Chap 004

Chapter 04 - The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture
Chapter 4: The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture
Learning Objectives and Chapter Summary

1. DEFINE the term "culture," and discuss some of the comparative ways of
differentiating cultures.
Culture is acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate
social behavior. Culture also has the characteristics of being learned, shared,
transgenerational, symbolic, patterned, and adaptive. There are many dimensions
of cultural diversity, including centralized vs. decentralized decision-making, safety
vs. risk, individual vs. group rewards, informal vs. formal procedures, high vs. low
organizational loyalty, cooperation vs. competition, short-term vs. long-term
horizons, and stability vs. innovation.
2. DESCRIBE the concept of cultural values, and relate some of the international
differences, similarities, and changes occurring in terms of both work and
managerial values.
Values are basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong,
good and bad, important and unimportant. Research shows that there are both
differences and similarities between the work values and managerial values of
different cultural groups. Work values often reflect culture and industrialization,
and managerial values are highly related to success. Research shows that values
tend to change over time and often reflect age and experience.
Recent research undertaken by the GLOBE project has attempted to extend and
integrate cultural attributes and variables as they relate to managerial leadership and
practice. These analyses confirm much of the Hofstede and Trompenaars research
with greater emphasis on differences in managerial leadership styles.
3. IDENTIFY the major dimensions of culture relevant to work settings, and discuss
their effect on behavior in an international environment.
Hofstede has identified and researched four major dimensions of culture: power
distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity. Each will affect a
countrys political and social system. The integration of these factors into two-
dimensional figures can illustrate the complexity of cultures effect on behavior.
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4. DISCUSS the value of country cluster analysis and relational orientations in

developing effective international management practices.
Researchers have attempted to cluster countries into similar cultural groupings to

study similarities and differences. Through analyzing the relationship between two
dimensions, as Hofstede illustrated, two-dimensional maps can be created to show
how countries differ and where they overlap.
Research by Trompenaars has examined five relationship orientations:

universalism-particularism, individualism-communitarianism, affective-neutral,
specific-diffuse and achievement-ascription. Trompenaars also looked at attitudes
toward time and toward the environment. The result is a wealth of information
helping to explain how cultures differ as well as practical ways in which MNCs
can do business effectively in these environments. In particular, his findings update
those of Hofstede while helping support the previous work by Hofstede on
clustering countries.
The World of International Management: The Cultural Roots of

Toyotas Quality Crisis
1. Summary:
Toyotas recent U.S. recall of more than six million vehicles to repair faulty
accelerator pedals and floor mat problems highlights how cultural differences may
have contributed to the initial need for the recall as well as how the company has
handled the crisis. Toyotas design problems may have been a result of a corporate
culture that discouraged employees from speaking out about problems they
recognized and questioning consensus decisions. The companys response to the
problems once they became apparent reflect the traditional Japanese approach to
corporate crises of saving face and being disconnected from customers rather than
the more transparent, action-oriented approach U.S. companies typically take.
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2. Suggested Class Discussion:
1. Students should be able to identify and discuss the impact of cultural

differences on business and why MNCs need to recognize and incorporate
cultural differences in their strategic decision making.
2. Students should be encouraged to consider how a U.S. company might have

responded to a crisis like Toyotas and indeed whether the need for a recall
would have occurred at all, and identify the differences between the cultures of
Japan and the United States and how those differences influence the behavior of
managers.
3. Related Internet Sites:
BusinessWeek: {http://www.businessweek.com}.
Toyota: {http://www.toyota.com}.
Chapter Outline with Lecture Notes and Teaching Tips
The Nature of Culture

