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Abstract
The various desalination methods are analysed with respect to their primary energy con-
sumption, sea-water treatment requirement and equipment cost. From this analysis, the mul-
tiple-eect boiling evaporator is concluded to be the most suitable method for stimulation by
solar energy. The parabolic-trough solar-collector is selected mainly due to its ability to
function at high temperatures with high eciency. The design of the ash vessel and the
desalination system circuit are presented. System modelling is used to predict the rate of fresh
water produced by four sizes of systems, varying from small 10 m2 to large 2160 m2 collector-
area applications. The economic analysis performed, showed that prices of about 0.89 C/m2
can be achieved with the larger applications. Nevertheless, it is not cost eective to operate the
system solely on solar energy due to the relatively high cost of the equipment and the high
percentage of inactive time. # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Nomenclature
CR Concentration ratio
d Market discount-rate (%)
FR Heat-removal factor
I Beam solar radiation (W/m2)
In Test intercept of collector performance graph
N Number of years
n Thermal eciency
no Optical eciency
S Test slope of collector's performance graph
0306-2619/98/$see front matter # 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S030 6-2619(98)0001 8-X
66 S. Kalogirou/Applied Energy 60 (1998) 6588
Abbreviations
1. Introduction
increase the amount of fresh water and reduce the concentration of salts to around
500 ppm [1].
Solar distillation has been practised for many generations. According to Malik et
al. [1], the earliest documented work is that of an Arab alchemist in the 15th century,
as reported by Mouchot in 1869. Mouchot stated that the Arab alchemist had used
polished Damascus mirrors for solar distillation. The great French chemist Lavoisier
(1862) used large glass lenses, mounted on elaborate supporting-structures, to con-
centrate solar energy on the contents of distillation asks [1]. The use of silver- or
aluminum-coated glass reectors to concentrate solar energy for distillation was also
been described by Mouchot.
Solar stills were the rst to be used in large-scale, distilled-water production. The
rst water-distillation plant constructed was a system built at Las Salinas, Chile, in
1874 [1,2]. The still covered 4700 m2 and produced up to 23 000 litres of fresh water
per day (4.9 litre/m2) in clear sky conditions. The still was operated for 40 years and
only abandoned after a fresh-water pipe was installed to supply water to the area
from the mountain region.
The use of solar concentrators in solar distillation was reported by Pasteur (1928) [1],
who used a concentrator to focus solar rays onto a copper boiler containing water. The
steam generated from the boiler was piped to a conventional water-cooled condenser
in which distilled water was accumulated. Renewal of interest in solar distillation
occurred soon after the First World War, during which several new devices had been
developed, such as the roof-type, tilted-wick, inclined-tray and inated stills.
Desalination can be achieved by using several techniques. These may be classied
into the following categories: (i) phase-change or thermal processes and (ii) mem-
brane or single-phase processessee Table 1 . In the phase-change or thermal pro-
cesses, the distillation of sea water is achieved by utilising a heat source. The thermal
energy may be obtained from a conventional fossil-fuel source, nuclear energy or
from a non-conventional solar-energy source. In the membrane processes, electricity
is used either for driving high pressure pumps or for ionisation of salts contained in
the sea water.
Desalination processes require signicant quantities of energy to achieve separa-
tion. This is highly signicant as it is a recurrent cost which few of the water-short
Table 1
Desalination processes
areas of the world can aord. Many countries in the Middle East, because of oil
income, have enough money to invest and run desalination equipment. People in
many other areas of the world have neither the cash nor the oil resources to allow
them to develop in a similar manner. According to Marinos et al. [3] and Morris and
Hanbury [4], the installed capacity of desalinated water systems in 1990 reached 13
million m3/day, which, by the year 2000, is expected to double. The dramatic
increase in desalinated water supply will create a series of problems, the most sig-
nicant of which are those related to energy consumption. It has been estimated that
a production of 13 million m3 of portable water per day requires 130 million tons of
oil per year. Even if oil were much more widely available, could we aord to burn it
on the scale needed to provide everyone with fresh water? Given the current under-
standing of the greenhouse eect and the importance of CO2 levels, this use of oil is
debatable. Thus, apart from satisfying the additional energy-demand, environmental
pollution would be a major concern. If desalination is accomplished by conventional
technology, then it will require the burning of substantial quantities of fossil fuels.
Given that conventional sources of energy are polluting, sources of energy that are
not polluting will have to be used. Fortunately, there are many parts of the world
that are short of water but have exploitable renewable-energy sources that could be
used to drive desalination processes.
