THE DARK AGES

6TH 11TH CENTURY THE SACRED TEXTS

St. Matthew The art of manuscript illumination was the

Lindisfarne Gospels
c.698721 CE
British Library, London, UK main form of painting that survived the turbulent
In this prime example of Dark Ages
painting, classical elementsthe
robe and even a very basic form of
period after the collapse of the Roman empire.
sandals worn by Mattheware
painted in a nonclassical, linear Many manuscripts were designed for a very
style. The Evangelist writes his
Gospel while his symbol, the specic purpose: to assist with converting the
winged man, stands behind him
(the third figure may possibly be
Christ). The close resemblance
pagan tribes of Europe to Christianity. These
between this St. Matthew and Ezra,
in the Codex Amiatinus (see p.59 ) tribes already had ourishing artistic cultures of
suggests that they were copied
from a common source. their own, mainly consisting of abstract or highly
stylized designs executed in metalwork and
stonework, rather than in paintings. Christian
artists were perfectly happy to combine decorative motifs from these pagan
sources with gurative images from Christian sources. For missionary
purposes, a shortened form of the biblical text was preferred, focusing on
the life of Jesus as described in the four GospelsMatthew, Mark, Luke,
and John. The decoration in these Gospel Books revolved around the four
Evangelists and their traditional symbols. In many cases, the artist painted a
portrait of the Gospel writer at the start of the book in the style of author
portraits from classical manuscripts. This type of source is clearly evident in
the illustrations of the Lindisfarne Gospels, such as St. Matthew (see above).

CONTEXT
Spreading the Word
The nal collapse of the Roman empire in
the 5th century CE created a vacuum in Europe.
The old areas of imperial control were overrun
by marauding tribes: the Visigoths occupied
parts of Gaul and Spain, the Ostrogoths and
Lombards invaded Italy, while Germanic tribes
Angles, Franks, Saxons, and Jutesspread
across much of northern Europe. Often, these
peoples could not settle within xed borders,
but were forced to continually migrate due to
pressure from rival tribes. The Celts, for example,
originated in central Europe but were eventually
pushed to the western fringes of the continent
Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Brittany.
Many pagan tribes had vibrant cultures
that were far removed from the mainstream
of classical art. The naturalism that was
predominant in the pottery and fresco of the
Greeks and Romans was rarely seen. Instead,
in view of their nomadic circumstances, tribal
craftsmen tended to lavish the greatest
attention on small, portable objects, such
as weapons and jewelry. Painting only came
to the forefront during the conversion to
Christianity, when religious texts were needed.
The Gospel Books and other Christian texts
were created by monks, working together in a
scriptorium (a place for writing). Some of the
nest examples were created in Britain and
Ireland by Celtic and Anglo-Saxon craftsmen.
The scriptoria in the monasteries of Iona,
Lindisfarne, Jarrow, and Wearmouth were
particularly important, producing manuscripts
for missionaries elsewhere in Europe.
Religious texts had to be copied precisely,
but there was much more scope for invention
in the illustrations. Monastic artists might
borrow ideas from other Christian or classical
manuscripts, but they could also copy designs
KEY EVENTS
that they had seen on the pagan metalwork or
jewelry that was in widespread circulation. This
produced the rich fusion of imagery that made
the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book
of Kells such extraordinary masterpieces.
Island monastery
Situated off the west coast of Scotland, the island
of Iona was once one of the most important Christian
centers in Europe, with a scriptorium producing
manuscripts of unparalleled beauty.
THE DARK AGES 055
The conversion of the West
476 CE Romulus Augustulus, the last
Roman emperor in the West, is ousted by
a barbarian king, who rules in his place.
597 CE The Gospel of St. Augustine is sent
from Rome to England by the Pope. It is
one of a number of manuscripts intended to
assist in the conversion of the English.
c.700 CE The Tara Brooch, one of the
nest examples of Celtic jewelry, is
created. Its intricate spiral decoration is
echoed in the manuscripts of the period.
793 CE Viking raiders launch their rst
attack on Lindisfarne, Northumbria.
814 CE In Ireland, the monastery at Kells is
revived. Monks from Iona begin to move
to this safe haven to escape Viking attacks.
c.82035 CE One of the greatest
Carolingian manuscripts, the Utrecht
Psalter, is produced in France, probably
at the abbey of Hautvillers.
878 CE Following his defeat by Alfred, the
Viking leader Guthrum adopts Christianity.
966 CE With the baptism of Mieszko I,
Poland becomes one of the last European
nations to adopt Christianity.
MACREGOL PAINTED
THIS GOSPEL BOOK.
WHOEVER READS AND
UNDERSTANDS ITS
NARRATIVE, LET HIM
PRAY FOR MACREGOL
THE SCRIBE
c.820 CE | Macregol
Abbot of Birr, Ireland, written on colophon
page in the Macregol Gospels
056 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL

