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2003

Investigation of postweld heat treatment of

quenched and tempered pressure vessel steels
Zoran Sterjovski
University of Wollongong, zoran@uow.edu.au

Recommended Citation
Sterjovski, Zoran, Investigation of postweld heat treatment of quenched and tempered pressure vessel steels, PhD thesis, Materials
Engineering, University of Wollongong, 2003. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/464

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 INVESTIGATION

OF

POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT

OF

QUENCHED AND TEMPERED

PRESSURE VESSEL STEELS

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of

the requirements for the award of the degree

Doctor of Philosophy

from

The University of Wollongong

by

Zoran Sterjovski, M.E. (Hons), B.E. (Hons)

Materials Engineering
2003
 ii

CANDIDATES CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work presented in this thesis has been carried out by the
candidate whilst enrolled as a full time postgraduate student in the Department of
Materials Engineering, at the University of Wollongong. The results obtained in this
study and the conclusions drawn are those of the candidate. The work contained in this
thesis has not been submitted to any other university or institution for a higher degree.

..
Zoran Sterjovski
 iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to acknowledge my supervisor, Professor Druce Dunne, for his guidance, support
and inspiration during my PhD candidature. It was a great pleasure working with him
again and I will miss him when I re-enter the workforce.

I also wish to thank the WTIA, CRC for Welded Structures, Bisalloy Steels, BHP Steel,
The Lincoln-Electric Company (Australia) and ANSTO for their expertise and extensive
use of facilities. A special thanks to:

Stan Ambrose (WTIA) for his co-supervision, input and encouragement,

Geoff Hancock (BHP Steel) for his support and in-kind contributions,

Andrew Croker (ANSTO) for his input into my research,

David Carr (ANSTO) for teaching me everything about CTOD testing,

Russel Barnett (Bisalloy Steels) for his committed in-kind support and technical
expertise, and

Milo Dumovic and Chris Jones (Lincoln Electric) for their in-kind support and
technical expertise.

I am indebted to CCI Pope Pty Ltd for their financial and technical support during my
candidature. A special thankyou to Dr Chris Tabrett and Mike OBrien.

I am also grateful to all the members of the Faculty of Engineering at the University of
Wollongong. In particular, I must thank Jose Gonzales for his quality workmanship in
the preparation of samples for mechanical testing and Greg Tillman for his acumen in
the metallography laboratory.

Last but not least, I must thank my beautiful wife, Anne-Marie, and my beautiful
daughters, Mikaela and Neve, for putting up with me during the good and the bad that
are part of doing a PhD.
 iv

ABSTRACT

Longitudinal and circumferential welds in transportable pressure vessels are produced

by submerged-arc welding using a single vee preparation and multiple weld runs.
Quenched and tempered (QT) steels, which are commonly used for transportable
pressure vessels, require mandatory postweld heat treatment (PWHT) regardless of the
plate thickness. During their life transportable pressure vessels may have up to four
PWHT cycles, and concerns have emerged about possible effects on material properties
such as hardness, tensile strength, impact toughness and fracture toughness.

This thesis reports on the weld procedure, microstructural evaluation and various
mechanical properties (bend, yield strength, tensile strength, elongation, fatigue, impact
toughness, CTOD fracture toughness and hardness) for 11 mm, 12 mm and 20 mm QT
steel weldments. The 11 mm and 20 mm base plates investigated were BIS80PV, which
is a pressure vessel grade steel. The 12 mm plate was BIS80, which is structural grade
steel but deemed a possible candidate for pressure vessels due to superior impact and
fracture toughness properties over currently used QT pressure vessel steels. The parent
metal, heat affected zone and weld metal regions of each weldment were examined, and
then exposed to temperatures and times in the PWHT range.

Although there was no apparent change in microstructure at an optical level and little
change in hardness for up to four postweld heat treatments, there was a marked decrease
in hardness of the parent metal for more extensive heat treatments (increasing Holloman
parameter). There was also evidence of minor secondary hardening in the 11 mm and 20
mm BIS80PV parent plate following short heat treatment times. The weld metal (WM)
and HAZ hardness typically decreased with one PWHT cycle and subsequently
stabilised with further PWHT cycles.

