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Application of FBG Sensors for Geotechnical

Health Monitoring, a Review of Sensor Design,
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DOI: 10.1016/j.sna.2016.04.033

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com

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Review

Application of FBG sensors for geotechnical health monitoring, a review of sensor

design, implementation methods and packaging techniques
Hong,Cheng-Yua, b Zhang,Yi-Fanc, d, Zhang,Meng-Xia Leung,Lai Ming Gordone Liu Li-Qiangb

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a
Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China
c
Engineering Research Center of Technical Textiles, Ministry of Education, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
d
College of Textiles, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
e
Teaching Fellow, Technological and Higher Education In stitute of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

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ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor has been considered as a reliable sensor for health monitoring of structural and geot-
Received 21 December 2015 echnical projects. Various types of FBG based sensors have been proposed in past few decades and employed for health
Received in revised form 10 March monitoring of many geotechnical structures. This paper presents an overview of the recent development and application
2016
of FBG based sensors for health monitoring of several key geotechnical structures, including soil nail systems, slopes, and
Accepted 13 April 2016
Available online xxx
piles. Different sensor design, implementation and packaging methods, advantages and limitations of using FBG based
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sensors in different projects are reviewed. Comparative analysis of using two mathematical methods for the prediction of
ground movement using FBG sensor data are also carried out. The two typical mathematical methods include Finite Dif-
Keywords: ference Method (FDM) and Numerical Integration method (NIM). Possible technical challenges of applying FBG sensors
Fiber Bragg grating sensors
for geotechnical monitoring are discussed.
Geotechnical monitoring
Structure monitoring 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
FBG packaging methods
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1. Introduction 1.1. Soil nails

Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) based sensors have been extensively
used as a powerful and highly effective method for structural health
monitoring. In comparison with traditional sensors, such as exten-
someter, strain gauge, and dial gauge, FBG sensor offers a large num-
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Establishment of a successful FBG based monitoring system con-
sists of suitable design of sensing system, reasonable implementation
and packaging technique of FBG sensors, in order to ensure a suc-
cessful monitoring scheme for geotechnical structures. Soil nail is one

ber of advantages, such as small physical dimension, light weight, im- popular geotechnical structure monitored using FBG sensors, and the
mune to electromagnetic interference (EMI), ease of installation, long- common method is to install bare FBG sensors on soil nail bar surface
term stability, and wavelength multiplexing [15]. In recent years, [911] or embed FBG sensors inside a groove if the soil nail surface
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FBG based sensing technology has been attracted increasing inter-
ests from geotechnical engineering community and a large number of
monitoring studies have been reported in different research fields. Re-
searchers tend to focus on monitoring a number of critical parame-
ters related to geotechnical structures, such as inner temperature vari-
ations, stress/strain fields, vertical settlements and lateral deflections
[68]. Accurate and reliable monitoring results from these FBG sen-
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is ease of handling [12,13]. However, as the bare FBG sensor is very
fragile and can be easily damaged in harsh environment, the packag-
ing process of FBG sensors is essential and require careful design and
protection.
1.2. Slopes

