09 Compressor Vibration (Compressed)

Compressor Vibration
Reciprocating
Compressors
Condition Monitoring & Diagnostics
2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.
Understanding compressor characteristics allows us to more effectively evaluate the measured

vibration.
- Changes in vibration trends can indicate changes in compressor condition (baseline reference
samples are important for comparison).
- Crank angle-referenced plots allow us to correlate measured vibration with specific events (valves
opening & closing, rod reversal, crosshead impulses, etc.).
Note: We will be discussing compressor vibration in a simplified manner, but it is important to realize
that the compressor and its attached systems experience a wide variety of interactions. The
movement of the compressor due to the applied forces is a complex response that includes mass,
stiffness, and damping effects. The machine accelerates proportionally to the applied force and
inversely according to its mass (Newtons Second Law, F = MA). It also deforms proportionally to the
applied forces (Hookes Law, F = kx). Finally, there are viscous damping effects from the foundation,
attached piping and the machine components themselves.
In reciprocating machinery, accelerometers should be used to measure impact and gas leak
malfunctions which have characteristic of high frequency signals. Velocity measurements are
intended to measure rotational related malfunctions, such as, overloading, foundation degradation
or unbalanced forces. The two work together to give a complete picture of the machine condition.
DRAFT. December, 2007 1

Presentation Contents
Vibration Condition Monitoring

Frame Vibration
Crosshead Vibration
Combining Measurements
Component Failures Common compressor problems produce recognizable

vibration symptoms.
Vibration Transducers Accelerometers and velocity sensors are typically installed to
the compressor frame and crosshead guides.
Frame Vibration is useful for evaluating forces caused by piston rod loading (gas &
inertial forces), and moment forces imparted to the main bearings by the crankshaft
because of its asymmetric design.
Crosshead Vibration can be used to detect Load reversal eventsValve events
Combining Measurements is often useful for

Frame Vibration Crosshead Vibration

Crankshaft Bearings Crosshead Pin, Bushing, Shoes
excess clearance excess clearance
Gas Pressure Pulsations Liquid Ingestion Events
acoustic resonance abnormal valve action
Piping Vibration Piston, Cylinder Liners
mechanical resonance looseness, shifting
Valves
sticking, slamming
These
These component
component failures
failures often
often produce
produce detectable
detectable vibration
vibration
at
at either
either the
the frame
frame or
or the
the crosshead
crosshead guide
guide (or
(or both).
both).
-Crankshaft bearings excess clearance caused by inadequate lubrication, wear,

overloading (may cause elevated frame vibration).
-Crosshead pin & bushing excess clearance caused by inadequate
lubrication, wear, overloading (impulses at load reversal points).
-Crosshead shoes excess clearance caused by inadequate lubrication,
overheating, wear (impulses when vertical forces shift through zero).
-Cylinder liners shifting within cylinder caused by improper installation (impulses
when vertical force overcomes gravity).
-Gas pressure pulsations caused by acoustic resonance in process piping (frame
vibration at acoustic resonance frequency).
-Liquid ingestion events caused by abnormal condensation in process gas stream
(large impulses may be generated by valve components).
-Piping vibration caused by mechanical resonance (frame vibration at mechanical
resonance frequency).
-Piston looseness of parts and fasteners caused by cyclic fatigue, inadequate
torquing (impulses when chamber pressures shift through zero differential).
-Valves slamming caused by gas contamination or polymerization (impulses when
differential pressure overcomes stiction force).

Vibration Transducers
Crank Angle
& RPM
Frame
Vibration
Crosshead
Guide Temp
Piston Rod
Position
Packing
Temperature
Valve
Temperature Cylinder
Pressure **
Main Bearing
Temperature
Suction Gas
Continuous Temperature
Crosshead Discharge Gas
Temperature Rod Load
Acceleration
This drawing shows a compressor that has been fully instrumented for condition
monitoring and protection. In this module, we will concentrate specifically on the
vibration transducers. The following page lists several commonly-encountered
component failures that may be detected by vibration symptoms.
Frame Vibration: Velocity sensors are installed on the frame to measure overall
machine vibration. Recommended transducer locations are aligned with frame webs
to efficiently transmit vibration from the main bearings.
Crosshead Acceleration: Acceleration sensors are installed on each crosshead to

monitor compressor impulse events. Since higher frequency vibration is attenuated
rapidly with distance, it is especially important to ensure that recommended sensor
mounting practices are used for accelerometers.
Note: Although not strictly a vibration measurement, accurate crank angle

measurements (described in the Crank Angle module) allow us to reference vibration
impulses to specific compressor events. This technique is important when correlating
data by combining different measurements.

