PROPERTIES OF STANDARD SAND

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF SAND

Object
Determination of quantitative size distribution of particles of soil down to
fine-grained fraction.

Apparatus
Set of sieves (4.75 mm, 2.8 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 600 micron, 425 micron,
300 micron, 150 micron, 75 micron), Balance (0.1 g accuracy), Drying
oven, Rubber pestle, Cleaning brush, Mechanical shaker.

Procedure
1. Take a suitable quantity of oven-dried soil. The mass of soil sample
required for each test depends on the maximum size of material.

2. Clean the sieves to be used, and record the weight of each sieve and the
bottom pan.

3. Arrange the sieves to have the largest mesh size at the top of the stack.
Pour carefully the soil sample into the top sieve and place the lid over it.

4. Place the sieve stack on the mechanical shaker, screw down the lid, and
vibrate the soil sample for 10 minutes.

5. Remove the stack and re-weigh each sieve and the bottom pan with the
soil sample fraction retained on it.

Initial mass of soil sample taken for analysis (gm) =200gm

Sieve size Soil retained Percent Cumulative Percent finer
retained percent
(g) retained (%)
(%) (%)
4.75mm 0 0 0 100
2.8mm 0 0 0 100
2mm 2 1 1 99
1mm 45 22.5 23.5 67.5
600micron 69 34.5 58 42
425micron 26 13 71 29
300micron 12 6 77 23
150micron 26 13 90 10
75micron 20 10 100 0
Pan 0 0 100 0
6. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve. The sum of the retained
masses should be approximately equal to the initial mass of the soil
sample.

7. Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the mass

retained on the sieve with the total initial mass of the soil.

8. Calculate the cumulative percent retained by adding percent retained on

each sieve as a cumulative procedure.

9. Calculate the percent finer by subtracting the cumulative percent

retained from 100 percent.

10. Make a grain size distribution curve by plotting sieve size on log scale
and percent finer on ordinary scale.

11. Read off the sizes corresponding to 60%, 30% and 10% finer. Calculate
the uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the curvature coefficient (Cc) for the soil.
From graph,

D10 = 0.150mm

D30 = 0.426mm

D60 = 0.795mm

D85 = 1.400mm

Uniformity coefficient , Cu = D60 / D10

= 0.795 / 0.150 = 5.3

Curvature coefficient , Cc = D302 / (D10 * D60)

= 0.426 2/(0.150*0.795) = 1.52

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Object
Determination of the coefficient of permeability of a soil using
constant head apparatus.

Apparatus
Permeameter mould and accessories, Circular filter papers,
Compaction device, Constant head reservoir, Graduated glass
standpipes along with support frame and clamps, Measuring flask,
Stop-watch.

Procedure for Constant Head Test

1. Take 2.5 kg of dry soil and prepare it to obtain desired water

content.

2. Apply little grease on to the interior sides of the permeameter

mould.

3. Keep a solid metal plate in the groove of the compaction base

plate. Assemble the base plate, mould and collar. Compact the
soil into the mould.

4. Remove the collar and base plate, and replace the solid metal
plate with a porous stone covered with filter paper.

5. Trim off excess soil from the top of the mould and place
another porous stone with filter paper on it. Attach the top cap of
the permeameter.

6. Connect a constant head reservoir to the bottom outlet of the

mould. Open the air vent of the top cap, and allow water to flow in
and upwards till the soil gets saturated.
7. Disconnect the reservoir from the bottom outlet and connect it
to the top inlet. Close the air vent and allow water to establish a
steady flow.

8. Collect the water in a measuring flask for a convenient time

interval. For similar time intervals, measure the flow quantity for
at least three times.