sors provide reasonable performance assessment, so that engineers can
adopt immediate and effective measures to deal with potential safety
issues.
ment by using different analytical methods [1416]. Special methods
Corresponding author at: Engineering Research Center of Technical Textiles,
Ministry of Education, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China.
Email addresses: cyhong@shu.edu.cn (C-Y Hong); zhangyifan@dhu.edu.cn (Y-F
Zhang); mxzhang@i.shu.edu.cn (M-X Zhang); glmleung@hkrrl.com.hk (L.M.G.
Leung); liulq-sohu@sohu.com (L-Q Liu)
FBG sensors can be easily multiplexed and integrated together to
form a sensing array for slope monitoring. Researchers adopted such
a sensing array to evaluate the safety condition of slopes in terms of
the measured strain distributions along inclinometers, pipes or piles
underground. The strain distributions can be transferred into displace-
were also proposed by integrating FBG sensors into different struc-
tural systems to reflect the ground movement such as using a FBG
based tilt sensor [17,18] or a FBG based sensor network inside a slope
to monitor the real-time ground movement [19,20].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2016.04.033
0924-4247/ 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
2 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx
1.3. Piles
Piles are also important geotechnical structures and the related po-
tential stability issues before, during and after construction may lead to
significant casualties and economic losses. Implementation and pack-
aging methods of FBG sensors for piles are simple and most re-
searchers directly adhered bare FBG sensors straightly in a machined
groove along a precast pile [21] or encapsulated FBG sensors for
cast-in-situ piles [2225]. These FBG sensors can be fully protected
and integrated within the pile during construction or even driving
process [8]. Field tests indicate that these implementation and pack-
aging methods of FBG sensors are effective and monitoring require-
ments have been completely satisfied in these monitoring projects.
1.4. Mathematical methods for displacement prediction
Mathematical methods were normally adopted for the calculation
of ground movement of slopes, lateral displacements of piles, and de-
flections of soil nails. Finite Difference Method (FDM) and Numeri-
cal Integration Method (NIM) are two widely accepted mathematical
methods for predicting the displacement parameter data of different
geotechnical structures. Pei et al. has also discussed the possibility of
using FDM for the prediction of the lateral displacement of FBG incli-
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nometers. This new FBG inclinometer was fabricated and calibrated in
laboratory and the calculated displacement agree very well with mea-
sured displacement data [18]. Huang and Ho adopted NIM for dis-
placement calculation of a flexible plastic elements embedded under-
ground in a field to indicate the surrounding ground movement [26].
Xu et al. adopted the FDM and NIM methods for the calculation of dy-
namic displacement of soil in a shaking Table test. The measurement
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data indicate that NIM overestimates the lateral displacement signifi-
cantly [27]. The measured maximum displacement using NIM was al-
most 3 times of the corresponding data of FDM. The above analysis
indicates that FBG strain data can be successfully transferred to dis-
placement using FEM and NIM. It is meaningful to carry out a com-
parative analysis regarding the effectiveness of using the two methods
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for predicting the displacement parameters of geotechnical structures.
Several comprehensive review papers concerning the application
of fiber optic sensors in different research fields have been published
in past few decades. These papers mainly focus on the strain and tem-
perature monitoring of various structures based on a number of op-
tical fiber sensor technologies [35,7,28,29]. The present paper pri-
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marily offers an overview regarding the application of FBG sensors
in health monitoring for geotechnical structures. Current development
and application status of FBG sensors in health monitoring of several
key geotechnical structures including soil nails, slopes, and piles are
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reviewed and discussed. Basic design, implementation and packaging
methods of FBGs with respect to different geotechnical structures are
also reviewed in details. Potential challenges of utilizing FBG sensors
for health monitoring of key geotechnical structures are discussed.
This paper is expected to provide an in-depth understanding of the de-
sign and packaging methods of FBG sensors in geotechnical health
monitoring.
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2. Working principle and encapsulation techniques of FBG
sensors for geotechnical monitoring
2.1. Working principle of FBG technology
FBG technology is currently a popular method for strain or tem-
perature measurement of different structures. FBG sensor structure
consists of a periodic modulation of refraction index, where only cen-
tral light wavelength matching the local modulation period can be re-
flected. This reflected central light wavelength will shift accordingly
if strain or temperature changes. Considering a standard single mode
fiber, relationship between the reflected central Bragg wavelength
and strain change or temperature change can be given by
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[30]:
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(1)
where denotes the change of central wavelength, denotes the
photo-elastic parameter related to the fiber property, and are ther-
mal expansion coefficient and thermal-optic coefficient of fiber core.
All these parameters are constants for a specified fiber. External tem-
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perature and strain change can be obtained from Eq. (1). Fig. 1 shows
the basic working principle of FBG sensors with three grating sensors.
When broad band incident light is injected into the fiber core, the light
with specific central light wavelengths (matching with the local grat-
ing periods 1, 2, and 3) will be reflected back and detected by in-
terrogator. The reflected light wavelength is linearly proportional to
temperature or strain [31]. Hence, the temperature and strain changes
can be obtained according to the wavelength change. It is noted that
different wavelength values 1, 2, and 3 should be adopted in appli-
cation as the same wavelength may cause signal overlap received by
interrogator, which may not be able to identify the sensor locations ac-
cording to the received wavelength values.
2.2. Packing methods of FBG sensors for geotechnical health
monitoring
Optical fiber sensors can be classified as discrete or point sen-
sor, or distributed sensors according to the related spatial disposition.
A point sensor offers a strain or temperature parameter related to a
