ANALYSIS OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN KENYA AND AUSTRALIA
Christopher Balino, William Day, Nathan Kutka, Nelly Nganga
Swinburne University of Technology, Australia
Abstract
An increased awareness of negative effects on the
environment from power sources such as coal and oil has
increased desire to implement more sustainable methods to
ensure long-term sustainability. The goal of this report is to
determine the feasibility of powering small isolated towns
with sustainable energy sources. The two sustainable
energy sources selected and their respective locations are
biofuel in Kithimani, Kenya and tidal power in Currie,
Tasmania, Australia. Assuming the heat loss only occurred
through the windows, both methods were sufficient to
supply the towns with power. These methods were further
analysed, taking into consideration the geographic and
logistics, regulatory and economic, environmental and
social aspects that were relative to their respective area.
Replacing the single paned windows with double-paned
windows was also considered, as it would reduce the load
on the system. The costs of running the system based on
power used were also considered and analysed. It was
concluded that both sources were viable, although there
were some factors that could discourage the use of the
systems, such as the area used by biofuel, however this was
determined to be within acceptable limits.
Introduction
Continued depletion of fossil fuels drives a growing need
for sustainable energy development. The damaging effects
of large-scale carbon dioxide emissions are increasingly
apparent, and governments and communities worldwide are
experiencing heightened urgency to slow and ultimately
eliminate reliance on harmful energy sources. Currently
fossil fuels account for ~85% [1] of the primary energy
consumption worldwide with emissions including many
harmful greenhouse gases, heavy metals and other
pollutants as well as carbon dioxide. Although fossil fuels
are technically a renewable resource formed by natural
processes, consumption has far exceeded the natural
formation rate in modern times, leading to a situation of
extreme environmental impact as well as rising energy
prices. Damage from pollutants to the atmosphere,
farmland and water sources, combined with increasing
economic costs as deposits shrink, is putting significant
pressure particularly on rural and remote communities
where conventional energy infrastructure is often
impractical. This study examines the suitability of two
different renewable energy systems for two hypothetical
community settlements. The location and energy sources to
be analysed are a biofuel energy system in Kithimani,
Kenya and a tidal energy system located in the coastal town
of Currie, Tasmania. Each settlement has an assumed
(arbitrary) population with 100 homes, and energy
calculations based on maintaining constant temperature in a
house subject to heat loss through the windows. Average
temperature data are used to calculate energy input
requirements, and these are compared with the proposed
renewable systems to draw conclusions about their
suitability. Geographic, logistic, regulatory, environmental
and general economic considerations are also included in
the evaluation of the systems.
Background
Biofuel Power in Kithimani, Kenya
Biofuel in the form of wood is Kenyas main energy
source, accounting for 70% of national requirements [3].
This proportion is forecast to grow in the future, with wood
being a critical energy source for small-scale rural
industries, as well as being the standard cooking fuel and
currently providing 90% of rural household energy needs
[4]. Biomass (predominantly wood and charcoal) also
drives key large-scale industries, in particular cement
manufacture, food processing, and Kenyas lucrative tea
industry [5]. In rural villages, current fuel wood
consumption is estimated at 5-10kg per household per day
[5]. Kenyas biomass fuel sources include different forest
formations such as wood/grass lands, industrial plantations,
farms with natural vegetation and residues from crops and
wood based industries [5]. Government agencies are
exploring various development proposals in order to
capitalise on these resources and increase biomass energy
output.
Tidal Power in Currie, Tasmania, Australia
Currie, Tasmania is a township on the western coast of
Island, which is an Island south of the Australian mainland.
King Island is located halfway between Victoria and
mainland Tasmania at the western entrance to the Bass
Strait. Currie has a population of about 700 permanent
residents, and the main energy source in the town is diesel
and wind power [6]. Most of Curries electricity is
generated by The Currie Power Station which includes one
1200kW and three 1600kW diesel generators, and Hydro
Tasmanias Huxley Hill wind farm which has three 250kW
and two 850kW wind turbines [7]. Currie has a mild
climate, ranging from 16.5C to 10.2C [8]. This mild
climate reduces the populations dependence on heating
systems, so the energy requirements for heating these
homes are relatively low.
 Methodology
Geographic and Logistical Considerations Kithimani
Kithimani is a region approximately 90km by road from
Kenyas capital and largest city, Nairobi, and it
incorporates a cluster of small villages. The Nairobi region
is situated close to the equator and at a relatively high
altitude of 1700m meaning it has an equable rather than
tropical climate [9]. This means average temperatures do
not vary significantly throughout the year, however, daily
temperate ranges are fairly large, averaging around 10C in
May and 15C in February [9].
As a result, most households use fireplaces for evening
warmth. Rather than temperature, the four distinct seasons
are classified mainly in terms of the level of rainfall as seen
in Table 1.
Table 1: Seasonal Weather Characteristics in Kithimani
Period Weather characteristics
Mid-December Mid Warm, sunny, dry
March
Mid-March May Main rainy season
June - Mid-October Cool, cloudy, dry
Mid October Mid Secondary rainy season
December
Source: Nairobi City Climate [9]
With fairly predictable temperatures, village residents in
Kithimani can accurately forecast how much biofuel is
required for a given period. The area is also serviced by a
well-maintained highway, allowing for steady fuel supplies
to be delivered from city suppliers or local plantations, as
needed.
Regulatory and Economic Considerations Kithimani
The Kenyan government is strongly in favour of increasing
power generation from forestry sources and agro-industry
residues. Specifically, sugarcane bagasse (fibrous residue)
has recently been identified as a source of an estimated