BEGINNINGS
A FUSION OF STYLES
Some sources for the great decorated Christian manuscripts
of the Dark Ages can be identied. The Gospel of St.
Augustine was probably brought to the British Isles from
Rome during Augustines mission, and is still used for
the swearing-in of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Its
sole-surviving Evangelist portrait is classical in style.
In the Ezra portrait (see p.59), nine books are displayed in
a cupboard. This is probably the Novem Codices, a fabled
9-volume Bible purchased from the library of Cassiodorus
(a 5th-century CE Roman statesman and scholar) and sent to
Northumbria. Historians have surmised that portraits in the
Lindisfarne Gospels and the Codex Amiatinus were borrowed
from this source. The most intriguing Celtic manuscript is
the Cathach of St. Columba, a fragment of a Psalter. Dating
from the early 7th century CE, its decorated initials provide a
hint of the glories that were to come. It was long attributed
to St. Columba and, as its name attestsCathach means
Battlerit was carried onto the battleeld as a relic.

ARTISTIC INFLUENCES

The great Gospel Books were created against a background of change.

A constant ux of raiders, settlers, and traders exposed native craftsmen
to a wealth of inuences. It is a testament to the skill of these Christian
artists that they were able to combine a variety of decorative elements,
divorce them from their pagan contexts, and use them to adorn holy texts.

Intricate interlacing was not

Codex Euricianus,
conned to Celtic art. In this detail, c.480 CE, from a
Visigothic manuscript, it adorns manuscript created for Euric,
the arched form of a canon table a king of the Visigoths.
a means of cross-referencing Biblioteca Nacional de
Espaa, Madrid, Spain
text in the Gospel Books.

Pagan jewelry exerted a notable Visigothic bula

inuence on Celtic craftsmen. The (brooch), c.6th century
decorative forms that were commonly CE, resembles the eagle
used could easily be given a spiritual used to symbolize
signicance, such as the animal St. Mark in the Book
emblems of the Evangelists. of Durrow.

Pictish stoneworkproduced
Pictish Symbol
by a Celtic race in present-day Stone, detail of a slab
Scotlandhad a signicant impact thought to have been a
on the manuscripts of Northumbria. grave marker, 8th century
This is particularly evident in the CE. Brough of Birsay,
stylized forms of animals. Orkney, Scotland

Viking raiders borrowed artistic

Deer eating a
ideas from looted items and also branch of Yggdrasil,
inuenced native styles. Biting the world tree, detail,
creatures, ribbon snakes, and 11th century. Urnes
tight interlacing became popular stave church, Sogn og
Fjordane, Norway
in Celtic and Anglo-Saxon art.

