CHAPTER V

PROCESS / CHEMICAL DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS

5.1 PROCESS / CHEMICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR R-1

5.1.1 Introduction

The industrial chemical processes convert raw materials to products in reactor is

often considered as the heart of plant. The selection and design of the reaction units
are essential for economics success of chemical industry, imposing final yield and
conversions. The exothermic neutralisation process between ammonia and nitric acid in
a plug flow reactor (PFR) to produce ammonia nitrate is widely used in fertilizer
industries.

; H = - 146 kJ/mol

The PFR model is used to describe chemical reactions in continuous and

flowing systems. The PFR model is used to predict the behaviour of chemical reactors
so that key reactor variables such as the dimensions of the reactor can be estimated.
PFR are also sometimes called continuous tubular reactors (CTR).

Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) and PFR have fundamentally different
equations so the kinetics of the reaction being undertaken will to some extent determine
which system should be used. However there are a few general comments that can be
made with regards to PFR compared to other reactor types.

Plug flow reactors have a high volumetric unit conversion, run for long periods of
time without maintenance and the heat transfer rate can be optimized by using more,
thinner tubes or fewer, thicker tubes in parallel. Disadvantages of plug flow reactors are

70
that temperatures are difficult to control and can result in undesirable temperature
gradients. PFR maintenance is also more expensive than CSTR maintenance.

The design procedure of plug flow reactor will take account several
considerations like continuous process, chemical process design and mechanical
design of reactor. The chemical process designs are focusing on determination of rate
of reaction of reactor, volume of the reactor and residence time. The mechanical design
will cover on all aspect such as thickness of vessel and specification and selection of
material used. This plug flow reactor is designed to produce ammonia nitrate with a
maximum capacity of 100,000 metric tonnes with the maximum temperature at the exit
of the reaction zone is set in the range of 180 oC - 190 oC (Brandt, 1994).

The assumptions taken in this design are as follows:

i. Instantaneous reaction occurred in the reactor.

ii. The reactor behaves like ideal condition (complete mixing reactor).
iii. There is no temperature gradient inside the reactor

Figure 5.1 Schematic Diagram of Plug Flow Reactor (PFR)

(Source: Plug Flow Reactor Model. Retrieved on 17 January 2011.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_flow_reactor_model)

71
 Figure 5.2: Process Flow Diagram for Reactor Unit (R-1)

5.1.2 Determination of Rate Constant

Rate constanat for this reaction can be determined by using Arrhenius equation as
below:

(5.1)

Where:

The parameters of dissociation constant of ammonium nitrate are as follows (Journal of

Hazardous Material 165, 2009):
Activation energy,
Pre-exponential factor,

From Eqn. (5.1),

72
5.1.3 Determination of Concentration of Reactant

Table 5.1: Properties of Feed Component of reactor R-1

Molar
Liquid Vapour
Molecular Mass Vapour Mass Flow Flow
Component Flow Rate Flow Rate
Weight Fraction Fraction Rate (kg/hr) Rate
(kg/hr) (kg/hr)
(kmol/hr)
Ammonia 17.03 0.2388 0.8228 459.1627 2132.7220 2591.8840 152.1952
Water 18.016 0.3021 0.0560 3095.4650 183.6293 3279.0940 182.0101
Nitric Acid 63.02 0.4306 0.1203 4110.7880 561.9213 4672.7090 74.1465
Ammonium 80.05 0.0285 0.0285 308.8026 0.0924 308.8950 3.8588
Nitrate
Total 1.0000 1.0000 7074.2183 2878.3650 10852.5800 412.2106
Source: Mass balance from Design Project 1

By assuming ammonia as an ideal gas, density of ammonia can be calculated by using

ideal gas law equation,

(5.2)

(5.3)

Parameter for Eqn. (5.3) as follow:

73
Density of Ammonia (Gaseous Phase)

Density of Nitric Acid (Vapour Phase)

Density of Water (Vapour Phase)

Density of Ammonium Nitrate (Vapour Phase)

Density Mixture of Vapor (Gas) Phase

(5.4)

74
Volumetric Flow Rate (Vapour and Gas Phase)

(5.5)

Volumetric Flow Rate (Liquid Phase)

(5.6)

Where:

ith component
ith component

Parameter for Eqn. (5.6) as follow:

75
 (5.7)

Density Mixture of Stream

(5.8)

Thus, concentration of ammonia is calculated by using formula below:

(5.9)

(5.10)

76
Concentration of nitric acid also can be calculated using formula below:

(5.11)

(5.12)

5.1.4 Determination of Rate of Reaction

Materials in two separate phases must contact with each other before any reaction can
occur, so the rate expression become as follow (Octave Levenspiel, 1999. Chemical
Reaction Engineering):

(5.13)

Where:

77
 (5.14)
(5.15)

Concentration of ammonia and nitric acid after 0.9 percent conversion occur as below:

The parameters for Eqn. (5.13) are obtained from the earlier calculation as below:

Substitute the parameters into Eqn. (5.13),

5.1.5 Determination of Reactor Volume

The volume of plug flow reactor is calculated by using formula below:

(5.16)

Where:

78
5.1.6 Determination of Reactor Residence Time

The calculation of reactor residence time is shown below (Octave Levenspiel, 1999.
Chemical Reaction Engineering):

(5.17)

Where:
V, is the volume of the reactor
, initial volumetric flowrate

hr

5.1.7 Determination of Reactor Diameter and Length

By taking ratio of length to diameter as minimum at 3, thus the length and diameter of
the reactor are calculated based on this reference (US Pattern 4,927,617. 20 May
1990. Process of Producing Concentrated Solutions of Ammonium Nitrate).

(5.18)

Where:
D, is diameter of the pipe reactor
L, is length of pipe reactor

79
By using simultaneous equation solve,

-----------------(a)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------(b)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------(c) insert to equation (a)

Hence, L = 3D

5.1.8 Design of Reactor Jacket

For cooling purpose of the reactor, a conventional jacket is installed outside the reactor
since it most commonly used type jacket. It consists of an outer cylinder which
surrounds part of the vessel. The heating or cooling medium circulates in the annular
space between the jacket and vessel walls and the heat is transferred through the wall
of the vessel. The spacing between the jacket and vessel wall will depend on the size
of the vessel, but will typically range from 50 mm for small vessels to 300 mm for large
vessels (R.K. Sinnot, 1999. Chemical Engineering Design).

(5.19)

(5.20)

80
Rearrange Eqn. (5.20),

V=

Thus,

V= (5.21)

By assuming ,

(5.22)

(5.23)

Properties of cooling water at ,

81
From Eqn. (5.21),

V=

0.6 =

= 197.1308 kg/s

By assuming that amount of heat absorbed by the cooling water is equal to the amount
of heat generated by the neutralization process by 80 % efficiency with H = - 146
kJ/mol,

(5.24)

(5.25)

(5.26)

(5.27)

Properties of mixture at

82
Viscosity Correlation,

NH3 = 9.715 x 10-3 Pa.s

HNO3 = 0.4873 Pa.s
NH4NO3 = 2.3 x 10-3 Pa.s

(5.28)

= 0.2134 + 0.2362 + 0.0305

Density Correlation,
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3

(5.29)

kg/m3

Thermal Conductivity Correlation,

= 3.231 x 10-2 W/m.k
= 0.4516 W/m.k
= 0.07647 W/m.k

(5.30)

W/m.k

83
Heat Capacity Correlation,
= 36.68 J/kg.k
= 100.4 J/kg.k
= 213 J/kg.k

(5.31)

(5.32)

W/m2.k

Properties of cooling water at ,

(5.33)

W/m2.k

(5.34)

W/m2.k

84
 (5.35)

Therefore, the area required for the design of cooling jacket is .

Table 5.2: Summary of chemical design of reactor R-1

Type of reactor Plug flow reactor (Pipe reactor)

Rate constant, m3/(kmol.hr) 0.2956
Rate of reaction, kmol/(m3.hr) 0.7235
Volume of reactor, m3 189.3128
Diameter of reactor, m 4.3151
Length of reactor, m 12.9453
Material of construction Stainless steel 304
2
Area of jacket, m 82.1362
Residence time, s 2451.7052

85
5.2 PROCESS / CHEMICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR R-2

5.2.1 Introduction

In ammonium nitrate production, the raw materials used are gaseous ammonia
and liquid nitric acid. The ammonia purchased from the supplier is not originally in the
gaseous form. Therefore, ammonia should be converted into gaseous form before the
neutralization reaction can occur. To perform this operation, heat exchanger is
required. Heat exchanger also been used to heated up nitric acid to 65 0C. The
neutralization takes place in the plug flow reactor and the reaction takes place is

In industrial chemical processes, the reactor is the equipment that does the
conversion process of raw materials to the desired product. All the reaction will takes
place in the reactor and is often considered as heart of plant. Plug flow reactors have
a high volumetric unit conversion, run for long periods of time without maintenance and
the heat transfer rate can be optimized by using more, thinner tubes or fewer, thicker
tubes in parallel. Disadvantages of plug flow reactors are that temperatures are hard to
control and can result in undesirable temperature gradients. PFR maintenance is also
more expensive than CSTR maintenance.