1) The word "culture" comes from Latin Cultura, which is related to cult or worship.
Culture is the acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate
social behavior. This knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavior.
Most scholars of culture would agree on the following characteristics of culture:
a) Learned - culture is not inherited or biologically based; it is acquired by learning and
experience.
b) Shared - people are members of groups that share culture; it is not specific to single
individuals.
c) Transgenerational - culture is cumulative, passed down from one generation to the
next.
d) Symbolic - culture is based on the human capacity to symbolize or use one thing to
represent another.
e) Patterned - culture has structure and is integrated; a change in one part will bring
changes in another.
f) Adaptive - culture is based on the human capacity to change or adapt, as opposed to
the more genetically driven adaptive process of animals.
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Cultural Diversity
1) There are many ways of examining cultural differences and their impact on international
management. Culture can affect technology transfer, managerial attitudes, managerial
ideology, and even business-government relations.
a) Here are some specific examples where the culture of a society can directly affect
management approaches:
i) Centralized vs. decentralized decision making.
ii) Safety vs. Risk
iii) Individual vs. Group Rewards
iv) Informal vs. Formal Procedures
v) High vs. Low Organizational Loyalty
vi) Cooperation vs. Competition
vii) Short-Term vs. Long-Term Horizon
Teaching Tip: The Diversity Database at the University of Maryland provides a wide
array of information on diversity related issues. The site is available at
{http://www.inform.umd.edu/EdRes/Topic/Diversity/}.
Teaching Tip: The website entitled "The Web of Culture" features a vast amount of
information on languages, religions, gestures, holidays, and more from different countries
in the world. The site can be found at {http://www.globalbusinessleadership.com/}.
Values in Culture
1) Values basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and
bad, important or unimportant.
Value Differences and Similarities across Cultures
1) Personal values have been the focus of numerous intercultural studies.
Values in Transition
1) Do values change over time? George England found that personal value systems are
relatively stable and do not change rapidly. However, changes are taking place in
managerial values as a result of both culture and technology.
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Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions
1) Geert Hofstede - Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede found that there are four dimensions of
culture that help explain how and why people from various cultures behave as they do.
These dimensions are; (1) power distance; (2) uncertainty avoidance, (3) individualism,
and (4) masculinity.
2) Power Distance - the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and
organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.
3) Uncertainty Avoidance - the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous

situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these.
4) Individualism vs. Collectivism

a) Individualism is the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate
family only.
b) Collectivism is the tendency of people to belong to groups or collectives and to look
after each other in exchange for loyalty.
5) Masculinity vs. Femininity

a) Masculinity is a culture in which the dominant values in society are success, money,
and that scores high on masculinity.
b) Femininity is a culture in which the dominant values in society are caring for others
and quality of life scores high on femininity.
6) Integrating of Dimensions - a description of the four dimensions of culture is useful in

helping to explain the differences between various countries, and Hofstede's research has
extended beyond this focus and showed how countries can be described in terms of pairs
of dimensions. See Figures 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, and 4-7 in the textbook.
Trompenaars' Cultural Dimensions
1) Trompenaar derived five relationship orientations that address the ways people deal with
each other. Trompenaar also looked at dimensions of time and the environment.
2) Universalism vs. Particularism

a) Universalism - the belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the
world without modification.
b) Particularism - the belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be
applied and something cannot be done the same everywhere.
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3) Individualism vs. Communitarianism

a) Individualism - refers to people regarding themselves as individuals.
b) Communitarianism - refers to people regarding themselves as part of a group.
4) Neutral vs. Emotional

a) Neutral culture - a culture in which emotions are held in check.
b) Emotional culture - a culture in which emotions are expressed openly and naturally.
5) Specific vs. Diffuse

a) Specific culture - a culture in which individuals have a large public space they readily
share with others and a small private space they guard closely and share with only
close friends and associates.
b) Diffuse culture - a culture in which both public and private space are similar in size
and individuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space
affords entry into private space as well.
6) Achievement vs. Ascription

a) Achievement culture - a culture in which people are accorded status based on how well
they perform their functions.
b) Ascription culture - a culture in which status is attributed based on who or what a
person is.
7) Time
a) Sequential approach - in cultures where sequential approaches are prevalent, people
tend to do only one activity at a time, keep appointments strictly, and show a strong
preference for following plans as they are laid out and not deviating from them.
b) Synchronous approach - in cultures where synchronous approaches are common,
people tend to do more than one activity at a time, appointments are approximate and
may be changed at a moment's notice, and schedules generally are subordinate to
relationships.
8) The Environment - Trompenaars also examined the ways in which people deal with their
environment. Specific attention should be given to whether they believe in controlling
outcomes (inner-directed) or letting things take their own course (outer-directed).
9) Cultural Patterns or Clusters - Like Hofstede's work, Trompenaars' research lends itself
to cultural patterns or clusters. Table 4-5 relates his findings to the five relational
orientations. See Table 4-5 in the textbook.
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Integrating Culture and Management: The GLOBE Project