TURNING POINT
Symbols of the Gospel Writers
Book of Durrow c.675 CE Trinity College Library, Dublin, Ireland
The decoration in Gospel Books often included images of the four
authors and their respective symbols. These mystical emblemsa
lion, a calf, an eagle, and a manwere drawn from two passages
in the Bible, describing apocalyptic beasts worshipping before the
throne of God (Ezekiel 1:10 and Revelation 4:69). Each of the
creatures was thought to represent a different aspect of Christs
CONTEXT
divine persona. The lion represented his royal and majestic role as
the King of Heaven, while the man referred to his incarnation as
a human being. The Durrow lion resembles Pictish stonework,
suggesting that the manuscript was produced in Northumbria.
THE DARK AGES 057
ST. COLUMBA
Following a violent dispute in 563 CE that
forced him to leave his native Ireland, Columba
vowed to redeem himself through missionary
work. He founded a monastery on the island
of Iona, using it as a base to launch an
expedition to convert the Picts in Scotland.
Iona became his center of operations for
founding a network of monasteries, organizing
missions to Europe, and running a remarkable
scriptorium, which produced a succession
of ne manuscripts,
possibly including the St. Columba, Dunkeld
Book of Kells itself. Cathedral, Scotland
058 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL

TIMELINE
Manuscripts mirrored the dangers and uncertainties of the
SUTTON HOO
Dark Ages: occasionally cryptic marginal notes hint at violence
and theft, the Licheld Gospels (opposite) was exchanged for a The royal cemetery at Sutton
Hoo is the most important Anglo-
horse, while the Canterbury Codex Aureus (see p.60) was stolen
Saxon site in Britain. The main
by Norsemen then ransomed by a dignitary called Aelfred. gravea ship burialis often
Politics, too, was reected: in both the Canterbury manuscript associated with Raedwald (died
c.625 CE), who ruled when East
and Imago Hominis (opposite) the gures heads are shaved like Anglia was converting to
a Roman monk in a bid to promote papal authority. In stylistic Christianity. There are exotic items,
terms, pagan inuencescomplex interlacing, stylized robes, such as Byzantine bowls and
Merovingian coins, but also buckles
and ferocious beastsgradually diminished over time. and clasps with patterns that

CONTEXT
closely resemble decorations in the
Book of Durrow. The prize piece is
The rise of the Franks this helmet, with its ornate face
By 500 CE, Clovis I has largely succeeded in his quest
mask and dragonhead details. Helmet from Sutton Hoo
to subjugate the Alemanni (a confederation of Germanic
tribes) and unite the Franks under his leadership.

500 CE 600

Battle of Mount Badon

In c.510 CE, the Britons, Foundation of
supposedly led by King Lindisfarne
Arthur, are said to have The monastery of
won a great victory over Lindisfarne is founded
Anglo-Saxon invaders at in c.635 CE by Aidan, a
the Battle of Mount Badon. monk from Iona. It rapidly
becomes a key center for
the spread of Christianity
in northern England.

The Story of Adam

Ashburnham Pentateuch
c.580620 CE Bibliothque
Nationale, Paris, France
Unique in both style and
iconography, this manuscript
contains 19 narrative illustrations,
running from the creation of
the world to the exodus of the
Israelites. The sequence on this
page concludes with the image
of Cain murdering Abel.
 THE DARK AGES 059

Imago Hominis Ezra

Echternach Gospels,
late 7th century CE
Bibliothque Nationale,
Paris, France
Depictions of St. Matthews
symbol often resemble an
angel (see p.54), but the
Echternach artist took the
unusual step of portraying him
as a monk. This symbolism
has political overtones, since
the man wears a tonsure
a partial shaving of the head
in the Roman rather than
the Celtic style.
Codex Amiatinus, before 716 CE
Bibliotheca Medicea Laurenziana,
Florence, Italy
This illustration of the Old Testament
scribe is from a Bible copied at the
Wearmouth-Jarrow scriptorium and sent
to Rome in 716 CE, as a gift for the Pope.
It closely resembles St. Matthew (see
p.54) in the Lindisfarne Gospels.

Battle of Tertry
Pepin II, an ancestor Death of
of Charlemagne, wins Venerable Bede
a crucial victory over Bede dies in 735 CE.
the Neustrians at the His Ecclesiastical
Battle of Tertry (687 CE). History of the English
This brings most People is one of the
Frankish territories primary sources for
under his control. this period.

650 700 750 CE

Carpet Page
Lindisfarne Gospels c.698721 CE
British Library, London, UK
As the name suggests, carpet pages may
originally have been inspired by the designs
on prayer mats. The interlacing here
positively teems with life, as fierce-looking
birds and dogs confront each other.