The design procedure of plug flow reactor will take account several
considerations like continuous process, chemical process design and mechanical
design of reactor. The chemical process designs are focusing on determination of rate
of reaction of reactor, volume of the reactor and residence time. The mechanical design
will cover on all aspect like thickness of vessel and specification and selection of
material used. This plug flow reactor is design to produce ammonia nitrate with a
maximum capacity of 100,000 metric tons with the maximum temperature at the exit of
the reaction zone is set in the range of 180 oC - 190 oC (Brandt, 1994).
The design assumption should be taken before design as below:

a) Plug flow
b) Steady state
c) Constant tube diameter
d) Single reaction
e) Instantaneous reaction occur

86
 5.2.2 Design Basis

The Plug Flow Reactor has been choosen as the reactor in this project
because the capabilities to react different phase of component which in this project
phases involved are in the gaseous form and liquid form. The reactor must capable to
convert the unconverted gaseous ammonia from first Plug Flow Reactor. The
conversion of ammonia should be essentially 90%. The composition of the product
must be controlled to maximise the concentration of ammonium nitrate and minimise
the unconverted of reactor feed.
The feeds available at 185 0C and 65 0C from first Plug Flow reactor and
Splitter and should leave reactor at 185 0C. The reactor should be able to withstand a
high temperature that has been release from the reaction since the reaction is
exothermic reaction.

5.2.3 Design Parameter

The final design must specify all dimensions to enable the reactor to be
constructed. Initially, this requires that the normal operating conditions should be fully
specified in terms of flows, temperatures, pressures and compositions.Essentially this
is the chemical engineering design. The design parameters which requires evaluation
at this stage are:

a) Volume of reactor

b) Tubes (length, diameter, heigth, layout, wall thickness, total volume, number of
tubes).

87
 From PFR 100

Flow 10313.2838 kg/hr

Pressure 650 kPa

0
Temperature 185 C

PFR 101

Nitric Acid (Aq) Feed Ammonium Nitrate (Product)

Flow 7787.8489 kg/hr Flow 18101.1327 kg/hr

Pressure 800 kPa Pressure 650 kPa

0
Temperature 65 0
C Temperature 185 C

Figure 5.3 Plug flow reactor

88
5.2.4 Stream Identification

Table 5.3: Inlet stream from Plug Flow Reactor 100 at temperature of 185 0C (Vapor
fraction values taken from HYSYS)

Vapor flow molar

Mol. Vapor Liquid flow flow mass flow
Component wt% mole% rate
Wt fraction rate (kg/hr) (kg/hr)
(kg/hr) (kmol/hr)

Ammonia 17.03 12.8876 0.2432 24.0683 323.2149 1005.9248 78.0469 1329.1397

Water 18.016 30.2051 0.5190 53.3222 1616.6328 1498.506753 172.9096 3115.1396

Ammonium
80.05 56.9072 0.2379 22.6095 1396.0249 4472.9796 73.3167 5869.0045
nitrate

100 1 100 3335.8726 6977.4111 324.2733 10313.2838

Table 5.4 Inlet stream from splitter at temperature of 65 0C

molar flow mass flow

Component Mol. Wt wt% mole%
(kmole/hr) (kg/hr)

Nitric acid 63.02 60.0000 30.0120 74.1465 4672.7093

Water 18.016 40.0000 69.9880 172.9096 3115.1396

89
 Table 5.5: Stream combination (Vapor fraction values taken from HYSYS)

Mol. wt mole Vapour Vapour flow Liquid flow molar flow mass flow
Component
Wt fraction fraction fraction rate (kg/hr) rate (kg/hr) (kmol/hr) (kg/hr)

Ammonia 17.03 0.0734 0.1366 0.2328 309.4237 1019.7160 78.0470 1329.1397

Water 18.016 0.3442 0.6053 0.4007 2496.4729 3733.8063 345.8192 6230.2792

Ammonium
80.05 0.3242 0.1283 0.3506 2057.6730 3811.3315 73.3167 5869.0045
nitrate

Nitric acid 63.02 0.2581 0.1298 0.0159 74.2961 4598.4132 74.1465 4672.7093

1.0000 1.0000 1 4937.866 13163.2670 571.3294 18101.1327

5.2.5 Density of Mixture

Determination of mixture density of stream is paramount important. For this reactor,

inlet stream to the reactor having two phases which are liquid and vapor phase. So,
vapor-liquid equilibrium must be taking into consideration for design purposes.
Equations listed below will be used in order to determine the mixture density of inlet
stream

Density for vapor phase

Where

= Pressure of the system, Pa

= Molecular weigth of ith component, g/mol

= Gas constant, m3.Pa/(mol.K)

= Temperature of the system, K

90
Density mixture of vapour phase (gas)

= Density of ith mixture (component)

Density mixture of liquid phase

: Mass fraction of ith component

: Density of ith component

Density of ammonia (gas)

Assume ammonia is an ideal gas.

Data required to performed calculation

Pressure : 650000 Pa

Temperature : 458.15 K

Gas constant : 8.314 m3.Pa/(mol.K)

Molecular weight : 17.03 g/mol

Density of ammonia

91
Density of nitric acid (vapor phase)

Data required to performed calculation

Pressure : 650000 Pa

Temperature : 458.15 K

Gas constant : 8.314 m3.Pa/(mol.K)

Molecular weight : 63.02 g/mol

Density of nitric acid vapor

Density of water (vapor phase)

Data required to performed calculation

Pressure : 650000 Pa

Temperature : 458.15 K

Gas constant : 8.314 m3.Pa/(mol.K)

Molecular weight : 18.016 g/mol

Density of water vapour is

92
Density of ammonium nitrate (gas)

Data required to performed calculation

Pressure : 650000 Pa

Temperature : 458.15 K

Gas constant : 8.314 m3.Pa/(mol.K)

Molecular weight : 80.05 g/mol

Density of ammonium nitrate vapour

Density mixture of vapor (gas) phase

Density mixture of liquid phase

Data required to performed calculation (Values for mass fraction was taken from
HYSYS)

Density of liquid ammonia : 682 kg/m3

Mass fraction : 0.0774

Density of water : 1000 kg/m3

Mass fraction : 0.2837

Density of ammonium nitrate : 1720 kg/m3

Mass fraction : 0.2895

93
Density of nitric acid : 1502 kg/m3

Mass fraction : 0.3493

From equation 5.3. Density mixture of liquid phase is

5.2.6 Volumetric Flow Rate

Volumetric flow rate of vapour phase and liquid phase must be determining for design
purposes because its effect on the reactor volume. Below listed the equation that will
be used to determine volumetric flow rate of each phases

Volumetric flow rate of vapour phase (gas phase)

Volumetric flow rate of liquid phase

Total volumetric flow rate

Where

= Volumetric flow rate of liquid phase, m3

= Volumetric flow rate of vapour phase, m3

94
Volumetric flow rate (vapor and gas phase)

From equation 5.35

Data required to performed calculation

Total mass flow rate of vapor phase = 4937.866 kg/hr

Density mixture = 30.3948 kg/m3

Therefore,

Volumetric flow rate (liquid phase)

From equation 5.36

Data required to performed calculation

Total mass flow rate of vapor phase = 13163.2670 kg/hr

Density mixture = 1834.1566 kg/m3

Therefore,

Ratio vapour-liquid

Where

= Volumetric flow rate of liquid phase, m3

95
 = Volumetric flow rate of vapour phase, m3

Therefore from equation 5.38,

Where,

= Density of liquid, kg/m3

= Ratio of vapor liquid

= Density of vapor phase, kg/m3

Therefore from equation 5.39,

5.2.7 Molar Concentration

Below listed equations used to find molar concentration

Concentration of ith component in vapor phase

Where

= Molar flow rate of ith component in vapor phase, kmol/hr

= Volumetric flow rate of vapor phase, m3/hr

Concentration of ith component in liquid phase

96
Where

= Molar flow rate of ith component in liquid phase, kmol/hr

= Volumetric flow rate of liquid phase, m3/hr

Total concentration of ith component

Ammonia concentration

From equation 5.40,

= 18.169332 kmol/hr

= 162.458 m3/hr

Therefore,

From equation 5.41,

= 59.8776 kmol/hr

= 7.17674 m3/hr

Therefore,

From equation 5.42,

97
Nitric acid concentration

From equation 5.40,

= 1.17893 kmol/hr

= 162.458 m3/hr

Therefore,

From equation 5.41,

= 72.9675 kmol/hr

= 7.17674 m3/hr

Therefore,

From equation 5.42,

98
5.2.8 Reaction Rate

Main reaction:

Operating condition

Temperature : 458.15 K

Pressure : 650 kPa (Pressure of stream)

Reactant Conversion : 0.9 (Taken from carnit process)

Activation energy : 1.03x105 J/mol (Taken from carnit process)

Pre-exponential factor : 4.55x107 (k0)

Gas constant : 8.314 J/mol.K or 0.08206 m3.atm/kmol.K

Reaction order : Second order (Taken from carnit process)

Where
= rate constant, m3/kmol.hr
= Concentration of ammonia after 0.9 conversion, kmol/m3
= Concentration of nitric acid after react with ammonia, kmol/m3

Concentration of ammonia after 0.9 conversion given,

Where
= Concentration of ammonia before 0.9 conversion, kmol/m3
= Conversion of ammonia

Concentration of nitric acid after react with ammonia given,

Where
= Concentration of nitric acid before reaction, kmol/m3

99
 = Concentration of ammonia before 0.9 conversion, kmol/m3
= Conversion of ammonia

Determination of component left after 0.9 percent conversion occur.