1) The Global Leadership and organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project
extends and integrates previous analyses of cultural attributes and variables. Nine cultural
attributes are identified using 17,000 middle managers from 825 organizations in 62
countries, representing three industries: financial services, food processing, and
telecommunications.
Culture and Management
1) The GLOBE project attempted to answer the following questions:

a) Are there leader behaviors, attributes, and organizational practices that are universally
accepted and effective across cultures?
b) Are there leader behaviors, attributes, and organizational practices that are accepted
and effective in only some cultures?
c) How do attributes of societal and organizational culture affect the kinds of leader
behaviors and organizational practices that are accepted and effective?
d) What is the effect of violating cultural norms relevant to leadership and organizational
practices?
e) What is the relative standing of each of the cultures studied on each of the nine core
dimensions of culture?
f) Can the universal and culture-specific aspects of leader behaviors, attributes, and
organizational practices be explained in terms of an underlying theory that accounts
for systematic differences across cultures?
GLOBEs Cultural Dimensions
1) There are nine cultural dimensions uncertainty avoidance, power distance, collectivism I
(societal collectivism), collectivism II (in-group collectivism), gender egalitarianism,
assertiveness, future orientation, performance orientation, and humane orientation.
GLOBE Country Analysis
1) The initial results of the GLOBE analysis are presented in Table 4-6. The GLOBE
analyses correspond generally with those of Hofstede and Trompenaars, although with
some variations resulting from the variable definitions and methodology.
The World of International Management - Revisited
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Questions & Suggested Answers
1. What dimensions contribute to the differences between how Americans and

Japanese workers address management problems, including operational or product
flaws?
Answer: Americans tend to migrate towards individualism and masculinity.

Individualism is the tendency of people to look after themselves and their
immediate family only. American corporations allow employees to work
individually, rather than always working as a group. Masculinity is a culture in
which the dominant values in society are success, money, and things. In order to
maximize these items, Americans use technology and time to their fullest. In Japan,
the dimensions that explain workers use of current technology include uncertainty
avoidance, and collectivism. Uncertainty avoidance is the threat of unambiguous
situations and managers in Japan assume employees are not working unless they are
in the office. Collectivism is the tendency of people to belong to groups or
collectives and to look after each other in exchange for loyalty. Again, the Japanese
culture is to put in long hours at the office and be a part of a company and co-
workers, rather than working from home or on the road. However, change is
beginning and individualism is on the rise.
2. What are some ways that Japanese culture may affect operational excellence in a
positive way? How might it hurt quality, especially when things go wrong?
Answer: Uncertainty avoidance is high in Japanese culture, where there is a need

for security and less risk. From an operational perspective, this attitude can
encourage firms to make decisions that are sure bets avoiding more risky options
and therefore improve operational excellence in a positive way. In contrast, the
emphasis on consensus and collectivist values that are central to the Japanese
culture could result in quality problems for Japanese firms. In Toyotas case for
example, employees may have been unwilling to speak out about problems with
acceleration or floor mats for fear of rocking the boat. This attitude allowed the
problems at Toyota to continue to grow until they reached crisis proportions.
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3. How could managers from Japan or other Asian cultures adopt practices from the
U.S. and European cultures when investing in those regions?
Answer: Managers from Japan or other Asian countries working in the U.S. or
Europe could consider taking a more individualistic approach to business.
Americans in particular are recognized for their highly individualistic attitudes, and
trying to use the consensus decision making that is so common in Japan could be
difficult. In addition, managers may want to consider taking a more caring
approach to the environment. Many countries in Europe score much higher on the
femininity index as compared to Japan.
Key Terms
Achievement culture
Ascription culture
Collectivism
Communitarianism
Culture
Diffuse culture
Emotional culture
Femininity
GLOBE
Individualism
Masculinity
Neutral culture
Particularism
Power distance
Specific culture
Uncertainty avoidance
Universalism
Values
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Review and Discussion Questions
1. What is meant by the term culture? In what way can measuring attitudes about the
following help to differentiate between cultures: centralized or decentralized
decision-making, safety or risk, individual or group rewards, high or low
organizational loyalty, cooperation or competition? Use these attitudes to compare
the United States, Germany, and Japan. Based on your comparisons, what
conclusions can you draw regarding the impact of culture on behavior?
Answer: Culture is acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and
generate social behavior. It is the custom and practices that will exist within the
country. Culture can be differentiated by the attitudes displayed or performed in
various subcultures within a country. These attitudes are:
Centralized vs. decentralized decision-making. In some societies, top managers