9. After the test, measure the temperature of the water.

Constant Head Flow

Diameter of sample, D (cm) = 7.5cm

Length of sample, L (cm) =18cm

Area of sample, A (cm2) = 44.18cm2

Volume of sample, V (cm3) =795.22cm3

Initial mass of sample, W (g) =2500g

Head loss, h (cm) = 25cm

Hydraulic gradient, i = h / L =1.389

Test No. 1 2 3
Time interval, t (sec) 90 90 90

Quantity of flow, Q (cm3) 160 168 162

Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec),

0.0296 0.0304 0.0293
Coefficient of permeability(cm/sec) = (0.0296+0.0304+0.0293)/3

= 0.0297cm/sec

Permittivity (sec-1 ) = permeability/thickness of soil

= 0.0297/18

= 1.654*10 -3 sec-1

PROPERTIES OF GEOTEXTILES

APPARENT OPENING SIZE TEST (AOS): ASTM D 4751-04

Apparent Opening size for a geotextile, is a property that

indicates the approximate largest particle that would effectively
pass through the geotextile.

Scope:

This test method covers the determination of the apparent

opening size (AOS) of a geotextile by sieving glass beads through
a geotextile.

Apparatus used:

A mechanical sieve shaker, which imparts lateral and vertical

motion to the sieve, causing the particles there on to bounce and
turn so as to present different orientations to the sieving surface,
should be used. The sieve shaker should be a constant frequency
device.

Procedure:

1. The geotextile is fixed in the sieve such that it is without

wrinkles or bulges. The geotextile should not be stretched or
 deformed such that it changes or distorts the openings in the
fabric. A hoop may be used or the geotextile may be wedged
between two sieve frames.

2. Starting with smallest diameter glass beads (0.075mm) that will

be tested. Place 100g glass beads on the centre of the
geotextile.

3. The cover and pan on the sieve frame are placed and fixed in
the shaker and shaken for 10min duration.

4. The weights of the glass beads passed through the specimen

are recorded.

5. The trials are repeated with higher bead size until less than or
equal to 5% of the initial weight (100g) of the beads is obtained.

6. Several trials were performed such that the percent passing

decreases from a value greater than 5% to a value less than or
equal to 5%.

Observations:

Result of AOS test on Non-Woven Geotextile

S.N Size of Weight of Weight % weight
o. beads glass beads pass passed
taken out out
1. 0.075 mm 100 g 94.65g 94.65
2. 0.180 mm 100 g 71.309 71.309
3. 0.250 mm 100 g 1.57 g 1.57
S.No. Size of Weight of Weight % weight
beads glass beads pass passed Result of
taken out out AOS test
1. 0.075 100 g 98.30g 98.10 on Woven
mm Geotextile
2. 0.180 100 g 79.0g 79.0
mm
3. 0.250m 100g 28.80g 28.80
m
4. 0.300m 100g 1.10 1.10
m
Significance of the Test:
The use of geotextile as a medium to retain soil particles
necessitates compatibility between it and the adjacent soil. This
test indicates the largest opening size in a geotextile available for
the soil to pass through.
From graph,

O95 (non woven) = 0.246mm

O95 (woven) = 0.292mm

WIDE WIDTH TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

SCOPE

In this method tensile strength of geotextile is assessed using

wide width strip specimen.

TEST METHOD

A 200 wide width specimen is gripped across the entire width in

the clamp of a constant rate of extension type tensile testing
machine at a specified rate of extension

APPARATUS

Tensile Testing Machine - A constant rate of extension (CRE) type

of testing, machine with a facility to record the force-elongation
curve is required.

Clamps - The clamps in the machine shall be sufficiently wide to

grip the entire width of the sample aid with appropriate clamping
power to prevent slipping or crushing (damage).

The jaw faces must be wider than the width of the specimen i.e
200 mm and should have a minimum of 50 mm length in the
direction Of tension.

The clamps can be of mechanical or hydraulic grip. At least one

clamp should be supported by a free swivel or universal Joint,
which allows the clamp to rotate in the plane of the fabric.
PROCEDURE (AS PER ASTIM)

1. The load range of the setup and the load cell is selected such
that failure occurs in between 10 % to 090% of full scale.