Ammonia
From equation 5.44, therefore

Nitric acid
From equation 5.45, therefore

Substituting value into the reaction rate equation (equation 5.43)

5.2.9 Reactor Volume and Retention Time

Where

From equation 5.46, therefore

Retention time

100
 Where

Therefore,

Specified space time

5.2.10 Tube Design

For design purpose, 2 in. stainless steel pipes with schedule number of 40 are chosen
because commonly used in industry, most preferred for most duties, as they will give
more compact, and therefore cheaper, exchangers. The properties of the pipe are
stated as below:

Data required to performed calculation

Properties taken from Pressure Vessel Handbook 10th edition

All properties based on ASME, 1972 (Refer to Appendix A.1)

Outside diameter = 2.735 in

Inside diameter = 2.067 in

Wall thickness = 0.154 in

Weight per foot = 3.652 lbf

Weight of water per foot pipe = 1.452 lbf

Tube length = 15 m

For use of a longer tubes will reduce the shell diameter; which will generally result in a
lower cost exchanger, particularly for high shell pressure. So, the length of 15 m was
taken as tubes length because commonly used in industry.

101
The number of tube required by using equation below

Where

= Volume of reactor, m3

= Diameter outlet of tube, m

= Length of tube, m

Form equation 5.48. Therefore

Tube Stability Checking

Area of tube,

Average volumetric flow rate in each tube

Superficial velocity through tubes,

102
Retention time

The distance passed by the fluid

Therefore the selected length of pipe is long enough for reaction to complete 90 per
cent conversion before leaving the reactor.

Tube Sheet Layout

For one pass shell and tube arrangement of squares, k1 = 0.215 and n1 =2.207. One
pass shell has been chosen as tube design because commonly used arrangement. The
diameter of the file, Db can be estimated using the following equation:

Where

= Number of tube

= Outside diameter of tube, m

Table 5.6: Constant for use in equation 5.49

103
From equation 5.49. Therefore,

From Figure 12.12 (R. K. Sinnot volume five), Appendix A.2 with a floating head and
pull, the clearance between the shell file can be determined by the extrapolation
method graph.

Shell inside diameter-bundle diameter, = 0.50 m

Shell diameter, Ds = = 4.80 m

The distance between the baffle, = = 1.92 m

Number of baffle required = = 7.8 = 8

Square pitch, = 1.25 d0 = 0.0868 m

Graph Plot

By plotting the graph, trend of the reaction could be established. But this is not the
exact values that happen in the process but it is only estimation method to show the
concentration changing by conversion of product, reaction rate and conversion versus
length of reactor.

Table 5.7: Data for conversion, concentration of ammonia (CA), concentration of nitric
acid (CB), rate of reaction (rA), volume (V) and length of reactor.

Conversion,
CA CB (rA) 1/rA V, m3 Length, m
X

0 8.45510 10.1745 25.4294 0.0393 0.0000 0.00

0.1 7.60959 9.3290 20.9846 0.0477 0.3719 0.05

104
 0.2 6.76408 8.4835 16.9624 0.0590 0.9202 0.13

0.3 5.91857 7.6380 13.3629 0.0748 1.7522 0.25

0.4 5.07306 6.7925 10.1859 0.0982 3.0649 0.45

0.5 4.22755 5.9470 7.4317 0.1346 5.2510 0.76

0.6 3.38204 5.1014 5.1001 0.1961 9.1819 1.33

0.7 2.53653 4.2559 3.1911 0.3134 17.1205 2.49

0.8 1.69102 3.4104 1.7048 0.5866 36.6256 5.32

0.9 0.84551 2.5578 0.6393 1.5643 109.8738 15.00

Concentration of reactant versus conversion

9.0 12.0
Concentration of reactant, kmol/m3

8.0
10.0
7.0
6.0 8.0
5.0
6.0
4.0 NH3
3.0 4.0 HNO3
2.0
2.0
1.0
0.0 0.0
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
Conversion

Figure 5.4: Graph of concentration of reactant versus conversion

105
 Reaction rate versus concentration of NH3
30

25

20
rA,kmol/m3.hr

15

10

0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00
Concentration of NH3, Ca

Figure 5.5: Graph of reaction rate versus concentration of ammonia (NH3)

Conversion versus length of reactor

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Conversion

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
Length along reactor, m

Figure 5.6: Graph of conversion versus length of reactor

106
Sample of Calculation

Taking number of step is 9. The step number is to determine the values at certain
position. Greater number of step will produce persistent values of data.

For this calculation, the consideration to the number of step is given to the conversion
of the reactant since all the values such as reaction rate, volume and length is
conversion dependent.

X at 0.1 conversions

Concentration of ammonia (CA) and nitric acid (CB)

Reaction rate of ammonia (rA)

The reaction constant for the process would be constant through the reactor. So k is
0.2956 m3/kmol.hr

Volume of the reactor at particular reaction rate

Length at 0.1 conversions

107
5.2.11 Cooling System

The reaction takes place in the reactor is neutralization and it is exothermic process.
The heat of reaction for the neutralization process is concentration of nitric acid
dependent. The temperature outlet from the reactor for Carnit process has specified to
185 0C. Actually the heat out from the reactor is extremely hot which means higher than
the temperature out specified by Carnit. So, the cooling system is needed in order to
maintain specified temperature out. In the Carnit process given the amount of energy
release due to neutralization reaction which is 1.3231x106 kJ/s. But the temperature out
from reactor for Carnit process is not dependent to the heat release by the reaction, it
has been set up to 185 0C. So, the cooling system needed since the exothermic
process releasing heat. From the energy balance done in design project 1, amount of
energy release from system is 7.22586x103 kJ/s for 185 0C temperature outlet for
reactor. Water has been chosen as cooling medium because water has higher specific
heat capacity, density and thermal conductivity. This allows water to transmit heat over
great distances with much less volumetric flow rate and reduce temperature difference.

The difference amount of energy release

The amount of energy needs to be transferred to water system is 1.3159x106 kJ/s.

Water is selected as a cooling medium.

Heat capacity water = 4.2 kJ/kg.0C

Area for cross-flow,

= tube pitch, m

108
 = tube side outer diameter, m

= shell inside diameter, m

= baffle spacing, m

From equation 5.50.Therefore,

By taking velocity of water at tube side is 3 m/s

Therefore, from equation 5.51

Temperature out for shell side,

Where

= Mass flow rate of water, kg/s

= Heat capacity of water

= Temperature difference of water inlet and outlet, 0C

Rearrange equation 5.52 to find temperature outlet

109
5.2.12 Tube Side Coefficient

One passes of tube taken for reactor design. So, Tubes per passes =

Determination of viscosity of mixture

Water viscosity @ 155 0C = 0.180 cP

Ammonia viscosity @ 1550C = 0.0144 cP

Ammonium nitrate viscosity @ 155 0C = 1.3067 cP

Nitric acid viscosity @ 155 0C = 0.7 cP

Where

= Component mass fraction

= Component viscosity, cP

= Component mass flow rate, kg/hr

110
Therefore, from equation 5.23

CP mixture of solution (from energy balance)

111
Reynolds number,

= mass velocity, kg/s.m2

= tube diameter, m

= dynamic viscosity

Therefore,

Fluid thermal conductivity,

112
Where

= Component mole fraction

= Component thermal conductivity, W/m.K

Therefore,

Prandtl number,

Where

= Specific heat of mixture component, kJ/kmol.0C

= Dynamic viscosity of mixture component

= Thermal conductivity of mixture component

Therefore,

Nusselt number,

Where

= 0.027 for viscous liquids

= Reynolds number

= Prandtl number

113
Therefore,

Stanton number, St

Where

= Nusselt number

= Reynolds number

= Prandtl number

Therefore,

Inside coefficient, hi

Where

= Fluid thermal conductivity

= Reynolds number

= Prandtl number

= Stanton number

= inside diameter of tube

114
Therefore,

5.2.13 Shell Side Coefficient

Baffle spacing = 1.92 m

Tube pitch = 0.0868 m

Where

= Tube pitch

= Outer diameter of tube

= Inside diameter of shell

= Baffle spacing

Therefore,

Mass velocity, Gs

Equivalent diameter,

115
Mean shell side temperature,

Water density =

Viscosity = 0.696x10-3 N.s/m2

Heat capacity = 4.2 kJ/kg.0C

Thermal conductivity,

Reynold number,

Prandtl number,

Choose 25% baffle cut, from figure 12.29, refer to Appendix A.3

jh = 3.625x10-3

Without the viscosity correction term,

5.2.14 Pressure drop on the tube side

From figure 12.24, jf = 2.167x10-3

116
Neglecting the viscosity correction term

Where

= Dimensionless friction factor

= Density of fluid, kg/m3

= Fluid linear velocity, m/s

= Diameter inlet of tube, m

= Effective length, taking 25mm thickness of tube.

Therefore,

5.2.15 Pressure drop on the shell side

Linear velocity of water = 3m/s

From figure 12.30 (Refer Appendix A.4) at Re = 279557.6947

Neglect viscosity correction

117
Where

= Dimensionless friction factor

= Density of water, kg/m3

= Water linear velocity, m/s

= Equivalent diameter, m

= Baffle spacing, m

= Tube length, m

= Diameter inlet of shell, m

Therefore,

118
5.3 PROCESS / CHEMICAL DESIGN OF FALLING-FILM EVAPORATOR, F-1

5.3.1 Introduction

The purpose of evaporation is to concentrate a solution consisting of a non-

volatile solute and a volatile solvent. It happens by vaporizing a portion of the solvent to
produce a concentrated solution of thick liquor, where the thick liquor is the valuable
product and the vapour is condensed and removed.

Evaporators are usually heated by steam condensing on metal tubes and are
at low pressure, below 3 atm abs. It is often that the boiling liquid pressure is about
0.05 atm abs which is under moderate vacuum. By reducing the boiling temperature of
the liquid increases the temperature difference between the steam and the boiling liquid
thus increases the heat-transfer rate in the evaporator.