LINDISFARNE GOSPELS
The Lindisfarne Gospels is one
of the outstanding manuscripts of
the period. It was created as part
of the cult of St. Cuthbert, a
former Bishop of Lindisfarne.
A later inscription provides an
unusual amount of detail about
the making of the book, stating
that the artist and scribe was
Eadfrith, another Bishop of
Lindisfarne (c.698721 CE). As to
the decorations, the carpet pages St. Luke
Lichfield Gospels c.720 CE
and calligraphy are mesmerizing, Lichfield Cathedral, UK
CONTEXT

while the artists quirky treatment
of birdsa jumble of snakelike
bodies and vicious beakshas
won particular praise.
The evangelist is shown with his symbol
the winged oxabove his head, and
he holds two ceremonial staves in
his tiny hands. The manuscript was
probably produced in Northumbria.
060
The Incarnation Page
Canterbury Codex Aureus
c.750 755 CE Kungliga
Biblioteket, Stockholm, Sweden
This lavish manuscript, with its
golden decorations, was probably
produced in Canterbury. Even so,
there are strong Northumbrian
influences in the calligraphy.
The Incarnation Page is so
called because it describes
the birth of Christ.
Lombards seize
Ravenna
In 751 CE, Aistulf, King of
the Lombards, continues
his expansion, seizing
the city of Ravenna. This
is the last Byzantine
stronghold on Italian soil.
750 CE
THEY BROUGHT
WITH THEM
EVERYTHING
NECESSARY...
SACRED VESSELS,
CHURCH
ORNAMENTS...
RELICS OF THE HOLY
APOSTLES, AND
MANY BOOKS
c.731 CE | The Venerable Bede
Anglo-Saxon chronicler, in
Ecclesiastical History of the
English People
Alfred becomes king
In 871 CE, Alfred the Great becomes
king of Wessex. In the same year, he
gains a notable victory over the
Danes at the Battle of Ashdown.
800 850
Viking raids Treaty of Verdun
on Bangor The Treaty of Verdun (843 CE) brings
Vikings plunder the the Carolingian Civil War to a close.
monastery of Bangor, Through it, Charlemagnes empire
in County Down, is divided up between the sons of
Ireland, in successive Louis the Pious.
years. In 824 CE, they
break open the shrine
of St. Comgall and
carry off his relics.
ST. AUGUSTINE OF
CANTERBURY
Although he was a leading gure in the
conversion of the English, nothing is
known of the early life of Augustine of
Canterbury. He was probably born and
raised in Italy, and became a Benedictine
monk at the monastery of St. Andrew in
King David Rome, where he soon impressed Pope
Playing the Harp Gregory I. In 597 CE, Gregory chose him
Vespasian Psalter, to lead a mission to evangelize the
mid- 8th century CE Anglo-Saxons. Augustine arrived at Thanet
British Library, London, UK in England on Easter Day, and was
The Vespasian Psalter is one of welcomed by the local king, Ethelbert. He
the earliest treasures from
founded his see at Canterbury, becoming
Canterbury, where the monks
believed (incorrectly) that it had the rst Archbishop there. Augustine also
belonged to St. Augustine himself. made good progress in establishing papal
CONTEXT
King David was often portrayed supremacy in England, but full recognition
in Psalters, because he was was not achieved until after the Synod of
traditionally regarded as the Whitby in 664 CE, long after his death.
author of the Old Testament
Book of Psalms.
 THE DARK AGES 061

Kings and Scribes

THE CUMDACH Codex Vigilanus 976 CE
Escorial Library, Spain
In an age when most people were illiterate, the sumptuously This is an example of
produced Gospel Books were objects of wonder. They were Mozarabic art, the style of
revered in the same way as relics and were stored in a work produced by Christians
cumdacha specically designed, boxlike shrine. Such living in Spain during the
caskets were often highly ornate, with precious metals and period of Muslim rule. This
page includes depictions of
stones set into the lid. The pictured example, the Soiscl
three scribes, one of whom
Molaise, is decorated with images of the is Vigila, the monk who gave
Evangelists symbols. his name to the manuscript.
The disadvantage of
the cumdach,
however, was
that it became
a tempting
prize for
thieves.
CONTEXT

Soiscl Molaise,
11th century, National
Museum of Ireland,
Dublin, Ireland

Eric Bloodaxe in York

In 947 CE, Eric Bloodaxe begins his reign as
king of Jorvik (York and the surrounding area).
He is the last Viking king of the region, and is
expelled by the Northumbrians in 954 CE.