For all test plates, results are also presented for Charpy V-notch impact tests in the
parent metal, HAZ and weld metal region, and CTOD fracture toughness tests in the PM
region. The effect of exposure to multiple PWHT cycles on these properties is
discussed. A decrease in impact energy and fracture toughness with an increase in the
 v

number of heat treatments was evident in the parent metal. In contrast, the weld metal
showed a decrease in impact energy after two PWHT cycles, and then an increase
towards the original impact energy after a further two cycles.

In PM samples, which have been extensively tempered in the manufacturing process, the
mechanism by which toughness properties are affected by cumulative PWHT holding
time is through the coarsening and coalescence of second phase carbide particles. These
particles decrease impact energy by the formation of larger voids in the plastic zone
ahead of the crack tip or by the initiation of cleavage fracture. These two phenomena
decrease the energy required for fracture.

In WM with an as-solidified structure, ductile failure in the form of void coalescence is

initiated by non-metallic inclusions. This leads to an initially high impact toughness,
which then decreases after PWHT because of the nucleation and coarsening of
metastable Fe3C precipitates that promote quasi-cleavage type fracture. Upon exposure
to further PWHT cycles the impact energy begins to increase again due to the
dissolution of the metastable carbides and the formation of finer, more stable carbides
based on elements such as Cr, Mo, Ni and Nb. This change in the form of the carbide
promotes localised fracture by micro-plasticity, with void formation and coalescence.

Additionally, cross-weld root bend (180) and tensile tests were carried out before and
after PWHT. None of the bend samples showed any evidence of cracking or tearing,
hence confirming the ductility of the weldment. The tensile properties of the BIS80PV
cross-weld samples complied with the Australian Standards, but the tensile properties of
the BIS80 cross-weld samples only complied in the as-welded condition.

Tensile properties of the PM showed no significant trends with the number of PWHT
cycles and the fatigue crack growth rate increased slightly in relation to the number of
PWHT cycles or PWHT holding time.

One of the primary roles of PWHT is to reduce residual stresses caused by the welding
process. Residual stress measurements using the hole drilling method were made to
 vi

ascertain the need for PWHT. Residual stresses, measured in the weld centre-line by the
hole drilling technique, were compressive along both the longitudinal and transverse
directions and were no greater than 250 MPa (between 0.2-0.5 times the yield strength at
room temperature). Although, the presence of residual stresses (tensile and compressive)
of greater magnitude is not excluded, the residual stress measurements demonstrated
that PWHT significantly reduced the magnitude of the residual stresses.

The ability to predict the impact energy of a pressure vessel steel subjected to various
cumulative PWHT holding times is beneficial to pressure vessel inspectors, who are
misguidedly instructed to be wary of the mechanical properties of vessels after 6 hours
of cumulative PWHT holding time. The original impact energy of the steel, which is
determined by its chemical composition, microstructure and thermo-mechanical
treatment determines the cumulative PWHT time before the impact properties of the QT
steel decrease below the specified 40 J limit at 20C. An artificial neural network
(ANN) model has been developed using an artificial neural network to predict the effect
of PWHT time and other variables such as composition and test temperature on impact
energy. This ANN model provides a valuable design tool for predicting impact
toughness as a function of composition, heat treatment and testing conditions.

Finally, the performance of BIS80 was evaluated and its superior impact toughness and
fracture toughness properties over BIS80PV were confirmed. However, the tensile
properties of postweld heat-treated 12 mm BIS80 cross-weld samples did not comply
with AS3597, the Australian Standard for QT steels; and the PM stress ratio exceeded
the specified limit of 0.93. These deficiencies could be remedied by (i) discarding
PWHT or (ii) using a high strength WM; and (iii) abandoning or relaxing the stress ratio
requirement, which is of questionable significance, under conditions of high strain rate
impact loading (road collision).
 vii