There are many types of evaporators; generally there are 8 types of

evaporator equipment, namely:

i. Open kettle or pan;

ii. Horizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator;
iii. Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator;
iv. Long-tube vertical type evaporator;
v. Falling-film type evaporator;
vi. Forced-circulation-type evaporator;
vii. Agitated-film evaporator;
viii. Open-pan solar evaporator.

119
5.3.2 Falling-Film Evaporator

Falling-film evaporator is a variation of the long-tube evaporator. It is long,

vertical, tubular exchangers with a vapour-liquid separator at the bottom and distributor
for the liquid at the top. The liquid enters the top of the equipment and flows downwards
caused by gravity inside the heated tubes as a thin film and leaves at the bottom. The
tube length ranges from 6 m to 11 m (20 ft to 36 ft) with diameters of 20 mm to 64 mm
(1 in to 2 in)1. This evaporator is usually used for concentrating highly heat-sensitive
materials such as fruit juice and milk that requires a minimum contact time to a heated
surface.
In the design of an evaporator, principal element needs to be considered are
heat transfer, vapour-liquid separation and efficient energy consumption. The heat
transfer happens in heating unit or called calandria. The vapour-liquid separation takes
place inside bodies, vapour heads or flash chamber.
The main setback of a falling-film evaporator is to distribute the liquid uniformly
as a film inside the tube. This is because; if the entire film heating surface, especially in
the lower regions, were not evenly and sufficiently wetted with liquid, dry spots will
occur that will lead to incrustation and the build-up of deposits. Therefore, a suitable
distribution system is selected for the head of the evaporator so that even distribution of
liquid is achieved.
The advantages of falling-film evaporator are that it is suitable for heat-
sensitive liquids and are well adapted to concentrating viscous liquid, have excellent
droplet separation, good heat transfer capability, high turndown ratio and low energy
consumption.
Evaporator chosen for concentrating ammonium nitrate solution is based on
the initial and final concentration of the solution2. Rising film multi-effect evaporator
units have been successfully employed for ranges below 70% and up to 80 85%
concentration. Conventional falling-film systems are chosen for 80 96%
concentrations and above 96%, falling-film with heated air-sweep is being used.

1
Types of evaporator, [online]
Source: http://www.fallfilmverdampfer.info/english/typesofevaporators.htm
2
Evaporator Handbook, [online]
Source: http://www.apv.com/pdf/catalogs/Evaporator_Handbook_10003_01_08_2008_US.pdf

120
 Thus, for this ammonium nitrate evaporator system that is intention to
concentrate to 83%, falling-film evaporator best suited. Not only has that, using a
falling-film evaporator had the following advantages for the purpose:
(i.) It is capable to give high heat transfer
(ii.) Ammonium nitrate is susceptible to explosion whether it is in liquid or solid form,
being a concentrated liquid increase the explosiveness of the solution itself. So,
having a minimum contact time is vital.

Figure 5.7: Schematic diagram of typical falling-film evaporator3

5.3.3 Methods of Operation

There are 2 methods of operation for evaporator, which are:
i. Single-effect evaporators
ii. Multiple-effect evaporators, can further classified as:
- Forward-feed
- Backward-feed
- Parallel-feed

3
http://help.syscad.net/index.php/Falling_Film_Evaporator

121
 Pump-1 Pump-2 E-1 E-2 R-1 R-2 Valve-1 S-1 V-1 Valve-2 E-3 F-1 E-4 F-2 V-3 E-5
V-2
Pump Pump Heat Heat Plug Flow Plug Flow Valve Separator Absorber Valve Heat Falling Film Heat Falling Film Absorber Heat
Absorber
exchanger exchanger Reactor Reactor exchanger Evaporator exchanger Evaporator exchanger

Vapor Outlet
Water Inlet
V-1
Water Inlet Water Inlet

Steam inlet E-1

Valve-1
P-1 R-1 R-2
Vapor Outlet
S-1
Steam Water Inlet V-2
Outlet Water Outlet
Water Outlet
Steam inlet E-2

Vapor Outlet
Liquid
Valve-2
Ammonia,
NH3 P-2 Water Inlet
Steam Inlet F-1
Steam Outlet
V-3

Concentration Section
Steam Outlet

Steam Outlet

Liquid Outlet

E-4 F-2

Product Outlet
Ammonium nitrate
97.5%

Figure 5.8: Process flow diagram showing concentration section.

In this ammonium nitrate production, referring to Figure 5.8 above, at the

concentration section applies forward-feed multiple effect evaporator which is double-
effect evaporation as its method of operation (refer to Figure 5.8). This requires two
evaporators to be connected in series; in this case F-1 and F-2. Fresh feed enters the
first effect, F-1 and flows to the next, F-2 in the same direction of vapour stream flow.
Connections between the two effects are made so that the vapour from one effect
serves as the heating element for the next effect. Each effect, in itself acts as a single-
effect evaporator and each has a temperature drop across its heating surface
corresponding to the pressure drop in that effect. This method of operation is used
when the feed is hot or when the final concentrated product might be damaged at high
temperatures.

122
 Figure 5.9: Double-effect Falling-film Evaporator
Source: Evaporation Technology, GEA Wiegand [online]

The advantage of using multiple-effect operation is that it recovers the latent

heat of the vapour from first effect and reusing it in the next, instead of discarding it in
single-effect operation. Thus, it is more cost-efficient and the energy consumption of
the overall system is reduced by about 50 %4.
Evaporation is affected by the characteristic of the solution to be
concentrated. Below are some of the most important characteristics of evaporating
liquid that is required in selecting the suitable evaporator as well as designing and
operating (McCabe et.al, 2005):
i. Concentration
ii. Viscosity
iii. Foaming
iv. Temperature Sensitivity
v. Scale
vi. Materials of Construction

4
Evaporation Technology,GEA Wiegand GmbH, http://www.geape.com.cn
/Evaporation%20Technology.pdf

123
 For ammonium nitrate, any organic impurity presence may be potential for
explosion, therefore extra low carbon stainless steels such as SS316 must be used for
heat transfer surfaces and the use of mineral oils for heating is excluded.

5.3.4 Performance of Falling-Film Evaporator

The performance of a steam-heated tubular evaporator can be measured by

determining its capacity, economy and steam consumption. Capacity is the number of
kilogram of water vaporized per hour. Economy is defined as the number of kilograms
vaporized per kilograms of steam fed to the unit. The steam consumption (kg/hr) equals
to capacity divided by the economy.

(a) Capacity

The capacity is nearly proportional to q, rate of heat transfer through the heating
surface of an evaporator. This happens when all the heat transferred through the
heating surface is available for evaporation and for this to be achieved the feed to the
evaporator is at the boiling temperature corresponds to the absolute pressure in the
vapour space.

(b) Economy

The economy of an evaporator is affected by the temperature of feed. That is if the feed
temperature is below the boiling point, the heating load will use part of the enthalpy of
vaporization and less heat load available for evaporation.

(c) Steam Consumption

Steam consumption is capacity divided by the economy with unit of kg/hr.

124
(d) Thermal Design Considerations

Few considerations need to be made with regards to the falling-film evaporator designs,
which are:
i. The choice of the most suitable tube for the liquid.
ii. The choice of the optimum tube bundle layout that depends on the number of
tubes and length, bundle width and height, tube pitch and layout.
iii. To select suitable distributor and place it so that uniform liquid distribution on
the top row of tubes in the bundle is achieved.

Under a given condition, determining the amount of heat to be transferred and

the rate of heat transfer at specified temperature difference is the main problem as it is
needed to make estimate calculation on the size and cost of an evaporator or any other
heat transfer equipment.

Table 5.8: Typical Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Various Evaporators

Source: (C.J. Geankoplis, 2003)
Type of Evaporator Overall U
2
W/m .K btu/h.ft2.oF
Short-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100 2800 200 500
Horizontal-tube, natural circulation 1100 2800 200 500
Long-tube vertical, natural circulation 1100 4000 200 700
Long-tube vertical, forced circulation 2300 11000 400 2000
Agitated film 680 2300 120 400

For a falling-film evaporator, overall heat transfer coefficient that can be used as
estimation is as of long-tube vertical, natural circulation with ranges of 1100 4000
W/m2.K.

125
5.3.5 Process Description

The equipment which is to be designed is falling-film evaporator, F-1. Referring

back to Figure 2.3, this equipment is used to concentrate the ammonium nitrate
solution from Separator 1, S-1 with a concentration of 72% wt% to 83 wt% which is
then collected and further concentrated in F-2. As shown in Figure 5.10, the reduced
pressure flashed feed solution, F from valve; V-2 enters F-1 at the top and flows
downwards as thin film in the heated tubes. The evaporation heat is supplied by steam.

As mentioned before, the Ammonium Nitrate production applies Carnit Process

which utilize forward feed double-effect falling film evaporator of F-1 and F-2 where F-1
as the primary concentrator or the first effect and F-2 as the secondary or last effect. In
designing the process unit of F-1 alone, single-effect calculation procedure can be
applied as each effect in a multiple-effect evaporator act as a single-effect evaporator.

Feed, F
P = 17.46kPa
Valve, V-2 TF = 74.05oC
xF = 0.72

Steam,S
P = 71.86kPa
TS = 110oC

F-1
F1

Vapour, V
P = 17.46kPa
Condensate, C
T1,= 81oC
P = 51.86kPa
TS = 90.83oC

Concentrated
Liquid, L
P = 17.46kPa
T1 = 81oC
xL,= 0.84

Figure 5.10: Schematic Diagram of Process in F-1

126
5.3.6 Design Procedure

The design of falling-film evaporator is common with single pass shell and tube
heat exchanger (as design heat transfer). However, the evaporation that occurs inside
the tube should not be neglected. The shell and tube calculation procedure is
calculated for heating unit of the evaporator. The vapour-liquid separator will be
designed separately. The design of falling evaporator is as explained below:

(a) Material and Heat Balance

Basic equation for solving capacity in a single-effect evaporator can be written as:

The equation above can be solved by making a heat and material balance on the
evaporator.