single position, while distributed sensors provide parameters at sev-
eral continuous locations. FBG sensors can be divided into three main
types as shown in Fig. 2, including point FBG sensor, multiplexed
FBG sensor and long gauge FBG (LGFBG) sensor, characterized by
their types and packaging methods [32]. Point sensor normally refers
a single FBG sensor (Fig. 1(a)), while multiplexed FBG sensors are
the FBG sensors mounted in series (Fig. 1(b)). Long gage FBG sen-
sors are normally designed to sense relative displacement or average
strain between two anchorage points (Fig. 1(c)) [3335]. The distance
between the two anchorage points is the effective gauge length. The
above three sensors are popular for geotechnical monitoring and have
been extensively applied in real practice.
Bare optical fiber sensor is very fragile and can be easily dam-
aged under harsh field environment. Suitable design of the FBG based
sensing system and the related sensible packaging methods are cru-
cial to ensure adequate protection for FBG sensors. Various encap-
sulation methods of FBG sensors were found in different literatures.
Fig. 3(a) shows a typical FBG sensor encapsulated in a metal slice
Fig. 1. Sensing principle of FBG sensors.
 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx
Fig. 2. Three types of FBG sensors.
base using glue or epoxy resin. This type of encapsulated FBG sensors
can be embedded in mental and concrete structures, for example mon-
itoring stain changes of soil nail bars and piles [36]. Another common
protective method is to encapsulate a bare FBG sensor inside a con-
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tainer (such as a tube or groove) as shown in Fig. 3(b) [37]. It is seen
this FBG sensor is encapsulated inside a steel tube between two an-
chorage points, which can fix the whole bar inside concrete for sensing
the axial strain. Fig. 3(c) shows a typical stress sensor encapsulated
with FBG sensor and this stress sensor can be applied under extreme
environment, for example, monitoring the stress change of a cast-in-
situ pile. One similar stress sensor was also reported and shown in
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Fig. 3(d) [38]. This stress sensor has a square cross sectional dimen-
sion (10 mm 10 mm), and a length of around 10 cm. In lab test, this
stress sensor was calibrated in a 50 kN testing machine. Fig. 3(e) de-
scribes a newly developed long gauge FBG sensor in order to offer a
more macroscopic strain value of monitored structures [35]. The FBG
sensor is packaged in a tube with two tie points locating the effective
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gauge length. This type of strain sensor can be mounted on the steel
bar surface to monitor the occurred average strain values [39]. Some
other special packaged FBG sensors were also found in different liter-
atures as shown in Fig. 3(f), which shows a fiber optical sensor pack-
aged in a Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) bar and this bar can sense
the inner temperature and strain change of concrete. In practice, this
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packaged FRP bar was used to monitor stress/strain transfer of con-
crete piles subject to loading [40]. The related application work indi-
cates that such a packaged FBG sensor would save installation time
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and reduce the cost of pile load testing activities. Fig. 3(g) shows a
basic internal configuration of a deformation sensor [41]. This defor-
mation sensor is also a long gauge deformation sensor and the total
effective length can approach up to around 2 m. One temperature sen-
sor was adopted and encapsulated inside for sensing the temperature
change. The specified repeatability of this sensor was 2 microstrains.
All these different types of FBG based sensors can be applied in dif-
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ferent geotechnical fields and the related typical applications are intro-
duced in next section.
3. Sensing application of FBG sensors for geotechnical
monitoring
Fig. 4 shows the percentage of FBG sensing applications in differ-
ent geotechnical fields. These percentage data of FBG sensing appli-
cation in different geotechnical fields are based on a relatively restrict
review in present paper. It is seen that the application percentages of
3
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FBG sensors for soil nails, slopes and piles are 33%, 37% and 30%, re-
spectively. Application of FBG sensors for landslide is relatively pop-
ular (37%). A detailed analysis is also presented and summarized in
Fig. 5, which shows the percentage of FBG sensing application for dif-
ferent geotechnical structures according to measurands, such as strain,
temperature, displacement, pressure and inclination angle. It is clear
FBG sensing technology is important for the measurement of strain
(72% for soil nails, 58% for slopes, and 41% for piles) and displace-
ment (26% for soil nails, 19% for slopes, and 7% for piles) in all these
applications. Application percentages of FBG sensors for temperature
monitoring are around 20% for all geotechnical structures, mainly de-
pending on the monitoring environment such as in field or lab. Tem-
perature monitoring is necessary in field application due to the possi-
ble occurrence of significant temperature variations. While in lab ap-
plication, temperature can be strictly controlled so that the related tem-
perature compensation can be ignored.
3.1. Soil nails
Soil nailing is normally used as a remedial construction technology
for the treatment of unstable slopes, excavations, and retaining walls.
The mechanical behavior of soil nails, especially the axial strain/stress
distribution is considered to be a critical factor for searching the lo-
cation of potential sliding surface [42,43]. In the past decades, re-
searchers adopted different methods to measure the strain distributions
of soil nails and further to examine the factor of safety for different
soil nailing systems. Most studies mainly focus on the application of
FBG sensors for strain monitoring of two types of soil nails, including
conventional soil nails (steel bar soil nails) and Glass Fiber Reinforced
Polymer (GFRP) bar soil nails. The measured strains can also be used
to examine the frictional resistance between soil nails and surrounding
soils.
3.1.1. Performance monitoring of conventional soil nails using FBG
sensors
Point sensors, multiplexed FBG sensors, and long gauge FBG sen-
sors were all adopted for performance monitoring of soil nails or
rock bolts [44]. A number of researchers directly mounted bare FBG
strain sensors on soil nail bar surface and covered these sensors with
epoxy resin [9,11,13]. This basic packaging method is simple and has
been widely accepted but requires elaborate efforts as a bare FBG
sensor is very fragile and prone to be damaged especially in harsh
working environment. Yin et al. conducted a comparative analysis
4 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx

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Fig. 3. Encapsulation methods of different FBG based sensors for geotechnical monitoring (a) a FBG sensor encapsulated in metal slice base using glue [36], (b) a FBG based stress
sensor [37], (c) an mental slice encapsulation for FBG strain sensor [77], (d) a fiber optic FBG sensor packaged in a cube [25], (e) a FBG based long gage length sensor [35], (f) a
fiber optical sensor packaged in a FRP bar [40], and (g) Standard deformation sensor configuration [41].

between strain gauges and FBG sensors for soil nails in field [45] and
proposed a new packaging method of FBG sensors for the measure-
ment of average strain change or elongation of soil nails during pull-
out tests. These FBG sensors were packaged in an aluminum tube,
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conducted between FBG sensor and Low Coherence Interferometry
(LCI) based sensors [46] in pullout tests of soil nails.
3.1.2. Monitoring of GFRP bar soil nails using FBG sensors

which was then mounted on the soil nail bar surface (See Fig. 6(a)).
The aluminum tube would then form an integrated body after cement
grout has hardened in a drillhole. A similar FBG based sensor was
also proposed by Hong et al. [10] for monitoring the quality of model
soil nails in lab pullout test in terms of the effective elastic modulus
calculated from FBG strain values. A schematic view of the adopted
long gauge FBG sensor was presented in Fig. 6(b). Each FBG sen-
sor was fixed and encapsulated between two anchorage couplers for
monitoring the average strains of model soil nails subjected to pull-
out force. A comparative analysis regarding sensor behavior was also
GFRP bar soil nail may be considered as a replacement of conven-
tional soil nails (steel bar soil nails) due to the advantages such as high
resistance to corrosion, light weight, high tensile strength, and ease
of handling. Therefore, mechanical behavior of GFRP bar soil nails
in pullout test is also a key concern to engineers. As the GFRP bar
can be easily handled during or even after construction process, some
researchers machined a narrow groove along the longitudinal direc-
tion of the GFRP bar, and then embedded bare FBG sensors (mount-
ing in series) into the groove. Finally epoxy resin or glue was used
to cover the whole sensor section [13,47,48]. Fig. 6(c) shows the ba-
sic packaging method of a FBG strain sensor on GFRP bar surface
 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx 5

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Fig. 4. Percentage of FBG sensing application in different geotechnical fields in present

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paper. Paper number is equally divided if one paper deals with more than one geotech-
nical structures in the references of present paper.

adopted by Li et al. [13]. Width and depth of the groove created

along the bar surface were 2 mm and 2 mm, respectively. This method
seems to be effective and the real strain of the GFRP bar can be accu-
rately obtained without significantly affecting the mechanical proper-
ties of GFRP bars in pullout tests. A large number of similar studies
also show that adhering bare FBG sensors straightly along a precre-

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ated groove on GFRP bar surface is feasible and simple [4951].

3.2. Landslide monitoring

FBG sensor is considered as an alternative technology used to

monitor ground movement and conduct the pre-warning for landslide.
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Stress, strain and seepage fields underground are considered as poten-
tial signals to reveal safety factor of ground. Basic methods for mon-
itoring slopes using FBG sensing technology involve measurement of
slope movement, stress/strain monitoring of soil nails (or other rein-
forcements) inside slopes, and pore water pressure monitoring with
different FBG based gauges. Slope movement monitoring is a rela-
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tively direct way to evaluate the safety condition as the internal dis-
placement can be clearly obtained from sensors [52]. While strain and
pore water pressure monitoring may indirectly reveals potential safety
issue of the whole soil nailing system [53,54].

3.2.1. FBG based tilt sensors for inclination measurement

Fig. 5. Percentage of FBG sensing application according to measurands for (a) soil
FBG based tilt sensor is also a possible sensor for landslide mon-
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nails, (b) slopes, and (c) piles. A paper is equally divided in number if dealing with more
itoring and a large number of FBG based tilt sensors have been re- than one measurand.
ported in different literatures. Most of these FBG based tilt sensors
were proposed simply by adhering two adjacent bare FBG strain sen-
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sors at the two opposite sides of a rectangular beam to measure the
bending strain, and further to calculate inclined angle of the vertical
beam [17,18,55]. Cylindrical beams in some studies were used to re-
place the above rectangular beam to form a 2D tilt sensor [56,57].
Fig. 7(a) shows a schematic view of the FBG tilt sensor developed by
Bao et al. [57]. This FBG based tilt sensor can be placed inside an
inclinometer casing and used to measure the related inclination and
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Polycarbonate (PC) beam element mounted with FBG sensors for
monitoring ground movement. Fig. 7(b) shows a schematic view of
this tilt sensor and mounted locations of FBG sensors. The PC beam
was 2 cm in width, 2 mm in thickness and 150 mm in length. Two
FBG sensors were mounted on the beam surface for monitoring the
occurred strain. The collected strain data was further used to compute
inclination angle and deflection of the beam. This tilt sensor was cal-