ABBREVIATIONS

BM Base metal

CGHAZ Coarse grained heat affected zone

CTOD Crack tip opening displacement

Crack tip opening displacement

DBTT Ductile to brittle transition temperature

FAS Fracture acceleration site

FGHAZ Fine grained HAZ or grain refined HAZ

FL Fusion line

GTAW Gas tungsten arc welding

n Resistance to fatigue crack growth

HAZ Heat affected zone

HP Holloman parameter or Holloman-Jaffe parameter

IE Impact energy

ICHAZ Intercritical heat affected zone

LE Lateral expansion

MMAW Manual metal arc welding

No. Number

OM Optical microscopy

PE Processing element

PM Parent metal

PS (0.2%) 0.2% proof stress

PWHT Postweld heat treatment

 viii

QT Quenched and tempered

RIA Reduction in area

RMS Root mean square

RR Reduction ratio

Stress

SAW Submerged arc welding

SEM Scanning electron microscopy

t Time

T Temperature

T-L, L-T, T-S, L-S Sample orientation (see Figure 3.6)

UTS Ultimate tensile strength

VHN Vickers hardness number

W Delta rule

WM Weld metal

YS Yield strength
 ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS
 x

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

ABBREVIATIONS vii

CONTENTS ix

PART A INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 2

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT & RESIDUAL STRESSES 8

2.1.1 Postweld heat treatment 8
2.1.2 Residual stresses 10
2.1.2.1 Residual stresses related to welding 13
2.1.3 Effect of PWHT on residual stresses 19
2.1.4 Stress relieving to reduce residual stresses 20
2.1.4.1 Heat treatment as a form of stress relief 20
2.1.4.2 Mechanical methods of stress relief 21
Overloading 22
Vibrational Techniques 22
Shot Peening 23
2.1.4.3 Temper beading as a method of stress relief 23
2.1.5 PWHT in Australian Standards and Codes 24
2.1.5.1 Current Overview 24
2.1.5.2 Historical Overview 26
2.1.6 Methods for measuring residual stresses 27
2.1.6.1 Stress relaxation techniques 28
2.1.6.2 X-ray diffraction & neutron scattering techniques 29
2.1.6.3 Observing cracks to measure residual stresses 30
2.1.6.4 Ultrasonic residual stress measurements 31
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2.2 PRESSURE VESSELS- DESIGN, MANUFACTURE & CASE 32

STUDIES
2.2.1 Introduction to pressure vessels 32
2.2.2 Parts of a transportable pressure vessel 33
2.2.3 Case studies of failures in transportable pressure vessels 34
2.3 MATERIALS IN TRANSPORTABLE PRESSURE VESSELS 36
2.3.1 Quenched and tempered Steels (BIS80PV) 36
2.3.1.2 Effect of alloying elements on BIS80PV 39
Carbon 39
Manganese 39
Silicon 39
Molybdenum 40
Chromium 40
Boron 40
Titanium 40
Nickel 41
Copper 41
Calcium, Sulphur & Phosphorous 41
2.3.2 Welding of QT pressure vessel steels 41
2.3.2.1 Typical welding processes used in manufacturing processes 43
Manual metal arc welding 43
Gas metal arc welding 45
Fluxed core arc welding 46
Submerged arc welding 47
2.3.2.2 The different zones as a result of welding 48
Parent metal 49
Heat affected zone 49
Weld metal 50
2.3.3 Desirable properties for transportable pressure vessel steels 51
2.3.3.1 Fracture & impact toughness 51
2.3.3.2 Other desirable properties 59
2.3.4 Techniques for measuring fracture & impact toughness 60
2.3.4.1 CTOD test 60
2.3.4.2 Charpy V-notch impact test 62
2.3.4.3 Ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBBT) 63
2.4 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE 64
 xii

PART B EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 67

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 68

3.1 MATERIALS SELECTION AND WELDING 69

3.1.1 Materials selection 69
3.1.2 Welding process and weld procedures 70
3.2 SIMULATED PWHT 73
3.2.1 Box furnace heat treatment 73
3.2.2 Dilatometer heat treatment 74
3.3 MECHANICAL TESTING 76
3.3.1 Hardness testing 76
3.3.2 Bend testing transverse guided bend test of weldment 78
3.3.3 Impact testing Charpy V-notch 79
3.3.4 Tensile testing parent plate and cross-weld specimens 84
3.3.5 Fatigue testing crack growth rates 87
3.3.5.1 Testing of 11 and 12 mm samples 89
3.3.5.2 Testing of 20 mm samples 90
3.3.6 Fracture toughness testing - CTOD 92
3.3.6.1 Sample preparation 93
3.3.6.2 Fatigue pre-cracking 93
3.3.6.3 CTOD the test 94
3.3.6.4 Post test procedure CTOD value qualification 96
3.4 MICROSCOPY 98
3.4.1 Low magnification microscopy 98
3.4.2 Optical microscopy 98
3.4.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 98
3.5 RESIDUAL STRESSES 100
3.5.1 Hole drilling technique for measuring residual stresses 100
3.5.2 Stress relaxation testing 100

CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 103

4.1 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS 104

4.1.1 Weld macrographs 104
4.1.2 Parent metal (PM) microstructures 106
4.1.3 Weld metal (WM) microstructures 113
4.1.4 HAZ microstructures 117
4.1.5 Effect of PWHT on microstructure 119
 xiii

4.2 HARDNESS 122

4.2.1 Parent metal region 122
4.2.2 Weldment (cross-weld samples) 124
4.3 BEND TEST RESULTS CROSS-WELD SAMPLES 130
4.4 IMPACT TESTING CHARPY V-NOTCH 132
4.4.1 Parent metal region 132
4.4.1.1 PM test results 132
4.4.1.2 PM microstructure 140
4.4.2 Weld metal region 147
4.4.2.1 WM test results 147
4.4.2.2 WM microstructure 150
4.4.3 Heat affected zone 155
4.4.3.1 HAZ test results 155
4.4.3.2 HAZ microstructure 156
4.4.4 Comparison of the weldment zones 158
4.4.4.1 Test results 158
4.5 TENSILE TESTING 160
4.5.1 Parent metal region 160
4.5.2 Cross-weld samples 162
4.5.3 Comparison of PM and cross-weld specimens 163
4.6 FATIGUE CRACK GROWTH DATA (PM) 164
4.7 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS (CTOD) DATA PM 166
4.7.1 11 mm BIS80PV PM 166
4.7.2 12 mm BIS80 PM 167
4.7.3 20 mm BIS80PV PM 168
4.7.4 Comparison of CTOD values for the three plate steels 169
4.7.5 SEM fractography of CTOD PM samples 170
4.8 RESIDUAL STRESSES 174
4.8.1 Hole drilling technique 174
4.8.2 Stress relaxation data 175
 xiv

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 178

5.1 THE NEED FOR PWHT IN ACHIEVING WELDMENT 180

PROPERTIES
5.1.1 Microstructure and hardness 181
5.1.2 Bend testing 184
5.1.3 Impact and tensile testing 184
5.2 THE EFFECT OF MULTIPLE PWHT CYCLES ON 187
WELDMENT PROPERTIES
5.2.1 Microstructure and hardness 187
5.2.2 Impact toughness 190
5.2.2.1 Parent metal 190
5.2.2.2 Weld metal 199
5.2.2.3 HAZ 201
5.2.3 Tensile testing 203
5.2.4 Fatigue crack growth and CTOD fracture toughness 206
5.3 THE NEED FOR PWHT IN REDUCING RESIDUAL STRESSES 209
5.4 SUITABILITY OF BIS80 AS PRESSURE VESSEL STEEL 212

PART C MODELLING 216

CHAPTER 6 NEURAL NETWORK MODELLING 217

6. PREAMBLE 218
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO NEURAL NETWORKS 218
6.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 219
6.3 PROCEDURE-BUILDING, TRAINING, TESTING, AND 224
VALIDATING THE MODEL
6.3.1 Data file preparation 224
6.3.2 Building the model 226
6.3.3 Training the model 231
6.3.4 Testing the model 231
6.3.5 Results (experimental versus predicted and sensitivity analysis) 232
6.4 RESULTS 233
6.4.1 Actual versus predicted impact toughness 233
6.4.2 Sensitivity analysis of the model 234
6.5 DISCUSSION 240
6.5.1 Actual versus predicted impact toughness 241
6.5.2 Sensitivity analysis 241

PART D OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND REFERENCES 246

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS 247

CHAPTER 8 REFERENCES 251

 xv

PUBLICATIONS 267

APPENDICES 265

Appendix A 266

Appendix B 270

Appendix C 275

Appendix D 277

Appendix E 279

Appendix F 283

Appendix G 290

Appendix H 293

Appendix I 298