Feed, F
TF, xF,hF

Steam,S
TS, HS

F1

Vapour, V
T1, yV, HV
Condensate, C
TS, hS

Concentrated
Liquid, L
T1, xL, hL

127
 Figure 5.11: Schematic Diagram of F-1

Material Balance on F-1

Total balance:
Where:

F = Feed of the evaporator,

L = Concentrated liquid,

V = Vapour out of evaporator,

Balance on Solute:
Where:
xF = ammonium nitrate mass fraction in feed
xL = ammonium nitrate mass fraction in concentrated liquid

Heat Balance on F-1

Total heat entering = Total heat leaving

Heat in feed + Heat in steam = Heat in concentrated liquid + Heat in vapour +
Heat in condensed steam

Where:
hF = enthalpy of feed (J/kg)
HS = enthalpy of steam (J/kg)
hL = enthalpy of concentrated liquid (J/kg)
hS = enthalpy of condensate (J/kg)
= latent heat of steam at saturation temperature, Ts (J/kg)

128
Enthalpies for feed and product are often not available therefore; some approximation
can be made in order to perform heat balances which are as follows:
- Latent heat of evaporation of 1 kg mass of the water from an aqueous solution
can be obtained from the steam tables using the temperature of the boiling
solution, T1 (exposed surface temperature) rather than the equilibrium
temperature for pure water at P1.
- If the heat capacities cpF of the liquid feed and cpL of the product are known,
they can be used to calculate the enthalpies.

Assumptions:
i. No heat loss by radiation or convection
In evaporation, the solutions are not dilute solutions and therefore, the thermal
properties of the solution evaporated may differ from water. The concentrations of the
solutions are high enough that the heat capacity and boiling point are different from
water.

(b) Layout and Tube Size

The dimension of tubes and its arrangement is chosen best fit with the process and
complements the pressure drop and overall heat transfer coefficient. More tube sizes
can be seen in Appendix A.5.

Figure 5.12: Standard Tube Size for Steel. Source: (Sinnot R.K, Vol.6)

129
 Figure 5.13: Tube arrangement. Source: (Sinnot R.K, Vol.6)

(c) Bundle and Shell Diameter

Shell inside diameter, shell clearance

Where:
Db = tube bundle diameter
do = outer tube diameter
Nt = number of tubes
DS = diameter of shell
K1 , n1 = constants for tube layout (Refer to Appendix A.5)

(d) Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The overall heat transfer coefficient in an evaporator is composed of:

i. the steam-side condensing heat transfer coefficient, ho, usually taken as 5700
W/m2.K
ii. tube metal wall heat transfer coefficient, hw(high thermal conductivity and the
resistance are negligible);
iii. resistance of the scale on the inside and outside tube,; and
iv. the liquid film coefficient, hi
The liquid side coefficient is about the same as for film type condensation on a
vertical surface for falling film evaporator.

130
(e) Tube Side Pressure Drop,

Where:
Pt = tube-side pressure drop (N/m2 or Pa)
Np = number of tube-side passes
jf = dimensionless friction factor
L = length of one tube (m)
di = inside tube diameter (mm)

= density of liquid inside tube,

ut = tube-side velocity (m/s)

(f) Shell Side Pressure Drop,

Where:
de = shell-side equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter) (m)
lB = baffle spacing (m)
us = shell-side linear velocity (m/s)
jf = dimensionless friction factor
Ds = shell diameter (m)

(g) Evaporation Rate, r

Where:
= latent heat of condensation of steam (J/kg)

(h) Residence Time

Estimate the tubes top and bottom film thickness, :

131
Calculate the film velocity, u:

Average film velocity, :

Utop = velocity of fluid at the top of tube

Ubot = velocity of fluid at bottom of tube

Average Residence Time, t:

(i) Liquid Distributor

In evaporator, the distribution of liquid inside the tube is important so that the liquid
flows as a film inside the tube. This can be done using a set of perforated metal plates
above a carefully levelled tube sheet, by inserts in the tube ends or by spider
distributors with radial arms at which the liquid is fed in to the tube by spraying it inside
the surface of each tube.

Liquid

distributor

Tube-sheet

Liquid

distributor

Tube-sheet

Figure 5.14: Liquid Distribution System: Perforated plate (up), Tubelet (down)
Source: Evaporation Technology, GEA Wiegand [online]

132
(j) Physical Properties

Table 5.9: List of Physical Properties for Process

Feed, F Inlet Mean Outlet Units
o
Temperature, T 74.05 77.53 81.00 C
Specific Heat, cp 2.335 2.03 2.033 kJ/kg.oC
Thermal
0.0984 0.0904 0.0823 W/m.oC
Conductivity, k
Density, 1677.67 1674.09 1670.43 kg/m3
Viscosity, 0.00389 0.00389 0.00389 Pa.s
Steam Inlet Mean Outlet Units
o
Temperature, T 110 100.42 90.83 C
Specific Heat, cp 1.8923 1.888 1.884 kJ/kg.oC
Thermal
0.02602 0.02514 0.02426 W/m.oC
Conductivity, k
Density, 0.5815 0.5954 0.6093 kg/m3
Viscosity, 0.000013345 1.33E-05 1.33E-05 Pa.s

5.3.7 Design Calculations

(a) Material Balance:

Total balance:

Balance on Solute:

Solve for V,

133
(b) Heat Balance:

Assumptions:
i. The boiling point of 84 wt% concentrated AN solution is assumed to be at the
temperature of concentrated liquid, T1 = 81oC,
ii. Boiling point rise = T1 57.035 = 81 57.035 = 23.965 oC
iii. The boiling point of pure water at 17.46kPa is 57.035 oC.
iv. To calculate Hv,
The enthalpy of saturated vapour at 57.035 oC and 17.46kPa is 2604.44
kJ/kg
Heat capacity for superheated steam of 1.8798 kJ/kg.K with the
superheat of (81 57.035),
v. Hv = 2604.44 + (1.8798) (81.000-57.035) = 2649.489 kJ/kg
vi. For the saturated steam at 71.86kPa, the saturation temperature from the
steam table is 90.6 oC , the latent heat = 2260 kJ/kg
vii. hL = 164.689 kJ/kg

Heat capacity of feed, = 2.335 kJ/kg.K

Enthalpy of feed, = -28.773 kJ/kg
Latent heat of water at T1,Hv = 2649.489 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of liquid, hL = 164.689 kJ/kg
Latent heat of steam at Tsat, = 2661.05 kJ/kg

(c) Total Heat Balance:

Total heat entering = Total heat leaving
Heat in feed + Heat in steam = Heat in concentrated liquid + Heat in vapour +
Heat in condensed steam

134
For a falling-film evaporator, overall heat transfer coefficient that can be used as
estimation is as of long-tube vertical, natural circulation with ranges of 1100 4000
W/m2.K.

Assume U = 2000 W/m2.K as this value is taken within the range of t 1100 4000
W/m2.K

(d) Steam Economy:

Steam consumption = =

(e) Tubes layout and size

From Appendix A.5, tubes dimension below are chosen for this evaporator.
Dimensions:
Outside Diameter, Do = 1.5 inch = 38.1 mm
Internal Diameter, Di = 1.232 inch = 31.2928 mm

135
Length, L = 6 m
Tube pitch:
Equilateral triangular
Referring to Appendix E6,
Pitch, Pt = 1.25 Do = 1.25 38.1 mm = 47.625 mm

(f) Number of Tubes

Area of 1 tube, A = Do L
= (38.1 10-3 6
2
= 0.718 m

Number of tubes,

Check whether tube side velocity is satisfactory,

Tube cross-sectional area =

Area per pass = 185

Volumetric flow =

Velocity,

(g) Tube sheet layout (Tube count)

From Appendix A.6,

For triangular pitch, single pass:
K1 = 0.319
Nt = 2.142

Bundle Diameter,

For, a split-ring floating head exchanger, the typical shell clearance is 56 mm, so,
Shell inside diameter,

136
(h) Evaporation Rate, r and Residence Time, t

Steam condensate film coefficient at 110oC, ho:

Previously, assume U = 2000 W/m2.K,
= 2228.325 J/g
T =

Reynolds Number, Re =

Prandtl Number,

From the value of Reynolds number and Prandtl number, refer to Appendix A.7, the
value of Nu = 0.18.

(i) Wall Coefficient, hw:

Wall thickness =

137
(j) Ammonium Nitrate film coefficient, hi:

Feed rate per tube

At top of tube:

Pr is approximately twice Pr for water, so Pr

(k) Overall heat transfer coefficient, U:

(l) Evaporation Rate, r:

Take U = 250 slightly lower from Ui value calculated previously,

Product flow rate = Feed rate per tube Evaporation rate

At bottom of tube:

138
From Appendix A.7,

From previously calculated hi, and new hi the average is calculated,

Average

Newly calculated Ui,

Corrected evaporation rate:

(m) Estimate film thickness, :

At top:

At bottom:

139
(n) Film velocity, u:
At top, utop:

At bottom, ubot:

Average film velocity, of top and bottom tube:

Average Residence Time, t:

This value is satisfactory. It will take less than 2 min for the fluid feed resides in the 6m
tubes for evaporation and evaporates to designated concentration.