Solar desalination is used in nature to produce rain, which is the main source of
fresh-water supply. Solar radiation falling on the surface of the sea is absorbed as
heat and causes evaporation of the water. The vapour rises above the surface and is
moved by winds. When this vapour cools down to its dew point, condensation
occurs and fresh water precipitates as rain. All available man-made distillation sys-
tems are small scale duplications of this natural process.
Solar energy can be used for sea-water desalination either by producing the ther-
mal energy required to drive the phase-change processes or by generating the elec-
tricity required to drive the membrane processes. Solar-desalination systems are thus
classied into two categories, i.e. direct and indirect collection-systems. As their
name implies, direct-collection systems use solar-energy to produce distillate directly
in the solar collector, whereas in indirect collection systems, two sub-systems are
employed (one for solar-energy collection and one for desalination). Conventional
desalination systems are similar to solar systems because the same type of equipment
is applied. The prime dierence is that in the former, either a conventional boiler is
used to provide the required heat or mains electricity is used to provide the required
electric power, whereas in the latter, solar energy is applied.
2. Desalination-process selection
During the design eect, there is a need to select a process suitable for a particular
application. The factors to be considered during such a selection are:
Solar energy can generally be converted into useful energy either as heat, with
solar collectors and solar ponds, or as electricity, via photovoltaic cells. Both meth-
ods have been used to power desalination systems. The direct collection systems can
only utilise solar energy whenever it is available, and their collection is inecient.
Alternatively, in the indirect collection systems, solar energy can be collected, by
more-ecient solar collectors, and be in the form of hot water or steam. It should be
noted, however, that solar energy is only available for almost half of the day. This
implies that the process operates for only half the time available unless some storage
device is used. The latter, which is usually expensive, can be replaced by a back-up
boiler or electricity from the grid in order to operate the system during low-insola-
tion periods or during the night. When such a system operates without thermal
buering, the desalination sub-system must be able to follow a variable energy sup-
ply, without upset.
The energy required for various desalination-processes, as obtained from a survey
of manufacturers' data, is shown in Table 2. It can be seen, from Table 2, that the
process with the smallest energy requirement is RO with energy recovery. But this is
only viable for very large systems due to the high cost of the energy-recovery tur-
bine. The next lowest is the RO without energy recovery and the MEB system. A
comparison of the desalination equipment cost and the sea-water treatment
requirement as obtained from a survey of manufacturers' data, is shown in Table 3.
The cheapest of all the systems considered is the solar still. This is a direct-collection
system, which is very simple to construct and operate. The disadvantage of this
process is the very low yield, which implies that large areas of at ground are required.
It is questionable whether such a process can be viable unless cheap desert-like land is
Table 2
Energy consumptions of desalination systems
Table 3
Comparison of desalination plants
available near the sea. The MEB system is the cheapest of all the indirect collec-
tion systems and also requires the simplest sea-water treatment. RO, although
requiring a smaller amount of energy, is expensive and requires a complex sea-
water treatment.
One alternative, which is usually considered for solar-powered desalination, is to
use an RO system powered with photovoltaic cells. This is more suitable for inter-
mittent operation than the conventional distillation processes and has higher yields
per unit of energy collected. According to Zarza et al. [5], who compared the RO
powered by photovoltaic-generated electricity with MEB plant coupled to parabolic
trough collectors:
1. The total cost of fresh water produced by an MEB plant coupled to parabolic
trough collectors is less than that of the RO plant with photovoltaic cells, due
to the high cost of the photovoltaic-generated electricity.
2. The highly reliable MEB plant operation makes its installation possible in
those countries with high insolation levels, but lacking in experienced person-
nel. A serious mistake during the operation of a RO plant can ruin its mem-
branes: these plants must be operated by skilled manpower.
1. Energy economy as the brine is not heated to above its boiling-point as in the
MSF process. This leads to inherently less irreversibilities in the MEB process
as the vapour is used at the temperature at which it is generated.
2. The feed is at its lowest concentration at the highest plant temperature, so that
scale formation risks are minimised.
3. The feed ows through the plant in series and, as the maximum concentration
only occurs at the last eect, the worst boiling-point elevation is conned to
this eect.
4. The other processes have high electrical demands, because of the recirculation
pump in the MSF or the vapour compressor in the VC systems.
5. MSF is prone to equilibrium problems, which reect themselves in a reduction
in PR. In MEB plants, the vapour generated in one eect, is used in the next
and PR is not subject to equilibrium problems.
6. Plant simplicity is promoted by the MEB process as less eects are required to
give a certain PR.
Therefore, the MEB process appears to be the most suitable to be used with solar
energy. The temperature required for the heating medium is between 70 and 100 C
and can be achieved with low-pressure steam.
