Class 2

Review Elasticity

Stress and Strain

1D, 2D, 3D stress-strain relations
Failure Theories

Ref: IOMA text

Section 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6
Ch 1 Appendix A.1 thru A.7

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 Elasticity - Terminology

= Stress = force/unit area

u = Displacement
e = Total strain = u/x = stretch/unit length =
= Mechanical strain = due to applied stress
T = Thermal strain = due to temperature change T = T =(T-Tref)
E = Youngs modulus = Elastic Modulus= slope of stress-strain curve
G = Shear modulus = relates shear stress to shear strain
= Poissons ratio = contraction in y or z due to elongation in x
= Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
Isotropic = behavior same in all directions
Anisotropic = NOT isotropic
Orthotropic = behavior varies on rectangular system

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 Force-Displacement

F
L

Beam of length L, cross-section area A, elastic (Youngs) modulus E

Applied force F causes displacement
Beam stiffness = k = AE/L

Force-displacement relation: F = k = (AE/L)

Stress-strain relation (divide thru by A) F/A =E (/L) => = E

= stress = force/area units

= strain = length/length units (unitless)

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 Elasticity: 1 dimensional state of stress (long thin rod with end load)
Stress-strain, Poisson effect Stress = = Force / Areao
Strain = = L / Lo

Free surface: y = 0 Y Areao = area of cross-section

x, x
Y

x E1 x

y
E x

Linear (engineering) stress: use original Areao and original length (Lo)

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 Elasticity -shear
Isotropic material has only 2
Shear stress - strain independent constants of E,G,
In Nastran, only input 2 on MAT1

E
G
2(1 )

Our definition (used in Nastran and throughout this class)

xy = [du/dy + dv/dx] = xy/G
u = displacement in x
v = displacement in y
Alternate definition (used in Patran)
xy = 1/2 [du/dy + dv/dx] = xy/2G

Linear Analysis => small displacement, small strain, material properties = constant.

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 Elasticity review Note sign on shear stress:
is positive if it points
Stress components in positive direction on
x = xx
y = yy z positive face

z = zz zy
xy = xy Z zx yz
yz = yz xz y
zx = zx Y xy
yx
X x
Strain components
x = xx = du/dx
y = yy = dv/dx
z = zz = dw/dx
xy = 2xy = [du/dy + dv/dx]
yz = 2yz = [dv/dz + dw/dy]
zx = 2zx = [dw/dx + du/dz]

Note: Nastran uses the xy shear strain definition, Patran divides by 2, uses xy definition

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 Elasticity - 3D Equations - Isotropic Hookes Law
ex 1 0 0 0 x 1
e 1 0 0 0 1
y y
ez 1 1 0 0 0 z 1
T

xy E 0 0 0 21 0 0 xy 0
yz 0 0 0 0 21 0 yz 0

zx 0 0 0 0 0 21 zx 0

1 0 0 0
x 1 0 0 0 ex 1
1
y 1 0 0 0 ey
z 1 2

E
0 0 0 0 0 ez E T 1

xy 1 1 2 xy 1 2
2
1 2 0
yz 0 0 0 0 0 yz 0
2
zx 1 2 zx 0
0 0 0 0 0
2
Nastran: MAT1 input E, G or , , Tref

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 Elasticity - 3D Orthotropic Hookes Law
1 yx zx
0 0 0
Ex Ey Ez
xy 1 zy ij is -j/i for uniaxial stress i
ex E Ey

Ez
0 0 0
x x
e x
y xz yz 1 y y
ez E
Ey Ez
0 0 0
z z Matrix must be symmetric
x T

xy 0 to satisfy reciprocity.
0 xy 0
1
0 0 0
yz Gxy 0 Thus, xy is related to yx
yz
zx 0 0 0 0
1
0 zx 0
G yz
1
0 0 0 0 0 Nastran: MAT9
Gzx
1 yz zy xy zy xz xz xy yz
x
E Ey Ez 0 0 0
x
x
x
e
yx zx yz 1 xz zx yz yx xz y
y Ex Ey Ez 0 0 0 ey
z
zx yx zy E zy xy zx E 1 xy yx ez T z
0
xy
Ez 0 0 0

x y xy
yz 0 0 0 Gxy 0 0 yz 0

zx 0 0 0 0 G yz 0 zx 0

0 0 0 0 0 Gzx

1 xy yx yz zy zx xz 2 yx zy xz [ Jones, 1975]