(o) Pressure Drop, P:

On the Tube Side, Pt :

As previously calculated at tube layout, area for cross-flow, AS for the hypothetical row
of tubes at the shell equator,

AN Mass Velocity,

Where:
WS = AN Feed Flow, kg/hr

AN Linear Velocity,

Tube-side Reynolds number,

140
Tube-side Prandtl number,

From Appendix A.8,

From Appendix A.9,

kPa = 0.05 bar

This value is low, thus it is satisfactory.

Shell-side pressure drop, PS:

Baffle spacing, =

Since, to small, will induce higher pressure drop, so, take

Area for cross flow,

Mass Velocity,

For an equilateral triangular pitch arrangement:

Equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter),

Shell-side Reynolds number,

141
Shell-side Prandtl number,

Choose 25% baffle cut for good heat transfer,

From Appendix A.3,

From Appendix A.4,

Linear Velocity =

Shell-side pressure drop can calculated from eq. below,

The calculated pressure drop on shell-side is low. Thus, it is satisfactory.

Table 5.10: Falling-Film Evaporator Chemical Design Summary

Feed Inlet (Tube Side)
Temperature 74.05 oC
16958.35
Feed Flow Rate
kg/hr
Pressure 17.46 kPa
Steam Inlet (Shell Side)
Temperature 110 oC
Feed Flow Rate 4021.15 kg/hr
Pressure 71.86 kPa
Temperature Difference, T 9.6

142
 Estimated U 2000 W/m2.K

Duty, q 2524.39 kW

Heat Surface Area 131.479 m2

Tube Layout and Sizes
Outer Diameter, Do 38.1mm
Internal Diameter, Di 31.298 mm
Length of tube, L 6m
Equilateral
Tube Pitch
Triangular
Number of tube 185
Area of tube 0.718m2

Shell Side
Bundle Diameter, Db 743.051 mm
Shell Inside Diameter, Ds 800 mm
Baffle Spacing, 500 mm
Evaporation Rate, r 3.413 g/s
Residence Time, t 18.9 m/s
Tube Side Heat Transfer 337.05
2
Coefficient W/m .K
Shell Side Heat Transfer 6155.42
2
Coefficient W/m .K
Overall Heat Transfer
506.4 W/m2.K
Coefficient, U
Pressure Drop
Tube Side Heat Transfer
0.05 kPa
Coefficient, Pt
Shell Side Heat Transfer
5.447 kPa
Coefficient, Ps

143
5.4 PROCESS / CHEMICAL DESIGN OF ABSORBER V-1

5.4.1 Introduction

Absorption is a mass transfer process in which a vapor solute A in a gas mixture is

absorbed by means of a liquid in which the solute is more or less soluble. The gas
mixture consists mainly of an inert gas and the solute. The liquid also is primarily
immiscible in gas phase; that is vaporization into the gas phase is relatively slight. In
this case, the solute A being absorbed is ammonium nitrate by means of liquid water.

5.4.2 Equipment for absorption: Packed Column versus Plate Column

For gas absorption unit, either plate column or packed column may be selected. The
selection depends on several criteria such as the cost and the efficiency of the column.
In this case, the packed absorption column has been selected over the plate column
because of the liquid flow rate, the complexity of design as well as the properties of the
flowing fluid. Packed column is suitable for corrosive fluid i.e. ammonium nitrate and
with high liquid flow rate, i.e. 2500 kg/h.

Figure 5.15: Packed absorption column (Coulson, 1999)

144
5.4.3 Types of Packing

The principal requirements of a packing are that it should:

Provide a large surface area: a high interfacial area between the gas and liquid.
Have an open structure: low resistance to gas flow.
Promote uniform liquid distribution on the packing surface.
Promote uniform vapor gas flow across the column cross-section.
Many diverse types and shapes of packing have been developed to satisfy these
requirements. They can be divided into two broad classes:

(a) Packings with a regular geometry: such as stacked rings, grids and proprietary
structured packings.

(b) Random packings: rings, saddles and proprietary shapes, which are dumped into
the column and take up a random arrangement. Grids have an open structure and are
used for high gas rates, where low pressure drop is essential; for example, in cooling
towers. Random packings and structured packing elements are more commonly used
in the process industries.

Ring and saddle packings are available in a variety of materials: ceramics, metals,
plastics and carbon. Metal and plastics (polypropylene) rings are more efficient than
ceramic rings, as it is possible to make the walls thinner. Raschig rings are cheaper per
unit volume than Pall rings or saddles but are less efficient, and the total cost of the
column will usually be higher if Raschig rings are specified. For new columns, the
choice will normally be between Pall rings and Berl or Intalox saddles. The choice of
material will depend on the nature of the fluids and the operating temperature.

Ceramic packing will be the first choice for corrosive liquids; but ceramics are
unsuitable for use with strong alkalies. Plastic packings are attacked by some organic
solvents, and can only be used up to moderate temperatures; so are unsuitable for
absorption columns. Where the column operation is likely to be unstable metal rings
should be specified, as ceramic packing is easily broken.

Therefore in this case, the random packing has been selected due to its low-cost. Plus,
random packing is more suitable compared to structured packing as structured packing
usually used for difficult separations which requiring many stages, such as the

145
separation of isotopes. Meanwhile, the type of packing material selected is the ceramic
Raschig rings because it is efficient, suitable for corrosive fluid operation, and has
porosities and void spaces of 0.90 0.96 and areas of 100 200 m2 / m3.(Geankoplis,
2003)

146
 Figure 5.16: Types of packing (Norton Co.). (a) Raschig rings (b) Pall rings (c) Berl
saddle ceramic (d) Intalox saddle ceramic (e) Metal Hypac (f ) Ceramic, super Intalox

(Geankoplis, 2003)

Table 5.11: Design data for various packings. (Geankoplis, 2003)

147
 Figure 5.17: Pressure drop correlation for random packing by Strigle. (Geankoplis,
2003)

Stream P-20

Stream water in
V-1

Stream P-18

Stream P-21

Table 5.12: Properties and conditions of streams at V-1

148
 Stream
Stream P-18 Stream P-20 Stream P-21
water in
Temperature (C) 25.00 110.00 99.98 55.95
Pressure (atm) 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Molar flow (kmol/h) 11.10 11.02 12.14 9.979
Mass Flow (kg/h) 500.00 6621.00 6083.00 1038.00
Volumetric Flow (m3/h) 0.5010 5.8360 5.6820 0.6554
6
Heat Flow (kJ/h) -7.910 -6.6107 -7.0107 -4.2106
Vapor Composition 0.0000 1.0000 1.0000 0.0000
Molar Composition (kmol/kmol total flow)
AN 0.0000 0.0823 0.0413 0.6163
Water 1.0000 0.9164 0.9576 0.3835
Nitric Acid 0.0000 0.0006 0.0005 0.0002
Ammonia 0.0000 0.0007 0.0006 0.0000
Mass Composition (kg/kg total flow)
AN 0.0000 0.2847 0.1603 0.8770
Water 1.0000 0.7132 0.8375 0.1228
Nitric Acid 0.0000 0.0016 0.0017 0.0002
Ammonia 0.0000 0.0005 0.0005 0.0000

5.4.4 Estimation of Column Diameter

Assume GL/GG = 3.0 (normal range for absorption is 3.0 to 6.0)

where GL = Liquid mass velocity, kg/m2s

GG = Gas mass velocity, kg/m2s

At Stream Mix, temperature and pressure of inlet gas of 110C and 1 atm,

g = water xwater + ammonia xammonia + nitric acid xnitric acid + AN xAN

Since the composition of ammonia and nitric acid is very low,

xammonia and xnitric acid 0

Therefore, g = water xwater + AN xAN

Assuming ideal gas,

PV = nRT

(17.46103 Pa)V = n(8314.34 m3.Pa/kmol.K)(339.81 K)

n/V = 0.0062 kmol/m3

149
For ammonium nitrate (AN),

AN = (0.0062 kgmol/m3) (80.05 kg/kgmol)

= 0.4947 kg/m3

For water,

water = (0.0062 kgmol/m3) (18 kg/kgmol)

= 0.1112 kg/ m3

From material balance, the mass fraction for AN and water are 0.29 and 0.71,
respectively.

g = (0.4947 kg/m3)(0.29) + (0.1112 kg/m3)(0.71)

= 0.2339 kg/m3

At temperature of inlet liquid of 25C,

l = 995.68 kg/m3

(g / l)0.5 = (0.2339 / 995.68)0.5 = 0.0153

Flow parameter = (GL/GG) ( g / l )0.5

= (3) (0.0153)

= 0.0460

From Figure 5.17, by taking P = 2.0 in. H2O/ft since at a packing factor of 60 or higher
(in this case, Fp = 210 m-1) the pressure drop at flooding can be taken as 2.0 in. H2O/ft.

Capacity parameter = vg [g / (l - g)] 0.5 Fp0.5 0.05 = 1.85

Where vg = superficial gas velocity, m/s

Fp = packing factor, m-1 (2in. of packing Raschig ring)

= kinematic viscosity, kg/m.s

150
1.85 = vg [0.2339 / (995.68 0.2339)] 0.5 2100.5 (0.8007 10-3)0.05

= 0.1555 vg

vg = 11.8943 m/s

GG = vg g = (11.8943 m/s) (0.2339 kg/m3) = 2.7826 kg/m2s

GL = 3 GG = 3(2.7826 kg/m2s) = 8.3479 kg/m2s

Assume 70% flooding, as for absorption, the tower should be designed using about 50
to 70% of the gas flooding velocity. (Geankoplis, 2003)

New capacity parameter = 0.7(1.95) = 1.295

GG = 0.7(2.7826 kg/m2s) = 1.9478 kg/m2s

GL = 0.7(8.3479 kg/m2s) = 5.8435 kg/m2s

Using new capacity parameter and the same flow parameter,

pressure drop at flooding,

P = 0.45 in. H2O / ft or 37.4985 mm H2O / m height of packing

The tower cross-sectional area, A = Gin / GG

= (8028/3600 kg/s)/1.9478 kg/m2s

= 1.1449 m2

( / 4 ) D2 = 1.1449 m2

Column diameter, D = 1.1973 m

1.2 m

151
5.4.5 Estimation of Height of Transfer Unit (HTU), Z

Z H OG N OG

mGm
H OG H G H L
Lm
Where Z = Height of transfer unit, m,

HOG = Height of overall gas transfer unit, m,

NOG = Number of overall gas transfer unit,

HG = Height of gas transfer unit, m,

HL = Height of liquid transfer unit, m,

m = slope of equilibrium line,

Gm/Lm = slope of operating line.