From the many types of solar collectors developed, three types merit further con-
sideration for steam generation: the parabolic-trough collector (PTC), the com-
pound parabolic collector (CPC) and the at-plate collector (FPC). The rst one is a
tracking collector, whereas the last two are stationary. PTCs are generally of med-
ium concentration ratio (1540) whereas CPCs are generally of low concentration
ratios (1.55). The low concentration-ratios of the latter allow them to work without
a need for tracking of the Sun.
4. Reecting surfaces require less material and are structurally simpler than at-
plate collectors. For a concentrating collector, the cost per unit area of the
solar collecting surface is therefore less than that of a at-plate collector.
5. Owing to the relatively small area of receiver per unit of collected solar energy,
selective surface treatment and vacuum insulation to reduce heat losses and
improve the collector eciency are often economically viable.
From both equations, it can be concluded that the eciency of a concentrating col-
lector depends on the optical eciency (no ) which is determined by the optical
properties of the various materials used in the construction of the collector and the
magnitude of the heat losses, as indicated by the second term in Eq. (1). The
advantage of concentrating collectors is that the heat losses are inversely propor-
tional to the concentration ratio (CR). The standard collector-performance can be
indicated by the corresponding straight line, whose slope and intercept are then
indications of performancesee Eq. (3):
T
n In S 3
I
collectors. This means that the eciency in the PTCs remains high at high inlet-
water temperatures. Therefore, at a temperature of 100 C, which occurs at a T=I
value of about 0.1, PTCs work at an eciency of about 62%, CPCs at about 32%
and the FPC at about 10%. This clearly suggests that the PTC is the best type of
collector for this application.
Table 4
Parabolic-trough collector specications
These steam-generation methods are analysed here with respect to the system's
simplicity, capital-cost and stability.
is irreversibly dissipated across the ash valve. When boiling occurs in the collectors,
as in an in-situ boiler, the system pressure-drop and consequently, the electrical-
power consumption, are greatly reduced. In addition, the latent heat-transfer pro-
cess minimizes the temperature rise across the solar collector. Disadvantages of in-
situ boiling are the possibility of stability problems [14] and the fact that, even with a
very good feedwater treatment system, scaling in the receiver is unavoidable.
In multiple-row collector arrays, the occurrence of ow instabilities could result in
loss of ow in the aected row. This in turn could result in tube dryout with con-
sequent damage of the receiver's selective-coating. No signicant instabilities were
reported by Hurtado and Kast [13] when experimentally testing a single row 120 ft
system.
76 S. Kalogirou/Applied Energy 60 (1998) 6588
level in the ash vessel constant, would then ``dilute'' the system temperature
and possibly result in instabilities.
The height of the ash vessel should also be kept to a minimum, which in combi-
nation with the right steam velocity would avoid the possibility of ``contamination''
of the steam with water droplets (i.e. carry-over). Furthermore, a reduced vessel
height and hence a consequent reduction in the system's thermal capacity, will lead
to a faster response of the system. In an earlier report [15], the problem of system
optimisation through variation of the ash-vessel's design was studied in detail. The
optimal ash vessel design parameters for a system with a collector area of 10 m2 are
shown in Fig. 5.
The circuit must be able to carry the sea-water from the sea to the MEB evap-
orator and return the rejected brine back to the sea. These two streams must be
remote from each other to avoid potential mixing problems. The circuit diagram,
shown in Fig. 6, gives details of only the intake stream. Whenever possible, the
intake from a well next to the coast line is preferred because as the water passes
through the sand it is ltered. The water, after passing through a lter is directed to
the MEB evaporator's last eect, to cool the steam produced in the previous eect.
Part of this water is then returned to the sea as warm brine and part as feedwater
directed to the evaporator's top eect after a scale inhibitor is ejected (see Fig. 7). In
Fig. 6, the solar collectors and the steam-generation system-piping layout is also
shown. A back-up boiler is also shown in Fig. 6. This is necessary for the operation
of the evaporator during days of low insolation and/or during the night. As can be
seen from Fig. 6, no complicated controllers are required as reported by Meaburn
and Hughes [16]. This is because the steam delivery temperature is constant (i.e.
dependent on the evaporator pressure) and the operation of the boiler can be con-
trolled by a simple thermostat located at the pipe before the ash vessel. The same
principle applies for the operation of the boiler during day-time (back-up of the
solar system) and night-time.