horizontal displacement. A similar FBG based sensor was also de-
veloped by Kang et al. [58]. This new sensor consists of a vertical
pendulum hanging inside a steel frame with a free rotational joint at
the top. Four FBG sensors were mounted on four rigid arms with the
same length. Measured strain change of the four arms can be used to
calculate the inclination angle at all directions as the position change
of the pendulum will lead to the strain change of all the four arms.
However, this sensor requires particular protection if applied to the
measurement of slope movement due to the complicated sensor struc-
ture and harsh environment in real field. Pei et al. [18] proposed a
ibrated in lab using a stable optical platform. Another similar design
was also proposed by Au et al. [59], in which FBG sensors were used
to sense axial strain of four arms connected to a pendulum. Therefore,
measurement of inclination can be realized in terms of the measured
axial strain. Yoshida et al. developed a defection monitoring system
using a pair of FBG sensors as shown in Fig. 7(c) [60]. Two optical
fiber sensors were prestressed and installed at two sides of the steel
rod. Differential elongation between the two pre-stressed optical fibres
can be used to determine the relative rotation, or rotation of the bottom
piece around the hinge.
6 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx
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Fig. 6. Different packaging methods of FBG strain sensors on soil nail bar surface
adopted by (a) Zhu et al. [9], and (b) Hong et al. [10], and (c) Li et al. [13].
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3.2.2. FBG based inclinometers for landslide monitoring
Measurement of ground movement inside slopes can be realized
with different methods, but using inclinometer is a simple and rela-
tively time saving way. A typical method to reflect the ground move-
ment is to use grouted inclinometer casings (maybe pipes or bars) and
the related strain change along the casing can be used to calculate the
cumulative lateral displacement of surrounding soils [14,16,61], such
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as the Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing encapsulated with FBG sen-
sors by Ho et al. [61] as shown in Fig. 8. The PVC inclinometer casing
offers a medium for the measurement of strain distributions. In order
to realize such a FBG based monitoring system, authors adhered a se-
ries of FBG sensors on orthogonal grooves along the external surface
of inclinometer casing and covered these sensors with epoxy resin.
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These sensors measured the strain distribution of the inclinometer cas-
ing at specified intervals and theoretically the ground movement at
all directions can be obtained [26,62]. Dou and Li [63] presented an-
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other installation method of FBG sensors for the measurement of lat-
eral movement of a slope. The installation scheme was realized by
mounting FBG sensors in two grooves along the inner surface of an
anchor bar. Cement mortar was used to fill the hollow area between
the bar and the surrounding soil. This smart bar can be used as an
inclinometer for long-term monitoring and early warning of landslide.
Attention shall be paid to the case that measurement error of FBG sen-
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sors may accumulate and lead to significant lateral displacement er-
rors. Ho et al. proposed a ground movement monitoring system in lab
and field. Fig. 9 shows a side view and top view of fibre Bragg grating
segmented deflectometer (FBG-SD) for landslide monitoring in field
[26]. A single unit of the FBG-SD consists of a plastic rod, and a flex-
ible segment that connects to two aluminum end pieces. FBG sensors
were attached on two opposite sides of the flexible segment for sens-
ing strain. This FBG-SD can be fitted inside an inclinometer casing
for monitoring the inclination angle. Huang et al.
[64] designed and installed new FBG based piezometers inside PVC
pipes for monitoring the water level change. Design idea of this new
sensor is to measure the deflection of a metallic diaphragm inside the
transducer in order to reflect the related pore-water pressure change.
These FBG based sensors offer high sensitivity and real-time monitor-
ing data.
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3.2.3. Other FBG based sensors for ground movement monitoring
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Some special application of using FBG based sensors for landslide
monitoring are also reported in different literatures, for example, dy-
namic ground movement monitoring using FBG sensors [54,65] or the
monitoring of pore-water pressure or water level. A newly developed
FBG based flexible beam was proposed by Xu et al. [27] for mon-
itoring the dynamic displacement of soils as shown in Fig. 10. The
basic design of this monitoring beam mainly consists of mounted six
FBG strain sensors at three opposite beam locations, optical switch ar-
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ray, broad band source, and a computer. Monitored strains were used
to calculate the occurred displacement using both finite differential
method and numerical integration method (see Eqs. (7) and (8)) con-
sidering the related fixed end boundary conditions.
3.2.4. Analytical methods for the calculation of ground movement
using FBG sensors
Two mathematical methods including Finite difference method
(FDM) and Numerical Integration method (NIM) were adopted for
the calculation of lateral displacement based on distributed strain val-
ues along inclinometer casings or piles [27,54]. FDM is a mathemat-
ical discretization method deriving from Taylors polynomial used
for solving differential equations. By using this method, a continuous
beam is divided into a number of small elements, and the interval be-
tween adjacent elements is assumed to be h. Fig. 11 shows a schematic
view of the beam bending behavior resulted from external loading.
The first derivatives of f at distance values x h, x and x + h are given
by:
(2)
(3)
where the first derivative of f is also the slope of deflection with re-
spect to the length of beam element (from x to x + h for Eq. (2) and
from x h to x for Eq. (3)). Similarly, the second order derivative can
be obtained as:
Eq. (4) shows the correlation between the second order derivative
and the related deflection (or lateral displacement). Given the bound-
ary conditions of the beam, deflection calculation at other locations is
possible if is known. As the beam deformation is small, we can ob-
tain the approximation (as shown in Fig. 11), and gradient
of the deflection curve and , hence,
. The gradient and occurred strain follow the be-
low relationships:
 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx 7

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Fig. 7. Schematic views of FBG tilt sensors developed by (a) Bao et al. [56], (c) Pei et al. [18], and (c) Yoshida et al. [60].