make all-important organizational decisions. In others, these decisions are
diffused throughout the enterprise, and middle- and lower-level managers
actively participate in, and make, key decisions.
Attitudes will vary because of cultural differences in the U.S., Germany, and Japan.
In the U.S. management will often use centralized or decentralized authority
depending on the organization philosophy of management. A more proactive
approach is the use of a decentralized approach in the U.S. Germany has a more
centralized bureaucratic and formal organization control. Management in Japan is
more group oriented in making decisions. This will be a more decentralized
approach to management.
Safety vs. risk. In some societies, organizational decision makers are risk-
averse and have great difficulty with conditions of uncertainty. In others, risk-
taking is encouraged, and decision-making under uncertainty is common.
The attitude toward safety vs. risk varies from one firm to another in the U.S. In
Germany safety and risk are important concerns because of labor unions. The
attitude of safety and risk in Japan will be an important concern of the group.
Group norms will influence management decision-making.
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Individual vs. group rewards. In some countries, personnel who do outstanding

work are given individual rewards in the form of bonuses and commissions. In
others, cultural norms require group rewards, and individual rewards are
frowned upon.
The attitude in the U.S. has traditionally focused on individual rewards. More and
more companies are moving toward group rewards and self-managed teams in the
U.S. In Germany there is a combination of individual and group rewards based on
a corporate culture and the philosophy of management. In Japan the attitude or
focus is based on group rewards. Quality circle applications are used to reward
groups for the introduction of new cost-saving techniques.
High or low organizational loyalty. In some societies, people identify very

strongly with their organization or employer. In other, people identify with their
occupational group, such as engineer or mechanic.
The attitude of organizational loyalty is an important issue facing U.S. firms.
Traditionally it has been individual loyalty, however management has to earn and
then maintain a high degree of loyalty. Many firms experience a lack of
commitment therefore a low degree of individual loyalty to the organization. In
Germany the Western influence has created a great degree of stress therefore many
firms have a low degree of loyalty from individuals. In Japan there is a high degree
of organizational loyalty derived from the group. The Japanese culture is very
important therefore a high degree of organization loyalty is extremely important.
Cooperation vs. competition. Some societies encourage cooperation between

people. Others encourage competition between people.
In the U.S., employees and labor unions are displaying more cooperation; however
they remain extremely competitive in the work environment. Competitiveness
ranks very high with individuals vs. groups in the U.S. In Germany the attitude of
cooperation and competitiveness varies from organization to organization. Labor
unions and operating employees are extremely competitive in German operations.
In Japan, the work group will attempt to be more cooperative with management to
achieve company objectives. Cooperation and a commitment to the job until the
task is complete are important operating norms in Japan.
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2. What is meant by the term value? Are cultural values the same worldwide or are
there marked differences? Are these values changing over time or are they fairly
constant? How does your answer relate to the role of values in a culture?
Answer: Values are basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and
wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant. Values are learned from the
culture in which the individual is reared, and they help direct and guide behavior.
Research shows that there are both differences and similarities between the work
values and managerial values of different cultures. For example, American
managers often place high value on the tactful acquisition of influence and regard
for others while Japanese managers place high value on deference to superiors and
company commitment. Korean managers place high value on personal forcefulness
and aggressiveness and low recognition of others.
Research on the question of whether values change over time is inconclusive. For
example, one researcher found that personal value systems are relatively stable and
do not change rapidly. On the other hand, there are changes taking place in
managerial values as a result of culture and technology. Japanese managers
working for Japanese firms in the U.S. have indicated that they do not believe that
unconditional tenure in an organization is of major importance even though lifetime
employment is widely accepted in Japanese culture. Additionally, formal authority,
obedience, and conformance to hierarchical authority are very important to Japan,
but Japanese managers working in the U.S. felt that obedience and conformity were
not important and in fact, often questioned a superior.
While these Japanese managers believe in group orientation and cooperation, they
still support the notion of maintaining a balance between group and individual
orientation.
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3. What are the four dimensions of culture studied by Geert Hofstede? Identify and
describe each. What is the cultural profile of the United States? Of Asian
countries? Of Latin American countries? Of Latin European countries? Based on
your comparisons of these four profiles, what conclusions can you draw regarding
cultural challenges facing individuals in one group when they interact with
individuals in one of the other groups?
Answer: The answer to this question is as follows:
Four dimensions are:

1) Power Distance - The extent to which less powerful members of institutions and
organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.
2) Uncertainty Avoidance - The extent to which people feel threatened by

ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid
these.
3) Individualism vs. Collectivism - Individualism is the tendency of people to look

after themselves and their immediate family only. Collectivism is the tendency
of people to belong to groups or collectives and to look after each other in
exchange for loyalty.
4) Masculinity vs. Femininity - A culture in which the dominant values in society

are success, money, and things scores high on masculinity. A culture in which
the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life scores
high on femininity.
Cultural Profiles:
Americans and Latin Europeans are both low on power distance and high on
individualism.
Asians and Latin Americans are both high on power distance and low on
individualism.
Latin Europeans and Latin Americans are both high on uncertainty avoidance.
Americans are relatively masculine compared to the other groups.
From these comparisons, we can conclude that Americans might find that
interacting with Latin Europeans is less challenging than with Latin Americans or
Asians. Latin Americans and Asians might find more similarities between
themselves when interacting. In any cross-cultural interaction, some conflict is
inevitable. By understanding these basic similarities and differences we can begin
to prepare for, and minimize, the conflicts.
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4. As people engage in more international travel and become more familiar with other
countries, will cultural differences decline as a roadblock to international
understanding or will they continue to be a major barrier? Defend your answer.
Answer: There will be a decline in cultural barriers but it will be a very slow and
gradual decline. Cultural values develop very slowly and are somewhat resistant to
change. As people become more mobile across countries, there will be a blending
of the cultures, which will have the effect of breaking down the barriers.
5. What are the characteristics of each of the following pairs of cultural characteristics
derived from Trompenaars research: universalism vs. particularism, neutral vs.
affective, specific vs. diffuse, achievement vs. ascription? Compare and contrast
each pair.
Answer: The answer to this question is as follows:
Universalism vs. particularism - A universalistic culture believes that ideas and

practices can be applied everywhere without modification. Contrast that to a
particularistic culture, which believes that circumstances and situations force
practices to be modified, not applied universally. A good practical example would
focus on how literally to take formal business contracts. Which cultures will tend
to enforce contracts "to the letter" (universalist), as compared to those cultures
where more flexibility is allowed (particularistic)? How could this result in conflict
if universalistic and particularistic partners were doing business?
Neutral vs. emotional - These two cultural dimensions contrast how emotions are
expressed. A neutral culture will tend to hold in feelings, or, "maintain composure."
An emotional culture is characterized by an open, natural expression of feelings.
You might want to discuss how a typical meeting might be played out when both of
these types of cultures are present. What types of conflict are going to occur? How
can they be handled?
Specific vs. diffuse - These two dimensions contrast how individuals view their
space. A specific culture consists of private space that is guarded closely. The
United States is a good example of a specific culture. We generally allow people to
freely walk into our offices, but would be offended if somebody was going through
our desk drawers or showed up unannounced at our home. Contrast this to a diffuse
culture, which doesn't separate as strongly the public and private space. Once you
are in the public space, you are also in the private space. Therefore, you may not be
invited into anothers office or home in a diffuse culture as quickly. These diffuse
cultural values may give the impression of unfriendliness or introversion.
Achievement vs. ascription - The key here is how status is defined. Achievement
cultures are characterized by status being defined by how well one performs his
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functions. In the United States, for example, we tend to respect the Michael
Jordon's or the Jack Welch's of the world based primarily on specific
accomplishments. Contrast this to an ascriptive culture, where status is accorded
based upon other factors, such as age, gender, or social connections.
6. How did project GLOBE build on and extend Hofstedes analysis? What major
contributions are associated with project GLOBE?
Answer: The GLOBE project extended and integrated earlier analyses of cultural
attribute and variables, and represents every geographic location in the world. The
project was conducted by a multicultural team allowing for a better definition and
conceptualization of the constructs used, and a more rigorous collection of data.
The study generally supported Hofstedes results, as well as those of Trompenaars.
7. In what way is time a cultural factor? In what way is the need to control the
environment a cultural factor? Give an example for each.
One way to approach this question would be to contrast what it would be like to do
business in these countries. How are you going to be perceived if you attempt to
adhere to a rigid schedule in a country like Mexico? It could be argued that this is
the most important dimension for MNCs to understand. Mexican managers
working in the U.S. could be greatly harmed if they didn't adapt to the U.S. concept
of how to deal with time. Contrast this to a U.S. manager who gets upset while
doing business in Mexico because he waits over an hour for an appointment. It is
critical that the students understand the importance of this dimension.
The environment dimension also plays an important role. An individuals' behavior