Of the various types of MEB evaporators, the Multiple Eect Stack (MES) type is
the most appropriate for solar-energy application. This features several advantages,
the most important of which is the stable operation between virtually zero and
100% output, even when sudden changes are made, as well as its ability to follow a
varying steam supply without upset. In Fig. 7, a four-eect MES evaporator is
shown. Sea-water is sprayed into the top of the evaporator and descends as a thin
lm over the horizontally-arranged tube-bundle in each eect. In the top (hottest)
S. Kalogirou/Applied Energy 60 (1998) 6588 79
eect, steam from the solar-collector system condenses inside the tubes. Because of
the low pressure created in the plant by the vent ejector system, the thin sea-water
lm boils on the outside of the tubes, so creating new vapour at a lower temperature
than the condensing steam.
The sea-water falling to the oor of the rst eect is cooled by ashing through
nozzles into the second eect, which is at a lower pressure. The vapour made in the
rst eect is ducted into the inside of the tubes in the second eect, where it con-
denses to form part of the product. Again, the condensing warm vapour causes the
cooler external sea-water lm to boil at the reduced pressure.
The evaporationcondensation process is repeated from eect-to-eect down the
plant, creating an almost equal amount of product inside the tubes of each eect.
The vapour made in the last eect is condensed on the outside of a tube bundle
cooled by raw sea-water. Most of the warmer sea-water is then returned to the sea,
and a small part is used as feedwater to the plant. After being treated with acid to
destroy scale-forming compounds, the feedwater passes up the stack through a series
of pre-heaters that use a little of the vapour from each eect to gradually raise its
temperature, before it is sprayed into the top of the plant. The water produced from
each eect is ashed in cascade down the plant so that it can be withdrawn in a cool
condition at the bottom of the stack. The concentrated brine is also withdrawn at
the bottom of the stack.
The MES process is completely stable in operation and automatically adjusts to
changing steam conditions, even if they are suddenly applied, so it is suitable for
load-following applications. It is a once-through process that minimises the risk of
scale formation without incurring a large chemical-scale dosing cost. The typical
product purity is less than 5 ppm TDS and does not deteriorate as the plant ages.
Therefore, the MEB process and in particular the MES-type evaporator appears to
be the most suitable to be used with solar energy.
6. System modelling
The modelling program is used to predict the quantity of the steam produced by
the collector and the ash vessel, and subsequently the amount of desalinated water
produced by the various systems. The principle of operation of the program is that it
employs the values of the solar radiation and ambient-air temperature from a
reference year developed previously [17]. The values of the solar radiation are cor-
rected hourly for the collector's inclination.
In the analysis, a representative day for each month is taken as shown in Table 5.
These are chosen because the value of extraterrestrial solar-radiation is closest to the
month's average for that day [7].
Table 5
Average day of each month
7. System economics
year is required for which the performance values given in Section 6 are used. The,
analysis is performed annually and costs for the following are evaluated: Water cost,
mortgage payment, maintenance cost, pumping cost, fuel cost, (if any), tax savings,
system annual cost.
In equation form, the annual cost for either solar or non-solar systems to meet an
energy need can be expressed as:
System annual cost mortgage payment maintenance cost pumping cost fuel cost
water cost fuel savings tax savings
4
Finally, the present worth (PW) of the system annual cost is expressed as:
System Annual Cost
PW 5
1 d N
where d market discount rate, N number of years.
The price of water per cubic metre is a variable in the calculation. In the analysis,
this unit price is varied until the LCS of the system gives a value close to zero. This can
be considered as the price of water at which there is no loss or gain from the system.
It can also be considered as the water price that the owner of the system could
charge in order to sell the water without losing money, i.e. the market cost of water.
The economic scenario used in the analysis is to pay 30% of the cost of the sys-
tems in advance and the remaining 70% in equal instalments over the life of the
system. It is also estimated that the system is sold at the end of its life at 30% of the
initial cost (i.e. its resale value).
The mortgage payment is the annual sum of money required to cover the funds
borrowed at the beginning to install the system. This includes interest and principal
payments. The estimation of the annual mortgage payment can be found by dividing
the amount borrowed by the Present Worth Factor (PWF). The PWF is estimated
Table 7
Parameters, aecting the chosen design
by using the ination rate equal to zero (i.e. equal payments) and with the market
discount rate equal to the mortgage interest rate taken as (9%).
In Cyprus, the law allows a 20% investment allowance as an incentive to owners
to build up new businesses and an annual 10% wear-and-tear allowance for ten
years. Both allowances are calculated with respect to the total investment cost.
The cost parameters of the various systems investigated are divided into two
categories, one for the collector and one for the desalination system. The costs of the
collector systems are tabulated in Table 8, together with the costs of the circulation
pump and the ash vessel, as well as the installation labour cost. The costs of the
desalination equipment associated with each application are tabulated in Table 9
together with the performance ratio (PR) of each evaporator, the costs of other
auxiliary equipment, and labour costs to install the plant and the piping from the sea
to-and-from the evaporator. The desalination plant capacity is determined by the
maximum steam capacity of the solar system.