Eqs. (4)(6) yields:

(5)

(7)
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Given the boundary conditions and the related strain distributions

( , ), deflections at specific beam locations mounted with FBG
(6) strain sensors can be directly calculated using Eq. (7).
NIM is also popular and can be adopted for the calculation of lat-
eral displacement by considering the strain distributions measured by
where D, E and I are the thickness, elastic modulus and moment of two symmetric optical fiber strain sensors along piles/inclinometer
inertia of the beam, respectively. and are the occurred strain casings. The curvature k, gradient a, and displacement u can be ob-
at the upper and lower beam surface, respectively. Combing tained from the following equations [66,67]:
8 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx

(8)

where A and B are integration constants. Lateral displacement can be

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successfully obtained from the above equations if the related bound-
ary condition is given.

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A case study is presented to evaluate the reliability of both FDM
and NIM for the calculation of lateral displacement of inclinometers
or piles. In case length and diameter of a pile are 10 m and 1 m, re-
spectively. Sensor spacing is assumed 1 m (h = 1 m). Elastic modulus
of the pile is 30 GPa, and the pile is subjected to 1 kPa uniform lateral
pressure from pile tip to pile head. The pile tip is assumed to be fixed.
Lateral displacement of the pile can be obtained using FDM (Eq. (7))
and NIM (Eq. (8)). FBG strain sensors are assumed to have relative

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measurement errors (RME) with respect to the real strain values, and
RME is defined as:

(9)

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where and are measured and real strain along piles or incli-
nometers. Negative (positive) percentage means the mounted FBG
strain sensors underestimate (overestimate) the real strain values. Figs.
Fig. 8. A schematic view of FBG pipe strain gage (FBG-PSG) for ground movement 12(a) and (b) show the calculated lateral displacement distributions
monitoring. against distance from pile tip using FDM and NIM. RMEs of all
FBG strain sensors in the two figures are assumed to vary at 20%,
CT
10%, 0%, +10% to +20%. It is seen that the calculated lateral dis-
placements using FDM agree fairly well with the theoretical lateral
displacement (TLD) if there is no measurement error for all sensors
(RME = 0%) (Fig. 12(a)). While the related errors between theoret-
ical and calculated displacements increase with pile distance as the
increase of measurement errors from 0% to 20%. The measured dis-
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placement distributions using NIM as shown in Fig. 12(b) indicate

that even all sensors accurately predict the real strain (Measurement
error = 0%), the calculated displacements still overestimate the real
values substantially (Real displacement = 0.82 mm and calculated dis-
placement = 1.03 mm at pile head, pile distance = 10 m). This dis-
crepancy is mainly due to the assumed linear assumption of pile ele-
R

ment subjected to loading in calculation. As the measurement errors of

Fig. 9. Schematic views of a FBG-SD measurement unit: (a) Side view, and (b) top view strain sensors increase, the calculated lateral displacement values us-
[26]. ing NIM become much higher than the measured displacement values.
Hence it is necessary to modify the calculated displacement from NIM
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in order to reflect the true deflection of piles or inclinometer casings

in real practice.
Fig. 13 shows the relationships of maximum displacement errors
(normally occur at pile head) obtained from FDM and NIM methods
against measurement errors of strain sensors. It is seen both displace-
ment errors calculated from NIM and FDM vary linearly with respect
to strain errors. The displacement error calculated from NIM is sub-
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Fig. 10. A new flexible beam installed with FBG sensors for dynamic lateral displace-
ment monitoring [27].
stantially higher than that of FDM at the same strain errors. Maximum
displacement errors are around 20% and 0% calculated from NIM and
FDM respectively at the measurement error of 0%. This indicates that
NIM overestimates the occurred displacement values significantly es-
pecially at high levels of strain errors. Therefore, FDM is suggested
to be used for the calculation of lateral displacement for inclinometer
casings or piles underground, while certain modification coefficient is
required to reduce the displacement errors if NIM is used.
 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx 9

F
OO
PR
ED
Fig. 11. Schematic views of deflection calculation for beam element.
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Fig. 13. Relationships of measured displacement errors against relative measurement

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errors (RME) of strain sensors in case study.

ies for piles mostly focus on the measurement of temperature and

strain/stress variations using FBG based sensors as summarized in Fig.
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4(b).