2. The machine is set to a strain rate of 10 3 /min.

3 The distance between the clamps is adjusted at 100 3 mm,

4 The specimen is inserted in the clamps centrally.

5 It should be ensured that the specimen length in the machine

direction and cross-machine direction tests, respectively , is
parallel to the direction of application of force

6 The tensile testing machine is switched on and the test is

continued running to rupture.
CALCULATIONS

Tensile strength- calculate the tensile strength of individual

specimen: that in the maximum force per unit width to cause a
specimen to rupture as read directlty from the testing instrument
expressed in N/m of width, using equation

t = Ft / Ws

Where,

At = tensile strength,K N/m

Ft = breaking force , N

Ws = specified specimen width, m

OBSERVATION:

WOVEN GEOTEXTILE

Width of sample = 200mm = 0.2m

Specimen no. Breaking force (N) Tensile strength

(KN/m)
1 11040 55.20
2 11010 55.05
3 10960 54.80
55.01
Average

NON WOVEN GEOTEXTILE

Width of sample = 200mm = 0.2m

Specimen no. Breaking force (N) Tensile strength

(KN/m)
1 4004 20.02
2 4022 20.01
3 3980 19.90
19.98
Average

Tensile strength of woven geotextile = 55.01 KN/m

Tensile strength of non woven geotextile = 19.98KN/m

HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES

Water permeability normal to the plane

Scope :The water permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of

geotextiles normal to the plane is determined in this test method.

Test Method

Permittivity of a geotextile is defined as the hydraulic conductivity

divided by the thickness of the geotextile. The permittivity of
geotextiles can be determingd by the following two methods:

a) Constant Head Method Constant head of water is maintained

on the geotextile. The quantity of flow is measured versus time.
The constant head test is used when the flow rate of water
through the geotextile is so large that it is difficult to obtain
readings of head change versus time in the falling head test.

) Falling Head method - A column of water is allowed to flow

through be geotextile and readings of change in head versus time
are taken. This method is used when the flow rate of water
through the geotextile is slow enough to obtain accurate readings.

Apparatus

1. A transparent water permeability Apparatus with a

minimum diameter of 50 mm capable of maximum head loss
of 70 mm and maintain a constant head of about 250 mm.

2. A grid of I mm diameter wire mesh size (10 1) mm shall

be fitted downstream of the specimen to support during the
test.
3.Stopwatch with an accuracy of 0.1 sec.

4. A thermometer with an accuracy of 0.2 C.

5 A measunng jar for determining the volume to an accuracy

of 10 cm3.

CONSTANT HEAD METHOD

Procedure

1, The specimen is saturated for 12 hours.

2. The specimen is placed in the apparatus and water tight

assembly is done.

3. The apparatus is filled with de-aired water until there is a

head difference of 70 mm across the specimen. Then the
water flow is so adjusted that the head loss is maintained at
50 I mm.

4 After the head is steady for a minimum of 30 sec,. the water

is collected by the measuring vessel over a fixed period of
time.

5. The test temperature of water should be noted.

6. The above procedure is repeated for four other head losses

of 60 mm, 40 mm and 30 mm (as per ISO).

As per ASTM, the test is conducted at a head of 50 mm.

7. The test is repeated on the remaining specimens.

OBSERVATIONS:

Diameter of sample, D (cm) = 5cm

 Area of sample, A (cm2) = 25cm2

Head loss, h (cm) = 5cm

NON WOVEN GEOTEXTILE

Test No. 1 2 3
Time interval, t (sec) 60 60 60

Quantity of flow, Q (cm3) 13525 13345 13410

Permittivity (sec-1) = Q/hAt 1.803 1.779 1.789

Permittivity = (1.803 +1.779+1.789)/3

= 1.790 sec -1

WOVEN GEOTEXTILE

Test No. 1 2 3
Time interval, t (sec) 60 60 60

Quantity of flow, Q (cm3) 8125 8180 7990

Permittivity (sec-1) = Q/hAt 1.083 1.090 1.065

 Permittivity = (1.083 +1.090+1.065)/3

= 1.079 sec -1

FILTERATION USING GEOSYNTHETICS

FILTERATION

Equilibrium soil to geotextile system that allows for adequate

liquid flow with limited soil loss across the plan of the geotextile
over a service lifetime compatible with application under
consideration.