900 950 1000

Capetian dynasty
Hugh Capet is elected
to the French throne in
987 CE, succeeding the
Carolingian line. The
Capetian dynasty will
rule France from 987 CE
to 1328.

Liber Sacramentorum
10th century
Biblioteca del Seminario
Arcivescovile, Udine, Italy
This is a Sacramentary, a book
containing the texts that were used
during Mass. The miniature scenes
depict the Adoration of the Magi,
the Marriage at Cana, and the
Baptism of Christ.

Opening Page of St. Johns Gospel

MacDurnan Gospels, late 9th century CE
Lambeth Palace Library, London, UK
This is one of the last decorated Gospel Books.
An inscription suggests that it was either ordered
or written out by Mac Durnan, the abbot of Armagh.
In the 10th century, it was presented by King
Athelstan to Canterbury Cathedral.
062 ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
MASTERWORK
The Monogram Page
Book of Kells c.800 CE
Trinity College Library, Dublin, Ireland
This is the most important page in the nest of all
the Gospel Books. Almost the entire design is devoted
to the two Greek letters Chi and Rho (written as XP),
which form Christs monogram. In the elaborate Celtic
manuscripts, there were usually ve major pages of
calligraphyone at the beginning of each of the four
Gospels, and the Monogram Page. The latter was seen
as the most signicant, since it marked the beginning of
the passage describing Christs birth (Matthew 1:18), so
most artists gave it special treatment. The illustration of
the same passage in the Canterbury Codex Aureus (see
p.60) is typically ornate, but the Kells example eclipses
all others. It was preceded by two full-page illustrations
in the manuscripta portrait of Christ and a carpet-page.
Celtic artists excelled at calligraphy, because it was
compatible with the swirling, abstract designs that had
featured on their metalwork and jewelry for centuries.
YOU WILL SEE INTRICACIES SO FINE AND
SUBTLE...YOU HAVE GAZED UPON THE
WORK, NOT OF MEN BUT OF ANGELS
c.1188 | Giraldus Cambrensis
Clergyman and chronicler, description of an illuminated Gospel Book
from Topographia Hiberniae
The complexity and variety of the tightly coiled spirals
and knotwork are phenomenal. In addition, there are
several tiny gurative details hidden away in the design,
including three angels on the left side of the X, an
otter with a salmon (bottom), and two mice nibbling a
communion wafer (bottom, left). There has been much
debate about these animalssome believe that they
are related to the symbols of the Eucharist that appear
frequently throughout the manuscript.
There is an element of mystery about the manuscript.
The Book of Kells was an extremely ambitious
undertakingit had more illustrations than other Gospel
Books and would have been both costly and time-
consuming to produce. Yet it was never nished. The
reason is unknown, though it is tempting to link the
incomplete state of the book with the Viking attacks
of the time, when many monks were slaughtered.
ORNAMENTAL DETAILS
In addition to its celebrated full-page decorations,
the Book of Kells features ornamental details scattered
liberally throughout the text. Many of these served a
practical purpose, highlighting important passages or
helping the scribes to save space. Vellum was an
expensive commodity, so there was a natural reluctance
to leave lines unnished. Scribes solved this problem by
allowing sentences to run over, nishing on the line above
or below, known as a turn in the path or head under
the wing. In the Book of Kells, the point was marked with
a C symbol. Often, a small animalsuch as the dog
pictured belowwas included with a tail or paw extended
to show the direction that the text should be read.
Folio 19, Verso, Book of Kells, detail, c.800 CE.
A dog and C symbol mark the turn in the path.
CONTEXT
063