3.3.1. Strain measurement of model piles, precast piles, and cast-

insitu piles using FBG sensors
For the measurement of strain distributions of model piles, Lee et
al. and Weng et al. [25,68] directly adhered bare FBG sensors to pile
surface. Measured strain results can be used to analyze axial stress
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variations and the related friction resistance distributions. Kong et al.

Fig. 12. Relationships of lateral displacement against pile distance at different measure-
ment errors of FBG strain sensors using (a) Finite Different Method (FDM), and (b)
Numerical Integration Method (NIM).
3.3. Piles
Pile is one of the most important geotechnical structures and nor-
mally used for the construction of deep foundations. Monitoring stud
[69] attached bare FBG sensors on a FRP bar to monitor pile perfor-
mance subjected to static and dynamic loadings. A schematic view of
the test design is shown in Fig. 14. Five FBG sensors were mounted
on this FRP bar surface at five positions to measure the effect of
water on the model pipe response. This FRP bar was fixed on the
model pile at three locations to ensure the deformation coupling ef-
fect. Wang et al. [70] simply placed a number of FBG sensor arrays in
drillholes and poured cement grout inside to form a number of strain
10 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx

F
OO
PR
Fig. 15. Monitoring the driven behavior of a PHC pile using FBG sensors [23].

lation scheme of FBG sensors inside a cast-in-stiu pile is shown in Fig.

16. A total of 21sensors including 9 VW gauges and 12 FBG sensors
were mounted on steel cage for monitoring the strain data. A com-
parative analysis between VW (vibrating wire) gauges and FBG sen-

ED
Fig. 14. Test design using FBG sensors for monitoring a model pile response in water
[69].
sors was also conducted for verification. Schilder et al. adopted FBG
sensors in static and dynamic pile tests and the measured strain dis-
tribution along pile was compared with Fabry-Perot interferometers
model piles. These model piles were used for the measurement of axial sensors for verification [76]. Schilder et al. also embedded FBG sen-
strain and further used to monitor the slope movement. Typical mea- sors in reinforced concrete piles for integrity evaluation [77]. Kister
surement results from these experiments seem to successfully reflect et al. [24] proposed a new bonding scheme and protection system
CT
the model pile behavior subjected to different loading conditions. Li et for FBG sensors, and the related sensor design is shown in Fig. 17.
al. [71] adopted FBG and strain gauges to monitor the strain distribu- These FBG sensors were secured on steel bar ridge using cyano
tion along pile and conducted three different types of pile loading tests
to examine the load transfer mechanism. Similar studies conducted
by Schilder et al. [72] also indicate that the FBG sensors have great
potential for health monitoring of piles. Liu et al. monitored residual
force locked in open-ended pipe pile using FBG sensors [73] and eval-
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uated the pile resistance based on measured strain distributions.

A popular method for packaging FBG sensors in precast piles was
to embed them inside piles by creating small size grooves, then ad-
here FBG sensors straightly along these grooves. This method will
not significantly affect the physical properties of piles as the dimen-
sions of these created grooves are ignorable compared with the moni-
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tored piles and these FBG sensors were completely protected in piles
[74]. Fig. 15 shows a schematic view of the installation scheme of
FBG sensing array on a precast high strength concrete (PHC) pile be-
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fore installation process. In this study, a total of 16 FBG sensors were

mounted on the two opposite precreated grooves along the pile surface
for monitoring the occurred compressive strains. Baldwin et al. [22]
protected FBGs within 1.2 mm furcation tubing by Loctite 3761 UV-
curing epoxy and covered by fiberglass cloth tape. Then two strain
sensing arrays were placed in pre-created grooves along piles. Jung et
al. [75] adopted Gaussian quadrature method for the calculation of lat-
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eral displacement of a model pile based on measured FBG strain data.

An optimized scheme of FBG sensor positions was also proposed and
examined in experimental study.
Strain monitoring of cast-insitu piles using FBG sensors normally
requires special attachments such as steel bars for packaging and
protecting FBG sensors. For the investigation of pile load transfer
mechanism, Lee et al. [25] used short steel bar with 2 mm wide and
2 mm deep groove on each for the placement and protection of bare
FBG sensors. These short steel bars were assembled on reinforcement
cages for the measurement of axial strain of cast-in-situ piles. Instal
Fig. 16. Installation scheme of FBG sensors inside a cast-in-stiu pile [25].
 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx 11

foundation piles. Schmidt-Hattenberger et al. [78] conducted strain

measurements by fiber Bragg grating sensors for in situ pile load-
ing tests. Monitored strain results of fiber Bragg grating sensors agree
fairly well with conventional concrete strain gages. Authors have also
examined the skin friction between pile and subsoil as well as the set-
tlement behavior of the pile based on the measured strain data.