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 Elasticity - 2D Plane Stress Hookes Law
2D Plane Stress (thin plates, shells): z = yz = zx = 0
Isotropic = Nastran: MAT1

ex 1 0 x 1
1
e y 1 0 y T 1
E 0 21 xy 0
xy 0

x
1 0 ex E T 1
E
1

y 0 ey 1
1 2
1 1 0
xy 0 0 xy
2

ez x y T
E
yz zx 0

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 Elasticity - 2D Plane Stress Hookes Law
2D Plane Stress (thin plates, shells): z = yz = zx = 0
Orthotropic = Nastran: MAT2

1 yx
0
E Ey
ex x x x
xy 1
e y 0 y T y
E x Ey xy 0
xy 1
0 0
Gxy

MAT2
1 xy
Ex Ey 0
x
1 1 xy yx ex
yz
xy yx
x
xz yx
ez x y z T y Ex
1
Ey 0 e y T y
1 xy yx 1 xy yx
Ex Ey
xy 0
yz zx 0 xy 0 0 Gxy

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 Transformation of Coordinates (Vector = force, displacement)
y
Reference: Cook, et al.
y
x Concepts and Applications
x of Finite Element Analysis
Wiley, 2001
z u
z

Direction cosines between axes

X Y Z
X' l1 m1 n1
[] =
Y' l2 m2 n2
Z' l3 m3 n2

To transform any vector = u (such as displacement or force) in terms

of components {u} measured in xyz or {u} measured in xyz

{u} = [] {u} and {u} = []T {u} note: []T=[] -1

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 Coordinate Transformations (Stress, Material)

To transform strain:
= du/dx
{} = [T] {} and {} = [T]-1 {}
Transform u and x
T=product of cosines
To transform stress:
{} = [T]-T {} and {} = [T]T {}

=E
To transform material properties: [E] = 6x6 material matrix Transform and
[E] = [T]T[E][T] and [E] = [T]-T[E][T]-1 Triple product w T

For full 6x6 matrix [Te] see following:

Cook, et al. Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis
Wiley, 2001 (section 8.2)
or: Stress Birefringence class notes

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 Transformation Matrix for Stress, Strain, Materials
Direction cosines between axes
X Y Z
X' l1 m1 n1
Y' l2 m2 n2
Z' l3 m3 n2
Sub-matrices
l12 m1
2
n1
2
l1m1 m1n1 n1l1
T11 l2 2 m2
2 2
n2 T12 l2 m2 m2 n2 n2l2
l 2 m3
2
n3
2
l3 m3 m3 n3 n3l3
3
2l1l2 2m1m2 2n1n2 l1m2 l2 m1 m1n2 m2 n1 n1l2 n2l1
T21 2l2l3 2m2 m3 2n2 n3 T22 l2 m3 l3m2 m2 n3 m3n2 n2l3 n3l2
2l3l1 2m3m1 2n3n1 l3 m1 l1m3 m3n1 m1n3 n3l1 n1l3
Material and stress transformation matrices
T11 2T12
T 11 12 T
T T T

T21 T22 .5T21 T22

Cook, Malkus, Plesha, Wittt, Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, 4th Ed., Wiley

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 Coordinate Transformations for 2D state of stress / strain
Consider special case of rotation in x-y plane. n3=1, l3=m3=n1=n2=0
and l1 = m2 = cos = c and m1 = sin = s and l2 = -s

Stress vector {s} = [x y xy]T and strain is matching components

[T] reduces to a 3x3 matrix y

y
[T] = c2 s2 cs x
s2 c2 -cs
-2cs 2cs c2-s2
x

[T]-T= c2 s2 2cs
s2 c2 -2cs [] = c s 0
-cs cs c2-s2 -s c 0
0 0 1
For Stress / Strain For Force / Displ

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 Elasticity - Mohrs Circle (Graphical approach to stress transformation)

Rules for Mohrs circle: to rotate a state of stress at a point

On horizontal axis plot normal stress x, y (+ to right)
On vertical axis plot shear stress:
On +X face, plot positive xy down, negative xy up
On +Y face, plot positive xy up, negative xy down
To find stress in any orientation from +X, rotate 2 on diagram
Where diagram crosses horzontal axis (t = 0) are principal stresses 1 2
x y
Center of circle: C
2

x y
2

Radius of circle: R xy
2

2

Principal stresses: 1 C R 2 C R
0 0
Von Mises stress: vm
1
1 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 2
2