Geotextile function of filtration involves the movement of

liquid through the geotextile itself. At the same time , the
geotextile must serve the purpose of retaining the soil on its
upstream side

Function of a filter

Retain particles of the base soil to be filtered

Avoid piping

Allow free flow of water

- avoid external clogging

- avoid internal clogging

Survive construction and environmental stresses

 PERMEABILITY CRITERIA

Geotextile permeability refers to cross plane

permeabilitywhen liquid flow is perpendicular to the plane of
fabric. Permeability is required to allow the liquid to pass the
filter so as not to build up excess hydrostatic pore pressure.

Allowable Permittivity of geotextile material must be

greater than permittivity of sand so as to allow free flow of
water.

So ,

Allowable Permittivity of geotextile > permittivity of sand

geotextile > sand

Permittivity of sand = permeability/thickness of soil

= 0.0297/18

= 1.654*10 -3 sec-1

Allowable permittivity
 of geotextile = ultimate permittivity /
(*RFCR*RFIN*RFCC*RFBC)

where,

RFSCB =reduction factor for soil clogging and blinding

RFIN = reduction factor for creep reduction of void space

RFCC = reduction factor for adjacent materials intruding into

geotextiles void space

RFBC = reduction factor for chemical clogging

Recommended reduction factor values

Range of reduction factors

Applicatio Soil Creep Intrusion Chemica Biological
n clogging reductio into voids l clogging
and n of clogging
biinding voids
Retaining 2.0-4.0 1.5-2.0 1.0-1.2 1.0-1.2 1.0-1.3
wall filter
Under 2.0-10 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.2 1.2-1.5 2.0-4.0
drain filter
Erosion 2.0-10 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.2 1.0-1.2 2.0-4.0
control
filter
Landfill 2.0-10 1.5-2.0 1.0-1.2 1.2-1.5 2.0-5.0
filter
Gravity 2.0-4.0 2.0-3.0 1.0-1.2 1.2-1.5 1.2-1.5
drainage
Pressure 2.0-3.0 2.0-3.0 1.0-1.2 1.1-1.3 1.1-1.3
drainage
FOR NON WOVEN GEOTEXTILE :

ultimate geotextile = 1.790 sec-1

Now, using geotextile beneath erosion control structure

Allowable geotextile = ultimate geotextile / (*RFCR*RFIN*RFCC*RFB)

Allowable geotextile = 1.790/(10*1.2*1.2*1.2*3.0)

= 0.0345 sec -1

Factor of safety = allow/reqd

= 0.0345/1.654*10 -3 = 20.87

Acceptable;
the geotextile has a high FOS

FOR WOVEN GEOTEXTILE :

ultimate geotextile = 1.079 sec-1

Now, using geotextile beneath erosion control structure

Allowable geotextile = ultimate geotextile / (*RFCR*RFIN*RFCC*RFB)

Allowable geotextile = 1.079/(10*1.2*1.2*1.2*3.0)

= 0.0208 sec -1

Factor of safety = allow/reqd

= 0.0208/(1.654*10-3) = 12.58
 Acceptable ;this
geotextile is also adequate

SOIL RETENTION CRITERIA

For the required flow of liquid to be allowed through the
geotextile, the void spaces in it must be sufficiently large. There is
however a limit- that being when the upstream soil particles start
to pass through the geotextile void s along with the flowing liquid.
This can lead to an unacceptable situation called soil piping , in
which soil particles are carried through the geotextile, leaving
unstable soil voids behind. The velocity of liquid then increases,
accelerating the process ,until the upstream soil structure begins
to collapse .

This process is prevented by making the geotextile voids

tight enough to retain the soil on the upstream side of the fabric.

Soil retention design can be applied by using soil particle size

characteristics and compare them to the 95% opening size of the
geotextile

Carroll recommendation:

- Geotextile filter should be designd such that, 95%

opening size of geotextile is less than (2 or 3) times d 85 of
soil particles.

O 95 < (2 or 3) d85
Where,

d85 = particle size in mm, for which 85% of the total soil is finer

- d85 for standard sand = 1.40mm

2.5* d85 =2.5*1.40 = 3.5mm

FOR NON WOVEN GEOTEXTILE:

apparent opening size, O95 = 0.246mm < 3.5 mm

acceptable with FS
= 14.23

FOR WOVEN GEOTEXTILE:

apparent opening size, O95 = 0.292mm < 3.5mm

acceptable with
FS = 11.98