Data

The Madrid Plan emphasizes conducting research on aging with the purpose of
supporting the formulation of policies in favor of elderly people. Also, the Second
Regional Intergovernmental Conference on Aging in Latin America and the Caribbean
for a society of social protection and for all ages based on rights, in the Brasilia
declaration on Aging, motivates Bacademic centers, scientific societies and cooperation
networks on population, aging and development to conduct detailed, diversified and
specialized studies on this topic (Cepal 2007: 4). This investigation highlights the
development of studies by the specialized opinion, which is disseminated in articles,
books and training texts. In addition, the public opinion disseminates the data of the
investigations in articles, newscasts and chronicles.

Social Images of Aging

Regarding the images related to aging, the Madrid Plan considers that the recognition
and appreciation of elderly people is essential. There must be a regulatory framework in
order to value the contributions of elderly people, where the media is responsible for
promoting positive images.

Gerontological Concepts and Sociopolitical Participation

There is coordination with the 2002 International Plan of Action on Aging when it indicates
that Bempowering elderly people so they can fully and efficiently participate in the
economic, political and social life of their societies^ is relevant (Naciones Unidas 2003: 8).

Gerontological Policies, Plans and Principles

An interest in the active participation of elderly people is highlighted, but it is necessary to

strengthen their incorporation in the design and implementation of gerontological pro-
posals. It is necessary to Bincorporate the needs of elderly people and the issues that
concern them into the decision adoption process at all levels^ (Naciones Unidas 2003:
11). The structure of feeling proposed by Williams, applied to the vision that prevails in
public and specialized opinion in Chile, emphasizes the fact that the main players in the
construction of social roles are elderly people themselves.

Aging, Production and Gender

Just like the Madrid Plan declares, the contribution of elderly people is associated to the
roles they take on in their families and the community, and not only implies the
economic dimension. This study emphasizes the need to strengthen and install mea-
sures so that men and women can have access to social protection, also promoting
gender equality and extending to all formal and informal areas.
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

Institutionalization

There is an increase of private and public homes that take in senior citizens. The
development of a gerontological planning process that integrates the interests of elderly
people, their families and the community into the projects developed by the institutions
is suggested.

Demographic Growth

The Chilean Policy indicates that Bdespite these deep demographic changes and the
increase of the life expectancy in our country, it is striking that four out of five people
believe that we are very little or not at all prepared to face old age^ (Gobierno de
Chile 2012: 7). Therefore, it is necessary to socialize the measures that are being
implemented in order to improve the quality of life of the elderly and further integrate
them into the decision making process.

Gerontological Training

We need more professionals with training in gerontology and geriatrics, a situation

that is coherent with the 2003 Latin American Strategy of Implementation of the
Madrid Plan, which notes (among others) the need to promote the training of
current and future providers of health services, particularly at the primary care
level.

Exclusion and Old Age

The various types of exclusion impact the deterioration of the social identify of elderly
people. Just like the Chilean Policy states, Bthe challenges of integrating senior citizens
socially, economically and spatially are accompanied by the challenge of culturally
integrating them^ (Gobierno de Chile 2012: 31). There is a need to implement a
planning system that strengthens their problem-solving participation, not only in terms
of consulting or information.
Once the central question of this study has been resolved, which focused on
determining the sociocultural factors that build the social perception of the social roles
of elderly people in Chile during the 20022012 period, it can be stated that the
investigations assumption that social roles are built by heterogeneity of sociocultural
factors is accepted.

Conclusions

The ten sociocultural factors identified are the following: Health and Quality of Life;
Studies and Data; Social Images of Aging; Gerontological Concepts and Sociopolitical
Participation; Gerontological Policies, Plans and Principles; Aging, Production and
 M. Pia-Moran, L.Y. Garca

Gender; Institutionalization; Demographic Growth; Gerontological Training; and

Exclusion and Old Age.

Health and Quality of Life The public opinion emphasizes ending a sedentary
lifestyle and proposes the active participation of the elderly. The specialized
opinion emphasizes the Mediterranean aging model, healthy aging, sexuality and
nutrition.

Studies and Data The public opinion indicates social participation, benefits and
policies. The specialized opinion indicates emotional support for elderly people,
technologies and old age, access to health services, physical activity and studies of
the attitudes towards diseases.

Social Images of Aging The public opinion indicates social benefits, the rights of
elderly people, learning and social participation. The specialized opinion indicates a
cultural gender construction, media, appreciation of the elderly and study of
stereotypes.

Gerontological Concepts and Sociopolitical Participation The public opinion indi-

cates health, participation and development. The specialized opinion indicates inclu-
sion, recreation, free time, gender and the Latin American aging strategy.

Gerontological Policies, Plans and Principles The public opinion emphasizes the
implementation of the public policy. The specialized opinion emphasizes solidarity and
intergenerational social contract.

Aging, Production and Gender The public opinion notes credits for small entrepre-
neurs and poverty in elderly people. The specialized opinion indicates economic
dimension and consumption, transformations of the labor market, gender, poverty
and social investment.

Institutionalization The public opinion emphasizes that it is the responsibility of the

state and the civil society, and also a fear of confinement in institutions. The specialized
opinion emphasizes mistreatment in centers and the paradigm of assistance-oriented
treatment.

Demographic Growth The public opinion highlights the challenges it poses as a

social problem and in the allocation of benefits and policies. The specialized opinion
highlights the implications in the quality of life and gender.

Gerontological Training The public opinion mentions retirement and social partici-
pation. The specialized opinion mentions concepts and gerontological approaches.

Exclusion and Old Age The public opinion indicates a work culture, retirement
and pensions. The specialized opinion indicates marginality, stereotypes, gener-
ational exclusion, labor market, change in roles and status, integration and social
identity.
Social Roles of Older Adults in Chile

Suggestions

A gerontological intervention and action is suggested (Pia 2013) that promotes the
social roles of elderly people and considers the following premises:

& A strategic and situational gerontological planning that actively includes elderly
people, their families and the community at all times (from the initial situation to the
expected and final situation).
& Analyzing poverty from a promotional and non-welfare perspective.
& Fostering a decentralization focused on the topic of territorial investment in accor-
dance with the needs and problems of senior citizens.
& Strengthening the exercise of their active citizenship, as elderly people are the main
players of their needs and problems.
& Modifying the sociocultural perspective that emphasizes the inexistence of a social
role for elderly people with a vision centered on the BHeterogeneity of social roles
in permanent sociocultural construction^.

Acknowledgments This article benefited from the financial support of the National Science and Technology
Commission through the National Scientific and Technological Development Fund, Fondecyt project No.
11121162, in which Dr. Marcelo Pia is the lead investigator.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of Interest No conflict of interest.

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