200-500MW of energy production, with some sugar
producers already producing up to 25MW of surplus energy
for input to the grid [4]. Low feed-in tariffs (FiT) for off-
grid renewables of US$0.12kW/h have encouraged more
investment, with new bagasse cogeneration projects
recently approved [4].
In general economic terms, biofuel sources are favourable
due to their adaptability they can be used on large and
small scales (industrial and household) without special
equipment or processing. Kenya is pioneering new
sustainable energy systems, with further biofuel potential
identified in sweet sorghum and Jatropha crops, and the
chance to capitalise on secondary activities such as research
work, and biotechnology consulting [4].
Environmental and Social Considerations Kithimani
Unlike some other sustainable energy sources such as solar
and wind power (where the energy is abundant and the
engineering focus is on how to efficiently capture/harvest
that energy), biofuel sources can be rapidly depleted
without proper management. Therefore, biofuel could be
considered potentially sustainable, with the condition that
supply and demand are both balanced effectively. This is
recognised by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute, with
supply and demand strategies being developed for
sustaining production. Supply strategies include
development of fuel wood plantations through the Forest
Service, management of rangeland and woodlands and
enhancing on-farm tree planting, while demand-side
strategies promote more efficient cooking stoves and
charcoal conversion kilns [3].
As is the case in other African nations, there are many
Kenyan residents living in rural villages who are faced with
the problem of slow energy grid expansion outside urban
areas. A lack of purchasing power means socioeconomic
development will remain limited unless alternative energy
sources and business models are explored. Given the
simplicity of extracting energy from crop-based fuels
compared to conventional oil and gas (no need for
expensive refineries and other infrastructure), poorer
sections of the population have the chance to pool funds
and achieve realistic economies of scale to help improve
their access to energy. Biofuel is a good alternative for
assisting rural development, rather than leaving control of
energy production in the hands of a few large companies.
Some other environmental concerns are the carbon
footprint and the greenhouse gas emissions from the
burning of the wood, which would adversely affect the
global environment after some period of time. The planting
of new trees can help offset some of these emissions, but
the rate at which the trees grow is considerably slower than
the rate at which greenhouse gasses are being emitted.
Regulatory and Economic Considerations Currie
While tidal power has great potential to work for Currie, it
could be cost-prohibitive to implement. The expense of the
implementation and maintenance of such new technology
could pose an issue. But, there have been other tidal power
projects funded by the Australian Government located in
Tasmania, so funding would not be difficult to obtain.
Environmental Considerations Currie
Some of the environmental considerations to take into
account are the marine life that resides in the water, and
how adding a tidal barrage could affect the ecosystem (i.e.
the fish and other animals that could get trapped in the
turbines). Although the turbines have been proven to cause
very minimal effects to the marine life, environmental
activists still strongly oppose the use of such technology.
Results
System Requirements Kithimani
To maintain a house at the required temperature of 23C in
Kithimani (where the heat loss occurs exclusively through
the windows), the heat loss was calculated for both the
mean low and high temperatures, and then averaged to
account for the wide range of temperatures every day.
Figure 1 shows the monthly temperature averages.
Figure 1: Average Temperature in Kithimani
The heat loss was calculated utilising the following
relation:
(1)
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the
window (taken to be 5.57W/m2 C for the Double Door
Wood Frame with 3mm glass thickness) [12]. The surface
area of the windows was assumed to be 15 m2.
Figure 2: Heat Loss per 100 Houses in Kithimani
The heat loss ranges between 27MW in November and
43MW in January per 100 homes, as seen in Figure 2. This
indicates that the system designed will need to
accommodate a maximum energy requirement of at least
43MW during the month of January.
Taking the efficiency of the generator into consideration
(70%), the effective value of power required at the
maximum point is 62MW. Assuming the system is
powered on 24 hours per day, the maximum energy
required is 46GWh/month for the entire community.
The biofuel then needs to be combusted to heat steam and
generate electricity. Considering the chosen biofuel wood
has an energy content of 4.1 kWh/kg when the moisture
content is below 20% [10]. Ensuring minimal water content
is important to increasing efficiency. This means that the
wood will need to be sufficiently dried by the sun prior to
use. Figure 3 shows the mass required of wood per 100
houses per month.
Figure 3: Mass Required of Wood per Month in Kithimani
Typically, trees can be grown at a density of 2.9 t/Hectare
[11]. This would require approximately 3800 hectares per
month to accommodate the required energy per month.
Considering that the location for this biofuel is rural, this is
a plausible amount of land, but the environmental
ramifications must be taken into consideration. This type of
energy would likely not be sustainable for many years.
If the same houses were to install double-paned windows,
the heat loss would be reduced from 43 to 25 MW in the
month of January, a 43% decrease. Assuming the cost of
power is $0.095/kWh, this upgrade would save the average
household nearly $300 per year in energy costs (from both
heating and cooling). The heat loss was calculated
according to Equation (1), where the overall heat transfer
coefficient U for this application was 3.2 W/m2 C [12].
The money saved per month is shown in Table 2.
 Table 2: Savings with Double-Paned Windows (Kenya) Equation (1) was once again utilised to calculate the heat
loss (and subsequently, the power required to heat the
Month Money Saved
homes). The temperature inside was to be maintained at
23C, and the outside temperatures were found by taking
January $16.58
the monthly average temperature in Currie, Tasmania [8].
The graph for average monthly temperature is given below
February $13.96
in Figure 4.
March $17.34