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 y
Elasticity Mohrs Circle (2D plane stress)
xy
Given: x= 11,000 psi y= 5,000 psi xy= 4000 psi
x

C = (x + y)/2 = (11,000 + 5,000)/2 = 8,000

R = sqrt[xy2 + ((x - y)/2)2] = sqrt[ 40002 + 30002] = 5,000
1= C+R = 13,000
2= C - R = 3,000
vm= sqrt[(13000-3000)2 + (3000-0)2 +(0-13000)2]/sqr[2] = 11,790 psi

yxy
2
1
C 1 x,y
2
R 2
x xy

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 Elasticity - Mohrs Circle - 2D stress

Mohrs Circle used to rotate stress at a point to any orientation (x,y,xy)

Principal stress is stress in an orientation with NO shear stress (1,2)
y
xy

x xy
x
Y
xy
+
x y x y X xy
C y
2 2
xy 1 C R
0 Mohrs circle is graphical
- x solution to an eigenvalue
y 2 + problem. Principal stresses
are principal coordinates
xy (ie No coupling).
x y
2
2 C R R xy
2

0 2

2D State of Stress for (x>0, y>0, xy>0)

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 Elasticity - Mohrs Circle 3D stress
3D State of Stress

+ 1 = most positive
MAX 2 = most negative
3 = mid princ
2 3 1

- +

3 Mohrs circles
-
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 Why transform stress?

Material testing done on simple uniaxial tests (x > 0, all other stress = 0)
Pull until yield (permanent deformation) or ultimate( break=fracture)
Back out equivalent yield (y) or ultimate = (u) stress

For general stress state (all stress components non-zero)

Convert general stress (vector) to equivalent stress = e (scalar)
Compare e to y or u
Von Mises stress is most common equivalent stress

vm
1
1 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 2
2

Thus, can compare simple scalar values, as opposed to vectors/tensors.

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 Uniaxial test F

max x = F/A, y=0, xy=0 1 = x

2 = 0
max = x/2
VM = x
2 1

vm
1
1 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 2
2

x
vm
1
1 02 0 02 0 1 2
2
1
VM 2 1 1 x
2

2
Max shear = max at 45 deg

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 Stress Analysis - Failure Theories - Ductile Materials
Ductile Materials (most metals)
ensure stress below von Mises stress, vm
(maximum distortion energy theory)
1
vm 1 22 2 32 3 12 Slip Plane
2
low precision structures, compare to material's yield strength (permanent deformation of 0.2%)
high precision structures, compare to microyield strength (precision elastic limit)
stress required to produce a plastic strain of one part per million (1ppm)
yield strength and microyield have no relationship
ultimate strength = fracture (can vary with processing, heat treating, alloys,etc)
x ult Example Micro-Yield & Yield Values
y
Micro-Yield 0.2% Yield
Stress,

Material (ksi) (MPa) (ksi) (MPa)

y Al 6061-T6 18 124 36 248
Invar 36 10 69 35 241
Steel 1040 20 138 80 552
SS 304 7 48 40 276
Ti 6Al-4V 75 517 150 1034

1.e-6 0.002 [Ref. 1]

Strain,

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 Stress Analysis - Failure Theories - Brittle Materials
Brittle Materials (Glass / Ceramics)
failure governed by fracture mechanics (surface flaws and voids/inclusions)
Stress intensity at crack tip, KI

K I Y a where Y is the

a factor accounting for flaw geometry
and location : Y range ~ 1.3 - 2.0
Flaws
applied tensile load causes crack to grow until stress intensity at the crack tip, KI, exceeds the
critical stress intensity or fracture toughness, KIC, resulting in fracture

Failure occurs when K I K IC

KI = function of load, geometry

KIC = material property
ultimate

Stress,
Brittle materials do not yield
no plastic strain (no yielding)
compare maximum principal stress in
material to design strength
Strain,

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 Stress Analysis - Stress Concentrations

Detailed Models
Geometric detail of stress risers is included (e.g. fillets, holes etc.)
Very time consuming; may require mesh convergence studies via
remeshing
Coarse Models
Detail of stress risers NOT modeled
Nominal stress value, Nom, used with stress concentration factor, Kt, to
compute peak stress, Peak (note: nom may be 1 or vm)