The economic analysis is performed for three types of operation mode. The rst
one is for the system operated solely with conventional fuels, the second is for the
system operated solely with solar energy and the third is a combination of the two,
Table 8
Parabolic-trough collector system costs
Cost (C)
Item (10 m2) (60 m2) (540 m2) (2160 m2)
i.e. system operation with solar energy during day-time and conventional fuel during
night-time. Diesel fuel in Cyprus is subsidised by the Government. The normal price
of such fuel is double the today's price: therefore, in addition to the normal water
price (calculated when using the subsidised fuel price), the water price for the non-
subsidised fuel cost is calculated in the present analysis. The results of the economic
analysis are shown in Table 10, from which it can be seen that the operation of the
system solely with solar energy is not cost eective mainly due to the high cost of the
required equipment and the high percentage of the inactive time. The fuel only sys-
tem gives somewhat better results for the small-area applications, whereas the same
is correct for the combined system and the large-area applications. It should be
noted though that a signicant dierence occurs in the cases where non-subsidised
fuel cost is considered in the analyses.
Table 9
Desalination system-cost parameters (from manufacturers' data)
10 60 540 2160
Table 10
Water prices for the various applications considered
Fuel only 1.97 2.99 1.09 1.68 0.89 1.39 0.88 1.37
Solar only 6.70 6.70 3.32 3.32 2.43 2.43 2.28 2.28
Combined 2.20 3.00 1.13 1.60 0.89 1.29 0.87 1.28
Table 11
Eects of the desalination and solar cost on water price
+20 +10 10 20
An analysis was carried out to investigate the sensitivity of the economic model
and the eects of the variations of the various parameters on the water price. The
base gure is considered to be the full fuel back-up system for the 540 m2 case, which
from Table 10 gives a value of C0.89/m3.
The eects of the area dependent and independent costs, i.e. solar and desalina-
tion systems, are shown in Table 11. The dierence in water price for 20% variation
is about 8%, which is a reasonable gure.
The doubling of the rate of increase of electricity and fuel price gives 3.4 and 2.2%
increases in the unit water price, respectively. The reduction of the initial payment to
zero imposes a reduction of 1.1% on the water price, whereas the elimination of any
resale value leads to an increase of 3.4%. Finally, the modication of using the
original analysis with only a 10-year mortgage recovery gives an increase of 1.9%.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the water prices given in this section
reect the true costs and their variation, due to possible change in the direct costs
and method of payment are relatively insignicant.
Lately, in Cyprus there is a trend to liberate the bank interest rates. The Govern-
ment declares that this is imposed by the European Union countries in view of
Cyprus wishing to join the Union. In such a case, the market discount rate would be
reduced to 6%. Such a change will reduce even further the water costs by 1.1%.
Further tax benets are provided in sectors of the economy that the Government
wants to promote, like the purchase of automation systems. This benet is the return
of 100% wear-and-tear allowance at the end of the rst year as if the equipment has
a life of only 1 year. This is an extra incentive for enterprise owners to upgrade their
businesses. As Cyprus is potentially facing a water-shortage problem, the author
believes that such an incentive should be given to solar desalination as well. This will
result in a reduction of the unit water price by 4.3%.
8. Conclusions
Solar desalination can be viable for the two bigger installations considered. The
unit water cost is insensitive to changes in the method of payment or to variations in
S. Kalogirou/Applied Energy 60 (1998) 6588 87
direct costs. However, it is not usually worth operating the desalination system
solely on solar energy due to the high cost of the desalination system and the high
percentage of inactive time.
The author believes that even in cases where the fuel only systems result in lower
or equal water prices compared with a solar-plus-fuel system, the solar alternative
should not be abandoned because as it was proven a possible increase in fuel price
turns the system viability in favour of the solar system. The issues of global warming
and climate change resulting from the increase in greenhouse gases due to the
burning of fuels should not be underestimated. According to a world-wide accep-
table scenario of human activities, an increase in global average temperature by
0.3 K per decade will occur [21].
Although water prices above the ones charged by the various water boards in
Cyprus (about 0.50 C/m3) have been obtained from the presented analysis, the
author believes that the present system oers some benets which should not be
underestimated. In particular, security of supply is very important to the hotel
industry with Cyprus endeavouring to upgrade its tourist facilities. Most of the
hotels in Cyprus have stand-by generators installed for security of electricity supply.
Based on the same principle, the author believes that water supply should be treated
the same way.
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