From material balance,

y1 / y2 = 0.0945 / 0.001

= 94.5

where y1 and y2 are the mol fractions of the solute in the gas at Stream 2 and Stream
Clean Vapor, respectively.

Take mGm / Lm = 0.75

(Colburn (1939) has suggested that the optimum value for mGm / Lm lies between 0.7
to 0.8)

From the following graph in Figure 5.18,

NoG 13

152
Figure 5.18: Number of transfer unit NOG as a function of y1/y2 with mGm/Lm as
parameter (Coulson, 1998)

153
By applying Ondas method,

The equation for the effective area is:

and for the mass coefficients:

Therefore, height of gas and liquid transfer unit:

where K5 = 5.23 for packing sizes above 15 mm,

L*w = liquid mass flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kg/m2s,

V*w = gas mass flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kg/m2s,

DL = Liquid diffusivity, m2/s,

Dv = Gas diffusivity, m2/s,

aw = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume, m2/m3,

154
 a = actual area of packing per unit volume, m2/m3,

dp = packing size, m,

c = critical surface tension for the particular packing material,

L = liquid surface tension, N/m,

kG = gas film mass transfer coefficient, kmol/m2s bar,

kL = liquid film mass transfer coefficient, m/s

P = column operating pressure, bar,

Ct = total concentration, kmol/m3 = L / molecular weight solvent,

Gm = molar gas flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kmol/m2s,

Lm = molar liquid flow rate per unit cross-sectional area, kmol/m2s.

aw 0.061
0.75
0.6394
0.1
0.639495
0.05
0.6394
0.2


1 exp 1.45
95
0.070 95 8.01 10
4

995.682 9.81
995.680.07095

a w 33.4209m 2 / m 3

1 2 1

8.01 10 4
995.68 0.6394
950.050.4
3 3 2

0.0051

kL

8.01 10 9.81
4
4
9
33.4209 8.01 10 995.68 3.2845 10

k L 0.0001m / s

1
k G 0.08314339.81
0.7
2.0531 1 10 8 3
5.23 950.052
95 1.8157 10 5
8
95 1 10
5
0.2339 1.8157 10

k G 0.0512kmol / m 2 .s.bar

155
 0.0848
HG 0.2840m
0.051233.42090.1746

0.0355
HL 0.1914m
0.000133.420955.3156

H OG 0.2840 0.750.1914 0.4276m

Z H OG N OG 0.4276 13 5.5588m 6m

D 2 Z (1.2m) 2 (6m)
Volume,V 6.7858m 3
4 4

5.4.6 Number of Packing

Volume of packed bed =

= 6.7858 m3

Volume of one packing = Size3

= (0.051 m) 3

= 1.3265 10-4 m3

156
Number of packing used =

= 51,155.29

51,160 unit

Table 5.13: Summary of Chemical Design of Absorber V-1

Pressure at top inlet 1 atm

Pressure at bottom inlet 1 atm
Pressure at top outlet 1 atm
Pressure at bottom outlet 1 atm
Temperature at top inlet 25.00 C
Temperature at bottom inlet 110.00 C
Temperature at top outlet 99.98 C
Temperature at bottom outlet 55.95 C
Flow rate at top inlet 500.00 kg/h
Flow rate at bottom inlet 6621.00 kg/h
Flow rate at top outlet 6083.00 kg/h
Flow rate at bottom outlet 1038.00 kg/h
Diameter of tower 1.2 m
Height of tower 10 m
Types of packing Ceramic Raschig Ring
Packing factor 210 m-1
Packing size 2.0 in. (51 mm)
Number of packing used 51,160 unit
Height of packing 6m
Diameter of packing 1.2 m
Volume of tower 11.3098 m3
Volume of packing 6.7859 m3
Solvent Water
Solute Ammonium Nitrate

157
5.5 PROCESS / CHEMICAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER

5.5.1 Introduction

A heat exchanger is a heat transfer devise that is used for transfer of internal thermal
energy between two or more fluids available at different temperatures. In most heat
exchanger, the fluids are separated by a heat transfer surface, and ideally they do not
[1]
mix . The transfer of heat to and from process fluids is an essential part of most
chemical processes. The most commonly used type of heat transfer equipment is the
ubiquitous shell and tube heat exchanger. The word exchanger really applies to all
types of equipment in which heat is exchanged but is often used specifically to denote
equipment in which heat is exchanged between two process streams. Exchangers in
which a process fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream are referred to as
heaters and coolers. If the process stream is vaporized the exchanger is called a
vaporizer if the steam is essentially completely vaporized; a reboiler if associated with a
distillation column; and an evaporator if used to concentrate a solution. The term fired
exchanger is used for exchangers heated by combustion gases, such as boilers; other
[2]
exchangers are referred to as unfired exchangers . In this production of ammonium
nitrate process, heater is placed after the liquid ammonia is pumped to pump outlet
stream. The heater serves to increase the temperature of ammonia from -40oC to outlet
stream of 65oC. There is a phase change occur in the heater where liquid ammonia has
vaporized.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchanger consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes
contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the
tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb
the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of
several types of tubes that is plain, longitudinal finned, or others. Shell and tubes heat
exchanger are typically used for high-pressure application. There are several thermal
design features that are to be taken into account when designing the tubes in the shell
and tube heat exchangers. These include:

158
a) Tube diameter
From the heat transfer point of view, smaller diameter tubes yield higher heat-transfer
coefficients and result in a compact exchanger. However, larger diameter tubes are
easier to clean, more rugged, and they are necessary when the allowable tube-side
pressure drop is small. The versatility and wide spread use of this equipment has given
rise to the development of industry wide standards of which the most widely observed
are the TEMA standards [1].

b) Tube thickness
The thickness of the wall is selected on these bases that are providing an adequate
margin against corrosion, fretting and wear due to flow induced vibration, axial strength
particularly in fixed tube-sheet exchanger, standardized dimensions, and cost [1].

c) Tube length
Heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell diameter and a
long tube length [3].

d) Tube pitch
The recommended tube pitch (distanced from centre) is 1.25 times the tube outside
diameter and this will normally be used unless process requirements dictate otherwise
[2]
.

e) Tube layout
There are four main types of tub layout which are triangular (30o), rotated triangular
(60o), square (90o), and rotated square (45o). Square patterns are employed where high
fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular.

f) Baffle design
Baffle must generally be employed on the shell-side to support the tubes to maintain
the tube spacing, and to direct the shell-side fluid across or along the tube bundle in a
specified manner. They preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length, and also
can prevent tubes from vibrating. The most common type of baffle is the segmental
baffle, which also referred to as a single segmental baffle. The heat transfer and
pressure drop of crossflow bundles are greatly affected by the baffle cut. Baffle cuts

159
vary from 20-49% with the most common being 20-25%, and the optimum baffle cut is
generally 25% as it affords the highest heat transfer for a given pressure drop. Baffle
cuts smaller than 25% can result in high pressure drop. As a baffle cut increases
beyond 25%, the flow pattern deviates more and more from crossflow and can result in
stagnant regions or areas with lower flow velocities. Both of these reduce the thermal
effectiveness of the bundle [1].

Fluid Allocation: Shell or Tubes

Several conditions may influence which fluid goes on the tube side or the shell side.
The tube side is preferable for the fluid that highly corrosive or the higher pressure. The
tube side is less likely to leak expensive or hazardous fluids and is more easily cleaned
[4]
.

Flow Arrangement

The most common arrangements for flow paths within a heat exchanger are counter
flow and parallel flow. A counter flow heat exchanger is one in which the direction of the
flow of one of the working fluid is opposite to the direction to the flow of the other fluid.
In a parallel flow exchanger, both fluids in the heat exchanger flow in the same
direction.

In this project, we selected counter flow heat exchanger because under

comparable conditions, more heat is transferred in a counter flow arrangement than in
parallel flow heat exchanger. Figure 1 below represents the direction of fluid flow in the
parallel and counter flow exchangers. The purpose of heating up ammonia is to raise
the temperature of ammonia from -39.92oC to 65oC prior to entering reactor.

160
 Figure 5.19: Fluid Flow Direction

The counter flow heat exchanger has three significant advantages over the
parallel flow design. First, the more uniform temperature difference between the two
fluids minimizes the thermal stresses throughout the exchanger. Second, the outlet
temperature of the cold fluid can approach the highest temperature of the hot fluid (the
inlet temperature). Third, the more uniform temperature difference procedures a more
uniform rate of heat transfer throughout the heat exchanger.

Heat transfer within the heat exchanger involves both conduction and
convection. One fluid (hot) convectively transfers heat to the tube wall where
conduction takes place across the tube to the opposite wall. The heat is the
convectively transferred to the second fluid. Because this process takes place over the
entire length of the exchanger, the temperature of the fluids as they flow through the
exchanger is not generally constant, but varies over the entire length as indicated in
Figure 5.20 below. The rate of heat transfer varies along the length of the exchanger
tubes because its value depends upon the temperature difference between the hot and
the cold fluid at the point being viewed.