is dramatically influenced by his or her perception of how much control he or she
has. People who believe that they are masters of their own fate will generally have
a dominant, aggressive attitude. In addition, they could show signs of discomfort
when things appear to be getting out of control. Contrast this with a culture where
people believe events happen in natural waves or shifts. This will convey a more
flexible attitude of compromise and harmony.
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Internet Exercise: Renault-Nissan in South Africa

Suggestion for Using the Exercise
1. The alliance between Renault and Nissan is just one example of the cross-border
alliances that permeate the global auto industry. Ask your students to identify other
alliances between auto companies and discuss how differing cultural attitudes could
influence how those alliances operate. How might the culture differences improve
the success of the alliances? What problems might emerge for the alliances as a
result of the cultural differences?
In The International Spotlight: South Africa

1. In what way could the huge cultural diversity in South Africa pose challenges for
MNCs seeking to set up a business there?
Answer: The tremendous cultural diversity that exists in South Africa could create
many challenges for MNCs seeking to do business in the country. Long held
tensions between ethnic groups could create problems for MNCs when hiring
employees, establishing managerial reporting systems, and even when marketing to
customers. In addition, MNCs may find that their decision making is constrained
by the government policies and indeed even the international political environment
which may limit certain types of activities or transactions as part of an effort to
encourage certain types of behaviors.
2. How is South African culture different from or similar to U.S. culture?
Answer: Both the U.S. and South Africa are home to multiple ethnic groups
creating a melting pot of sorts. This melting pot helps to create a richer culture, but
tensions between groups and in particular the rights afforded to each group can also
create problems. Indeed, there have been efforts to create more equality between
ethnic groups in the U.S. for decades. This type of effort is more recent in South
Africa, and tensions between blacks and white in particular remain strong.
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3. In what ways could South Africa benefit from hosting the World Cup in the long
term?
Answer: The 2010 World Cup Soccer tournament put South Africa in the global
spotlight and brought the country much needed economic growth. More than
160,000 new jobs were created as part of the World Cup. In addition, to cope with
the requirements of the tournament, the country upgraded its transportation
infrastructure and its ability to generate power using environmentally-friendly
techniques. The skills and training workers received as part of this process are
another benefit associated with hosting the World Cup.
4. What do you think are the most pressing social issues in South Africa and how is
the country doing resolving them?
Answer: Social problems including poverty, AIDS, crime, and corruption continue
to create challenges for South Africa. For years, the government failed to address
these problems, but more recently, efforts have been made to find solutions.
Certainly the recent hosting of the World Cup has created new jobs and provided
many people with new skills, but more remains to be done. AIDS awareness
campaigns have been implemented to try to address the problems associated with
the disease, and in 2010, new guidelines for pregnant women with AIDS were
established. The government has also taken steps to curb corruption, and while
these efforts have met with some success, corruption remains a problem for the
country.
You Be the International Consultant: A Jumping-Off Place