F
3.3.2. Temperature measurement of different types of piles

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Many different methods were considered for the monitoring pile
temperature change in lab tests or field monitoring tests. In engineer-
ing practice, most bare FBG sensors were isolated in separated tubes
or pipes to avoid sensing the external strain. Park et al. [79] devel-
oped new FBG based temperature sensors for PHC energy pile. The
authors fixed FBG temperature sensors in black small tubes and at-
tached these tubes to heat exchange pipe in order to sense the exter-
nal temperature change. For conducting temperature compensation of

Fig. 17. Protection scheme of a FBG sensor on a steel bar for strain measurement inside
a cast-insitu pile [24].
acrylate C2 adhesive (Permabond), and Sikaflex-11FC silicone resin
was used to cover the striped region. Epoxy adhesive was then used
to cover the top of the pre-secured fiber to ensure the anchorage of
FBG sensor in case of primary bonding failure. Finally, 2 mm thick
PR
small scale strain piles, Wang et al. [70] simply placed two FBG based
temperature sensors at the middle and bottom locations of each bore-
hole for the measurement of temperature change. Baldwin et al. [22]
bonded one independent FBG temperature sensing array along a com-
posite pile for temperature monitoring. Viveiros et al. describes a fiber
optic monitoring system for monitoring a coal waste pile, and optical
fiber sensors were adopted for continuous monitoring of combustion

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layer of an alkali resistant silicone resin Sikaflex-11FC was utilized temperature and emission levels of certain gases [80].
to cover the whole fiber length. These steel bars adhered with FBG Basic information with respect to the installation details of differ-
sensors were bonded on reinforcing cages for the strain monitoring of ent FBG sensors in pile monitoring projects are summarized in Table

Table 1
Typical application examples of using FBG sensors for health monitoring of piles.
CT
Measured
Year parameters Pile type Sensor type Types of glue References Installation and packaging methods

2001 Strain and Marine piles FBG Strain and Loctite 3761 UV-curing epoxy. [22] Two fiber Bragg grating (FBG) strain sensing arrays
temperature temperature sensors and one FBG temperature sensing array were
embedded in grooves machined on pile surface.
2004 Strain and Model piles FBG strain and Silicon epoxy [25] Bare FBG sensors and a related optical fiber cable
temperature temperature sensors, were laid straightly along a groove and coated with
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and vibrating wire epoxy resin.

(VW) gauges
2007 Strain and Foundation concrete FBG Strain and Cyanoacrylate C2 adhesive, [24] Optical fiber sensors were secured on to a rebar
temperature piles temperature sensors Epoxy Araldite 2014 adhesive using the cyanoacrylate C2 adhesive, and Epoxy
and Alkali resistant silicone Araldite 2014 adhesive was applied at
resin Sikaflex-11FC approximated 200 mm interval to ensure the
anchorage of optical fiber sensor on the rebar.
2011 Strain Reinforced concrete resistance strain gauges, [81]
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piles accelerometer sensors
and FBG Strain sensors
2013 Strain Driven piles FBG Strain sensors [69]
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2013 Temperature Precast-high Thermistors and FBG [79] FBG sensors were fixed in black small tubes and
strength concrete temperature sensors these tubes were attached to heat exchange pipes to
(PHC) energy pile sense the external temperature change.
2014 Strain and Pretensioned high- FBG Strain and Epoxy resin [23] FBG sensors were adhered tightly in grooves along
temperature strength concrete temperature sensors the pile by epoxy resin.
(PHC) pipe pile
2014 Strain, Anti-slide pile FBG water pressure [82]
temperature, and gauge, FBG
water pressure thermometers, FBG
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strain sensors
2014 Strain Stiffened deep FBG Strain sensors Epoxy resin [74] Two grooves with roughly 1 cm-deep and 0.5 cm-
mixed (SDM) wide along the pile shaft were machined to
column accommodate the installation of FBG sensors.
2014 Strain Model pipe pile FBG Strain sensors ALTECO epoxy resin [68] FBG optical fiber sensors were adhered directly to
the surface of the seamless steel pipe using
ALTECO epoxy resin.
2015 Strain and Cement grouted FBG Strain and [70] FBG strain sensors were multiplexed and placed
temperature model piles temperature sensors into drillholes before grouting and FBG
temperature sensors were placed at the middle and
bottom locations of drillholes.
12 Sensors & Actuators: A. Physical xxx (2016) xxx-xxx

1. Measured parameters, pile types, sensor types and the related pack-
aging methods are summarized in this table. It is seen FBG sensors are
adopted for the measurement of strain and temperature distributions
of different types of piles, including marine pile, driven pile, preten-
sioned high-strength concrete (PHC) pipe pile, etc. Most researchers
adopted epoxy resin to adhere bare FBG sensors straightly along a pre-
cial supports by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central
Universities (Project No: 15D110153 and 15D110136).
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cables along piles. This is similar to the packaging methods of FBG
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or drillholes for the measurement of strain or temperature.
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OO
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ED
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CT
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The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests.
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