161
 Figure 5.20: Heat Exchanger Temperature Profiles

5.5.2 Chemical Design

Kerns method based on experimental work on commercial exchangers with standard

tolerances and will give a reasonably satisfactory prediction of the heat transfer
coefficient for standard designs.

kJ
1.39 10 5
Q h kg
mw 0.9126
C p T kJ s
2.00 10 3 o
180 104.6o C
kg. C

162
a) Physical properties of materials
Table 5.14: Properties table of raw material

Component Ammonia (tube) Water steam (Shell)

Temperature inlet. oC t1 = -40oC T1 = 180

Temperature outlet, oC t2 = 65 T2 = 104.1

Mean temperature, oC 12.5 142.05

J
Specific heat, 2.176 2.004
kg.o C

Thermal conductivity,
W 27.7775e-3 27.2438e-3
m.o C

kg
Density, 0.6341 0.5349
m3

Ns
Viscosity, 111.0625e-7 139.8481e-7
m2

b) The calculation of TLM

To determine the mean temperature, Tm

Tm Ft Tlm

Where Tm = true temperature difference, the mean temperature difference for

use in the design

Ft = the temperature correction factor

Mean Temperature Difference (Temperature Driving Force), TLM can be obtained

through:

163
 (T1 t 2 ) (T2 t1 )
Tlm
T t
ln 1 2
T2 t1

Where Tlm = log mean temperature difference

T1 = hot fluid temperature, inlet

T2 = hot fluid temperature, outlet

t1 = cold fluid temperature, inlet

t2 = cold fluid temperature, outlet

The correction factor is a function of the shell and tube fluid temperatures, and the
number of tube and shell passes. It is normally correlated as a function of two
dimensionless temperature ratios:

(T1 t 2 )
R
(t 2 t1 )

(t 2 t1 )
S
(T1 t1 )

R is equal to the shell side fluid flow rate times fluid mean specific heat; divided by the
tube side fluid flow rate times the tube side fluid specific heat. S is a measure of the
temperature efficiency of the exchanger. The temperature correction factor can be
obtained by using figure 12.19 of Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering
(Appendix A.10)

(180 65) 104.1 (40)

Tlm
180 65
ln
104.1 (40)
Tlm 129.0043o C

164
 180 104.1
R
65 (40)
R 0.7229

65 (40)
S
180 (40)
S 0.4773

From Appendix A.10, Ft = 0.92

Tm Ft Tlm

Tm 0.92(129.0043)

Tm 118.6840 o C

Heat transfer area

q UATm

q
A
UTm

138.8056e 3
A
30118.6840

A 38.9847m 2

From Appendix A.11, the overall coefficient that suitable with this heat exchanger
condition will be in range 30-300 W/m2.oC, starting value was selected to be 30
W/m2.oC

165
c) Number of tubes calculation
For ammonia operates below 120oC, normal stainless steel 3041 can be used. While if
higher than 120oC, high temperature stainless steel is better consideration. For steam
operates below 120oC normally used carbon steel but if higher than 120oC is better to
use high temperature carbon steel material. In this case, ammonia is corrosive than
steam and it is suitable to put ammonia in the tube side (stainless steel) while steam in
the shell (carbon steel).

Since tube is handling Ammonia (NH3), which is corrosive and it is suggested to take
standard thickness, t = 3mm.

Diameter of outside tubes, do = 19.5 mm

Diameter of inside tubes, di = 16.5 mm

Tubes length, L = 5m

Rectangular pitch = 24.38 mm (Where pitch/dia = 1.25)

Number of tubes

Area of one tube (neglecting thickness of tube sheets)

= * 19.5e-3 * 5

= 0.3063 m2

Number of tubes = Ao/At

= 38.9847/0.3063

= 127.2762 128 tubes

Tubes per pass = 128 tubes

Tube cross sectional area = (16.5e 3 ) 2
4

166
 = 2.1382e 4 m2

Area per pass = 128 * 0.00021382

= 0.02737 m2

kg 1h m3
Volumetric flow = 2665
h 3600s 0.5349kg

= 1.3840 m3/s

1.3840
Tube side velocity, ut =
0.02737

= 50.57m / s

d) Bundle and Shell diameter calculation

From Appendix A.12, table 12.4 of Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering for
1.25 rectangular pitch, number of passes = 1, we can obtained value of

K1=0.215

n1=2.207

1
N n1
Db d o t
K1

Where Nt = number of tubes

Db = bundle diameter, mm

Do = tube side diameter

1
128 2.207
Db = 19.5
0.215

= 353 mm (0.353 m)

167
Assume using split-ring floating heat exchanger type. From figure 12.10 of Coulson &
Richardsons Chemical Engineering (Appendix A.13), the typical shell bundle clearance
is 54 mm, so the shell inside diameter:

Ds = 353 + 54

= 407 mm

e) Tube side coefficient

u t d e
Re

Where Re = Reynolds number

= fluid density, kg/m3

ut = fluid velocity, m/s

de = di for tubes

= fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature, Ns/m2

Cp
Pr
kf

Where Pr = Prandtl number

Cp = fluid specific heat, heat capacity, J/kg.oC

= fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature, Ns/m2

kf = fluid thermal conductivity, W/m.oC

For turbulent flow,

0.14
hd
Nu i e j h Re Pr 0.33
kf w

Where hi = inside coefficient, W/m2.oC

168
 de = equivalent diameter (or hydraulic mean), m

kf = fluid thermal conductivity, W/m.oC

= fluid viscosity at the bulk fluid temperature, Ns/m2

w = fluid viscosity at wall

(0.6341)50.57 16.5
Re
111.0625e 7

Re 47639.5012 4.76e4

From Reynolds Number, it shown that the flow is turbulent.

(2.176e3)(111.0625e 7)
Pr
27.7775e 3

Pr 0.87

L 5000
303
d i 16.5

From Figure 12.23 of Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering (Appendix A.8)

jh = 3.3x10-3

Neglecting the , the result becomes:
w

Nu 3.3e 347639.50120.87
0.33

Nu 150.1490

Nuk f
hi
di

169
 hi
150.149027.7775e 3
0.0165

hi 252.7736 W / m 2 .o C

f) Shell side coefficient

Area for cross flow, As for the hypothetical row of tubes at the shell equator :

pt d o
As Ds l B
pt

Where pt = tube pitch, m

do = tube outside diameter, m

Ds = shell inside diameter, m

lB = baffle spacing, m

Shell-side mass velocity, Gs and the linear velocity, us :

Ws
Gs
As
Gs
us

Where Ws = fluid flow rate on the shell-side, kg/s

= shell-side density, kg/m3

Shell-side equivalent diameter (hydraulic diameter), for square pitch arrangement :

de
1.27 2
do

pt 0.785d o
2

Where de = equivalent diameter, m

170
Baffle spacing, lB was taken to be Ds/5 which is 407/5 = 81.4 mm. This spacing should

give good heat transfer without too high a pressure drop.

0.02438 0.0195
As 0.407 0.0814
0.02438
As 0.006631 m 2

kg 1h 1
Gs 2665
h 3600s 0.006631 m 2
kg
Gs 111.6323
s.m 2

111.6326 kg
us s.m 2
0.5349 kg
m3
m
u s 208.6975
s

de
1.27
0.0195

0.02438 2 0.7850.0195
2

d e 0.01927 m

Re
0.5349208.69750.01927
139.8481e 7

Re 153820.77 1.54 x 105

Pr
2.004e3139.8481e 7
27.2438e 3

Pr 1.03

A segmental baffle with a 25% cut was chosen and this should give a reasonable heat
transfer coefficient without too large a pressure drop. From figure 12.29 of Coulson &
Richardsons Chemical Engineering (Appendix A.3)

171
Heat transfer factor, jn = 1.8 x 10-3

Neglecting the viscosity correction,

hs d e

1.8e 3 153820.77 1.033
1
Nu
kf

hs
279.618927.2438e 3
0.01927

hs 395.3234 W / m 2 .o C

g) Overall Coefficient
d
d o ln o
1

1

1
di do x 1 do x 1
U o ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi

Where Uo = the overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tube,
W/m2.oC
ho = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2oC
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2oC
hod = outside dirt coefficient (fouling factor), W/m2oC
hid = inside dirt coefficient, W/m2oC
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/m2oC
di = tube inside diameter, m
do = tube outside diameter, m

Overall coefficient, Uo

1

1

1

0.0195 ln 0.0195
0.0165 1
x
0.0195
U o 252.7736 395.3234 256.7 252.7736 0.0165

Uo = 89.3670 W/m2.oC

172
 W W
89.3670 30 2 o
Uo U 2 o
m . C m . C 100 1.98%
Error = 100
U W
30 2 o
m . C

Error is acceptable, and this is shown an acceptable range.

h) Pressure drop at tube side

L
m
u 2
Pt N p 8 j f 2.5 t
di w 2

Where Pt = tube-side pressure drop, Ns/m2 (Pa)

Np = number of tube-side passes

Ut = tube-side velocity, m/s

L = length of tube-side

Tube side :

- 128 tubes
- Single passes
- Inside diameter, di = 16.5 mm
- Velocity, ut = 50.57 m/s
- Reynolds number, Re = 4.76e4

From figure 12.24 of Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering (Appendix A.9)

Friction factor, jf = 3.2x10-3

Neglect the viscosity correction term

5000 0.634150.57
2
Pt 183.2e 3 2.5
16.5 2

Pt 8316.810 N / m 2 0.082 bar

173