1. In what way will the culture of Spain be different from that of the United States? In
answering this question, refer to Figures 4-5, 4-6, and 4-7.
Answer: The culture of Spain is quite different from that of the United States. For
example, in terms of individualism, the United States is very high while Spain is
only moderately high; power distance in the United States is low while it is high in
Spain; uncertainty avoidance is much lower in the United States than in Spain; and
masculinity is higher in the United States than in Spain.
On each of the four cultural dimensions measured in these figures, the United States
is in a different quadrant than is Spain.
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2. If the company expands operations into Italy, will its experience in Spain be of
value or will the culture be so different that the manufacturer will have to begin
anew in determining how to address cultural challenges and opportunities?
Explain.
Answer: In answering this question it is necessary to examine the four dimensions

of culture in Italy and compare them to Spain. In terms of power distance, both
countries are in the same quadrant and have approximately the same degree of this
dimension. Individualism in Italy, however, is higher than that in Spain.
Conversely, uncertainty avoidance is a little higher in Spain than in Italy, while
masculinity is much higher in Italy than in Spain. So the company will find that the
culture in these two countries is fairly different and will have to realize that what
works in Spain will not necessarily work in Italy.
3. If the firm then expands into France, will its previous experiences in Spain and Italy
be of any value in helping the company address cultural challenges? Be complete
in your answer.
Answer: If the company expands into France, its experiences in Spain will be of
more value than its experiences in Italy but both experiences will be useful. This is
clearly seen in Figures 4-5, 4-6, and 4-7. In each case the cultural dimensions of
France are in the same quadrant as those of Spain and in the first and last of these
figures, France is closer to Spain on these cultural dimensions. On the other hand,
Italy's culture is also going to be of value. This is particularly clear from Figure
4-5, where this country is closer to France than Spain.
Overall, however, as seen in Figure 4-5 and 4-6, all three countries are in the same
cultural cluster, so the firm's experiences in both Spain and Italy will be helpful if it
expands into France.
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Chap 004

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Chapter 04 - The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture

Chapter 4: The Meanings and Dimensions of Culture

Learning Objectives and Chapter Summary

4. DISCUSS the value of country cluster analysis and relational orientations in

Researchers have attempted to cluster countries into similar cultural groupings to

Research by Trompenaars has examined five relationship orientations:

The World of International Management: The Cultural Roots of

2. Suggested Class Discussion:

1. Students should be able to identify and discuss the impact of cultural

2. Students should be encouraged to consider how a U.S. company might have

3. Related Internet Sites:

Chapter Outline with Lecture Notes and Teaching Tips

The Nature of Culture

Value Differences and Similarities across Cultures

1) Personal values have been the focus of numerous intercultural studies.

Hofstedes Cultural Dimensions

3) Uncertainty Avoidance - the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous

4) Individualism vs. Collectivism

5) Masculinity vs. Femininity

6) Integrating of Dimensions - a description of the four dimensions of culture is useful in

Trompenaars' Cultural Dimensions

2) Universalism vs. Particularism

3) Individualism vs. Communitarianism

4) Neutral vs. Emotional

5) Specific vs. Diffuse

6) Achievement vs. Ascription

Integrating Culture and Management: The GLOBE Project

Culture and Management

1) The GLOBE project attempted to answer the following questions:

GLOBEs Cultural Dimensions

GLOBE Country Analysis

The World of International Management - Revisited

Questions & Suggested Answers

1. What dimensions contribute to the differences between how Americans and

Answer: Americans tend to migrate towards individualism and masculinity.

Answer: Uncertainty avoidance is high in Japanese culture, where there is a need

Review and Discussion Questions

Centralized vs. decentralized decision-making. In some societies, top managers

Individual vs. group rewards. In some countries, personnel who do outstanding

High or low organizational loyalty. In some societies, people identify very

Cooperation vs. competition. Some societies encourage cooperation between

Answer: The answer to this question is as follows:

Four dimensions are:

2) Uncertainty Avoidance - The extent to which people feel threatened by

3) Individualism vs. Collectivism - Individualism is the tendency of people to look

4) Masculinity vs. Femininity - A culture in which the dominant values in society

Answer: The answer to this question is as follows:

Universalism vs. particularism - A universalistic culture believes that ideas and

The environment dimension also plays an important role. An individuals' behavior

Internet Exercise: Renault-Nissan in South Africa

In The International Spotlight: South Africa

2. How is South African culture different from or similar to U.S. culture?

You Be the International Consultant: A Jumping-Off Place

Answer: In answering this question it is necessary to examine the four dimensions

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