1.

FORGING DEFECTS

Micro Cracks
Forging of steel is completed at fairly high temperature (800-9000C). When
forgings are cooled from forging temperature residual stresses are developed due to
deformation. As a result micro cracks are developed. These cannot be seen with
naked eyes. When are forgings are cooled from high temperature, the difference of
temperature between the surface and core is developed. This causes internal
stresses because the surface of forging cools and contracts considerably than hotter
region. When internal stress increases the tensile strength cracking occurs.

Defects in hammer forging

a) Poor quality of stock
b) Improper heating
c) Incorrect forging conditions
d) Wrong forging methods
e) Uneven cooling of stock after forging

Surface defects
a) Deep cracks
b) Tears
c) Cavities
d) Burnt grain boundaries
e) Coarse grain structure

Cracks
a) Improper heating in case of alloy steels.
b) Forging at low temperature
c) Employment of incorrect forging methods
d) Improper cooling of alloy steel forgings
Hair line Cracks
a) Defects in metal
b) Too rapid cooling of forgings
Slags, sand and porosity
a) forging at low temperature
b) bad quality ingot
c) burning of grain boundaries due to improper heating
Pitting
It is due to incomplete cleaning of dies.

Laps
It is due to excessive gripping of dies for scale.

Die Shift or Mismatch

Dies must be tightened up time to time before they get loose.

Incomplete filling of dies

Insufficient number of blows during forging
Low temperature of forging

Dents
When the stock is improperly inserted in die
When hot forming are thrown from place to place.
When forgings are badly trimmed.
When forging sticks to top die and fall on lower die.

Surface Cracks
Surface will crack due to excessive working at low temperatures.
High sulphur content in atmosphere.

Cold Shut
Cold shut or fold, due to flash or fin from prior forging steps is forced into the
work piece. An error that occurs as metal folds over itself during the forging
process. A cold shut commonly occurs where the vertical and horizontal surfaces
meet.
Internal cracking, due to secondary tensile stress.
2. EXTRUSION DEFECTS
1) Inhomogeneous deformation in direct extrusion provide the dead
zone along the outer surface of the billet due to the movement of the metal
in the centre being higher than the periphery.
After 2/3 of the billet is extruded, the outer surface of the billet (normally
with oxidised skin) moves toward the centre and extrudes to the through
the die, resulting in internal oxide stringers. - transverse section can be
seen as an annular ring of oxide.
Container wall friction increases extrusion defects increases
Container wall temp decreases extrusion defects increases

2) Surface cracking
ranging from a badly roughened surface to repetitive transverse cracking called fir-
tree cracking, see Fig. This is due to longitudinal tensile stresses generated as the
extrusion passes through the die.

Surface cracks from heavy die friction in extrusion

In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually is intergranular and is

associated with hot shortness.
The most common case is too high ram speed for the extrusion
temperature.
At lower temperature, sticking in the die land and the sudden
building up of pressure and then breakaway will cause transverse
cracking.

3) Centre burst or chevron cracking, see Fig, can occur at low extrusion
ratio due to low frictional conditions on the zone of deformation at the extrusion
die.

Centre burst or chevron cracks

High friction (at a the tool-billet interface) a sound product.

Low friction centre burst.

4) Variations in structure and properties within the extrusions

due to non-uniform deformation for example at the front and the back of the
extrusion in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
Regions of exaggerated grain growth see Fig, due to high hot working
temperature.

5) Hot shortness (in aluminum extrusion).

 Hot shortness
High temperatures generated cause incipient melting, which causes cracking.

3. Deformation of Tubing
The pressure required to produce extrusion is dependent on the way metal flows in
the container and extrusion dies. Also certain defects which occur in extrusion are
directly related to way the metal deforms during the process.

The above figure represents the flow patterns produced by the deformation of a
square grid network for direct extrusion through a flat die.
Figure a. shows the extrusion of a well lubricated billet in which the billet slides
along the container wall.
Deformation in the billet is relatively uniform till until close to the die entrance.
Here the center part of the billet moves more easily through the die than the metal
along the container wall. At the corners of the die there is a dead metal zone. This
is nothing but stagnation of metal which undergoes little deformation.
Elements at the center of the billet undergo essentially pure elongation in the
extruded rod, which corresponds to the change in cross section from billet to
extrusion. Elements near the sides of the billet undergo excessive shear
deformation.

The shear deformation that occurs over much of the cross section of the extruded
rod requires an expenditure of energy which is not related to change in dimension
from the billet to extrusion. This redundant work is chiefly responsible for large
discrepancy between actual extrusion pressure and the extrusion pressure
calculated on the basis of ideal deformation.

If there is high friction between billet and container wall severe shear deformation
will occur in billet as well as in the flow of metal through die. Since the velocity of
metal at the center of billet is higher there is a tendency for metal to pile up along
the wall and eventually it will move toward the center of billet. This gives rise to
extrusion defect. If the shear resistance of metal along the container wall is lower
than the frictional stress, the metal will eventually separate along the container this
region and a thin skin of metal will be left in the container.
The non homogenous flow through an extrusion die can be modified by the
changing the die angle. Decreasing the die angle of a conical so that it approaches
The natural angle for flow through a flat die results in less shear deformation.

4. Determination of stock size in forging (open and

close dies)
Determination of stock size for closed die forging operations.
Vstock = Vforging +Vscale +Vflash+Vtongue hold and sprue+Vshear

Vforging is calculated from drawing.

Vflash=PWT cm3 or mm3
P=Perimeter of the forging along which the flash is located
W= av. Width of the flash.
T=av. Thickness of the flash.
When calculating the cross sectional dimensions of the bar stock for drop forging
without upsetting, it is to be ensured that the cross sectional area of the stock is 10
to 15 % higher that of finished forging.

Open die forging

Winitial=Wf+Ws+Wc+Wt kgs
Wf=wt. of forgings
Ws= wt. of scale loss
Wc=wt. of cropped ends
Wt=wt. of trimming scraps

Scale loss is 2 to 3% of billet weight for each heating.

5. Extrusion of tubing

To produce tubing by extrusion from a solid billet, the ram may also be fitted with
a piercing mandrel. As the ram moves forward, the metal is forced over the
mandrel and through the hole in the die, causing a long hollow tube. Just like
toothpaste, only hollow.
To produce tubing by extrusion from a solid billet, the ram may also be fitted with
a piercing mandrel. As the ram moves forward, the metal is forced over the
mandrel and through the hole in the die, causing a long hollow tube. Just like
toothpaste, only hollow.
Note: the bore of the hole will become oxidized resulting in a tube with an
oxidized inside surface.
Eg. Extrusion tubing with a porthole die

A sketch of a porthole extrusion die

Porthole extrusion Example: pyramid porthole dies

The metal is forced to flow into separate streams and around the central bridge,
which supports a short mandrel.
The separate streams of metal which flow through the ports are brought together in
a welding chamber surrounding the mandrel, and the metal exits from the die as a
tube.
Since the separate metal streams are jointed within the die, where there is no
atmosphere contamination, a perfectly sound weld is obtained.
Porthole extrusion is used to produce hollow unsymmetrical shapes in aluminum
alloys.