Peak K t Nom
Find Kt in handbooks/textbooks for the particular geometry of the riser
Linear elasticity and FEM predict infinite stress at sharp corners

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 Stress Concentration factor = Kt for circular rod

Nom = F/AReduced = F/(d2/4)

Peak K t Nom

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 Stress Analysis - Modeling Stress Concentrations

Coarse Models
detail of stress risers NOT modeled
nominal stress value, nom, used with stress concentration factor, Kt, to compute peak
stress, peak (find Kt in handbooks and textbooks)

PEAK K t N

Example: bipod flexure modeled two ways

1D bar elements (13 nodes, 24 elements)
used for each bipod Bar Element Mesh

3D solid elements (118,530 nodes, 115,200

elements) used for each bipod
stress difference 7%

Solid Element Mesh

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 2D Mesh density Symmetry
model

Coarse Mesh max= 4711 Finer Mesh max= 7221

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 Stress Concentration factor = Kt for plate with hole

t = thickness of plate
w = width of plate
d = diameter hole
F F = applied load
Nom = F/AReduced = F/t(w-d)

Peak K t Nom

Note: peak value of Kt = 3.0 (for tiny hole in wide plate)

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 Stress Analysis Example - Plate with Hole F
Plate width, w = 2"
Plate thickness, t = 0.1"
Coarse mesh FEA model Hole diameter, d = 1"
max stress averaging on = 144 psi Force, F = 11 lbs.
Cross-sectional A = 0.2 in2
max stress averaging off = 209 psi Reduced A at hole = 0.1 in2
Kt = 2.18
Fine mesh FEA model
Nom = F/AReduced = F/t(w-d)=110 psi
max stress = 240 psi
Theoretical Max Stress =
Turn-off stress averaging to find peak 110 psi * Kt = 239.8 psi
stresses in FEA post-processor
F
Coarse Mesh Coarse Mesh Fine Mesh
- element average nodal stress - nodal stress no averaging - nodal stress no averaging

max= 144-psi max= 209-psi max= 240-psi

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 Stress Analysis - Modeling Stress Concentrations (cont) Example

Detailed Models Fillet

model geometric detail of stress risers (e.g. fillets, Force
holes etc.)
Sharp
time consuming; may require mesh convergence Corner
studies via remeshing
linear elasticity and FEM predict infinite stress at
sharp corners

Stress at
fillet converged

Corner: Singularity
chasing infinity

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 Stress Analysis - Stress Plots

Plot Von Mises stress (VM) for ductile material at yield

compare VM to yield (y) or micro-yield (y)
Note: Von Mises stress is always positive

Plot Max Principal stress (1) for brittle material or ductile material at
fracture
Note: if load is reversible and analysis does NOT contain reversed load,
plot Min Principal stress (2) also (to simulate 1 if load reversed)

Plot directional stresses to understand behavior of structure (x, xy, etc)

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 Factor of Safety (FS) and Margin of Safety (MS)

Factor of Safety = FS = political, economic decision; cost of failure

Design requirement enforced upon design to get design allowable = Allow
Various failure modes = Fail = ult, y, y
Typical Factors of Safety
allow Fail FS FS = 2.0 on ult = fracture
FS = 1.4 on y = yield
FS = 1.0 on y = micro-yield

Margin of Safety = measure of Over or Under design

MS > 0 => acceptable (Over designed)
MS < 0 => failure (Under designed)
Peak = maximum stress from analysis (per material type)
Allow
MS 1.0
Peak

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 MUF = Model Uncertainty Factor

Current NASA tasks require use of a MUF on all analysis predictions.

In preliminary design, predictions for displacement, stress, etc use a MUF of 15%

Thus, multiply FEA predicted results (FEA) by MUF (1.15) to compare to requirements.
Peak = MUF * FEA < Allow

As the design becomes more mature and analysis models are detailed (and accurate)
the MUF factor is reduced (or eliminated).