April $21.40

May $26.51

June $29.18

July $31.79

August $31.41
Figure 4: Average Temperature in Currie, Tasmania
September $28.45
Using this information, it was then possible to calculate the
October $26.89 heat loss using Equation (1). The results are depicted in
Figure 5. A sample calculation can be found in Appendix
November $23.22 A.

December $20.10

TOTAL $286.82

System Requirements Currie

Tidal power requires there to be significant tidal ranges or

flow velocity. Located in the Bass Strait, Currie is in a
position where there is not enough of a variation in tidal
range to create much power. However, due to the flow Figure 5: Power Required Heating 100 Homes (Currie)
velocity caused by the West Wind Drift Ocean Current, the
water entering the strait has the potential to generate 3,000 As previously stated, the peak heat loss occurs in July and
MW of power from the current. Harvested correctly, the the corresponding power required is 78.6 MW, well within
power could be sufficiently converted into enough the capabilities of the tidal power system (3,000 MW).
electricity to heat the homes of Currie residents [14]. The
use of tidal power is a good option for Currie because If vinyl-framed double pane windows with an air space of
residents would get power from the ocean and not have to 6.4 mm were installed instead of the single paned windows,
rely on the unpredictable wind power. Unlike wind power, the heat loss would be reduced according to Figure 6.
tidal power is more reliable because the tides are
predictable, and relatively constant. [15].