MUF = meant to cover a variety of uncertainties

Modeling coarseness of early models (too stiff)
Modeling errors (minor) of early models not thoroughly debugged
Under prediction of loads from coarse early models
Joints assumed rigid rather than flexible in detailed models
Overlooking mass of wiring, insulation, attachments, etc
Account for some minor design updates

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 Stress Enveloping
Requirements may specify design must meet worse case combination of loads
Must determine peak stress over all possible loading conditions
If loads are given by maximum scale factors in orthogonal directions, can be many cases
Example: 8g in X, 4g in Y, 6g in Z, 2rad/s2 about X, 2rad/s2 about Y, 4rad/s2 about Z
26 = 64 load combinations
If temperature extremes considered then 27 = 128 load combinations; if design requirements
change have another 128 load cases to evaluate
Efficient method to compute peak stresses reducing processing effort
Run unit loads in each direction, temperature change, pressure, etc.
Scale, combine, and sort in post-processor using linear superposition
Compute stress for the kth load combination for 2n load combinations
n

k F
j 1
kj j (Summation for directional stresses only, then recompute VM & princ stress)

Compute von Mises and principal stresses in each element

Plot highest stress in each element (single plot of high-water stresses)
Ref: Genberg, V., Vianese, J., Enveloping results using multiple load cases,
Proc. Of MSC Americas User Conference (1998).
[Ref. 6]

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 Fracture Mechanics (for cracks/polishing-grinding damage)

Propagation of flaws/cracks is sole mechanism in failure of homogeneous

materials
All materials have flaws, many are microscopic
Resistance to flaw growth is fracture toughness
Three Modes of Fracture
Each has separate fracture toughness, KIC, KIIC, KIIIC, from test

Mode I Mode II Mode III

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 Fracture Mechanics

Compute stress intensity, KI, KII, KIII, and compare to fracture toughness, KIC,
KIIC, KIIIC; K > Kc Crack will propagate
Option 1: Detailed model using crack tip element
Specialized element which reports stress intensities, KI, KII, KIII
CRAC2D and CRAC3D in MSC/NASTRAN
Use for mixed mode problems
Option 2: Detailed model using strain energy release rate
Model crack as slit of unequivalenced nodes in fine mesh
Run analysis and find strain energy, SE1
Edit mesh to extend crack small amount to give change in crack area, A
Rerun analysis and find strain energy, SE2
Compute strain energy release rate, G*, and stress intensity factor, KI
G*
SE2 SE1 K EG *
A
I

Do not use for mixed mode problems

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 Plate with central crack - model with symmetry BC
F
F

deformed

Symm Modeled
BC section

Symm Boundary condition

Crack open due to load

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 Plate with central crack

SE1 = strain energy in model with

original geometry

SE2 = strain energy in model with

crack extended slightly

A = change in crack surface area

= thickness * change in crack length
= thickness * (0.1) * 2 (due to symm)
Run 2 node moved .01
To represent a longer crack

G*
SE2 SE1 = strain energy release rate
A

K I EG * = stress intensity factor

Compare KI to KIC (fracture toughness) for failure

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 Fracture Mechanics

Option 3: Coarse model without crack modeled (very small cracks)

Find max principal stress, 1, for mode I or max shear stress for other
modes (look at major and minor principal stress if load reversible)
Estimate size of a
Estimate stress intensity factor from handbook equation

Surface Corner
K I 1.26 1 a
K I 1.42 1 a

Option 4: Coarse Model - Compare stresses to test samples

Run tests on samples to find breaking strength
Model test samples in FE to find nominal stress at failure, f
Model prime hardware with same element size as test sample
Compare stress 1 from prime hardware model to f [Broek, 1982]
[Hertzberg, 1996]

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 Fracture Mechanics Examples

Lightweight mirror being polished.

Blank is expensive.
Waterjet cut of core is expensive
Slumping to curvature expensive

During final polishing a crack found in core

Can the mirror be used or junked?

Used FE model, refined mesh around crack.

Used option 2 (strain energy) to see if crack
propagates under load.

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 Fracture Mechanics Examples

Mirror substrate Highly polished mandrel.

Coating applied to mandrel.
Substrate placed on coating in oven
Coating transfers to substrate.
Mandrel can be reused.
Efficient way to coat substrates

Problem: release agent did not work.

Substrate stuck to mandrel.
If pry up on substrate, will mandrel break?

Used option 2: strain energy to analyze.

Model a small crack, extend, compare SE.
Compare crack propagation direction
1) into mandrel
2) along coating
3) into substrate
Mandrel with coating

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