Assuming there are 100 homes, and each will need to be

heated from the average monthly temperature to 23C, the
highest demand for power will be in July, with a necessity
for 78.6 MW of electricity to compensate for the heat loss
from the interior of the home to the outside environment.
Tidal power from the West Wind Drift Ocean Current
provides more than enough power to heat this community
throughout the year.
Figure 6: Heat Loss per Home (Single vs. Double-Paned)
The heat loss per home is significantly reduced respectively. Kenya already has strong momentum in
(approximately 3,000 kWh per 100 homes per year or setting up biomass energy systems, given its abundant
42.5%). Taking the cost of electricity to be $0.095/kWh, wood and agricultural product reserves, whereas the coastal
the total savings is about $287/year (per home) with the environment of Tasmania offers predictable and essentially
double-paned windows. The month-by-month breakdown is infinite tidal energy. As mentioned, Kenyan government
shown in Table 3 below. policies are effectively supporting local communities to
maximise the potential energy from rural landscapes and
Table 3: Savings with Double-Paned Windows (TAS) industry byproducts, whilst the Tasmanian government is
funding tidal power projects. Each chosen technique fits
Month Money Saved
logically within the respective economies, with Kenya
home to many small, off-grid farming communities needing
January $16.58 low-cost systems and Tasmania making use of Australias
advanced technology capabilities and access to capital
February $13.96 needed for complex projects like tidal power stations.
March $17.34 Conclusions
April $21.40 Both sources of energy that were chosen for this analysis
proved to be adequate for the regions that they would
May $26.51 potentially serve. For Kenya, biofuel is a feasible short-
term option because it uses readily available biomaterials
June $29.18 and converts them to energy. However, using wood for
biofuel can prove to be detrimental to the environment,
July $31.79 thus, alternate sources of energy should be sought. For
Australia, tidal power is a good option because it is a
August $31.41 predictable, and available source of power. An alternate
source of energy for Kithimani could be methane gas
September $28.45
digesters that would utilise human and animal waste to
process methane gas (which could then be converted to
October $26.89
electrical energy).
November $23.22
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December $20.10
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www.eia.gov/>
Total $286.82
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<http://www.worldweatheronline.com/Nairobi-
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<http://www.meteo.go.ke/customer/climat/index.html> Heat loss/house
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values of fuels. [online] Available at:
http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/portal/page?_ For single glazed window in July:
pageid=75,20041&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL Q loss, max = 5.57*15*(23-20.5) = 208.875 W/house
[Accessed 3 Oct. 2014]. = 20.89 kW/100 houses
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of biofuels per hectare, per annum. [online] Available For double glazed window with 6.4mm gap
at: Q loss, max = 3.2*15*(23-20.5)
http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/portal/page?_ = 120W/house
pageid=75,163231&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL =12 kW/100 houses
[Accessed 3 Oct. 2014].
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transfer. 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Q loss, max, single, effective = Q loss, max / Efficiency generator
13. Mpoweruk.com, (2014). Electricity Generation using =45.95/0.5
Steam Turbines. [online] Available at: =91.9 kW/100 houses
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<http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific- Erequired = Q loss, max, single, effective *hours*days
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resources/ocean-energy> = 66168 kWh
15. Energy Central. The Age of Undersea Windmills = 6.6 MWh
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<http://www.energycentral.com/articles/article/1226> Wood required in July:
M wood, max, single pane =Q loss, window/ (E content*Efficiency generator)
= 661268/4.1
Appendix A Sample Calculations = 16139 kg/month/100 houses
= 16.14 tonne/month/100 houses
Assumptions
No heat loss through walls due to insulation. Table 3 shows the cost for operating over a year for double
Windows are 3 mm thick and cover an area of 15 and single-paned windows, based on energy costs of
m2 $0.095/kWh.
U-factor of single and double-glazing with a
6.4mm gap are 5.57 and 3.2 respectively Windows
are double door type wood framed [9].
-To is the average monthly temperature.
-Heat transfer is one-dimensional.
Steady operating conditions.
Energy from biofuel approx. 4.1 kWh/kg.
Throughout month constant heat loss
Wood combustion
Wood combusted is at specified moisture content.
Efficiency of generator is 70% [10]