Sensor Mounting Guidelines

Temperature limits Stud mounting hole Mounting surface spot-

Surface preparation drilled and tapped faced per specifications.
per specifications. Surface finish is critical
Drilling & tapping Axis perpendicular for accurate vibration
to mounting surface. measurements.
Acoustic couplant
Thread locking compound
Proper torque
Protective housing
Sensor cable anchors
-Sensors may be unreliable if ambient or machine surface temperatures exceed

limits specified by the sensor manufacturer.
-Proper surface preparation is critical for accurate vibration measurements.
-Mounting hole needs to be perpendicular to the mounting surface, and drilled and
tapped to match the sensor mounting stud.
A thin layer of appropriate acoustic couplant (such as silicone grease) helps the
vibration be transmitted from the machine surface to the sensor,
Thread locking compound is often used to prevent loosening of the mounting stud.
-The sensor should be installed per the manufaturers specified torque.
Protective housing
Sensor cable anchors

Frame Vibration
Spacer
Spacer Blocks
Blocks
Tie
Tie Bolts
Bolts
Velocity
Sensor Force
(not to scale)
Main
Main Bearing
Bearing
Support
Support Webs
Webs
This drawing shows a simple two throw compressor frame with the crankshaft
access covers removed. Connecting rods and crossheads are also removed.
The forces on the crankshaft are passed to the frame through the main bearings. For
best data acquisition, it is usually a good idea to locate the frame vibration sensors as
close as possible to a bearing support.
In the Rod Load presentation, we ranked the forces that the compressor typically
encounters:
Largest Gas forces (part of combined rod load)

Inertial forces (part of combined rod load)
Moment forces (due to asymmetry of crankshaft)
Smallest Rotating unbalance force
We measure frame vibration to determine the response to these forces, which cause
displacement of machine elements. The forces have substantial 1X and 2X
components. Since most large separable compressors operate at roughly 300 RPM
or less, the signals of interest are often less than 10 Hz.

Transducer Installation
Frame Vibration
Secure
Secure cable
cable
anchors
anchors
Protective
Protective
steel
steel guard
guard
The velocity transducer should be installed in-line with the main bearing centerline in
the horizontal direction. The cable must be securely fastened the to the frame of the
compressor to avoid creating false vibration signals.
This photo shows a typical frame velocity transducer installation. The transducer has
been installed in-line with the main bearing web at the horizontal centerline of the
compressor. A steel box has been installed to protect the transducer from
mechanical abuse and the cable has been tied down to the case at approximately
12 (25cm) intervals to prevent false vibration signals.
Reciprocating compressor frames are not usually split horizontally, so it is quite likely
that the velocity sensor may be installed at a location that corresponds exactly to the
position of the crankshaft centerline. Many other types of machines have casings
with horizontal splits, which prevent installing sensors to take true horizontal
vibration measurements.

Rod Load Forces

Frame Vibration
Opposing forces are transmitted to the frame through the

piston rod and the distance piece.
Frame Load
Rod Load
Frame Load
Gas forces were explained previously in the Rod Load presentation, and are included
here as a refresher. For large slow speed compressors (up to roughly 500 RPM), gas
forces are typically the largest single contributor to piston rod (and compressor
frame) load.

Rod Load Forces

Frame Vibration
Gas
Gas Force
Force
Combined
Combined
Force
Force
Complex
Complex non-sinusoidal
non-sinusoidal
shape
shape produces
produces many
many
harmonics
harmonics in
in spectrum
spectrum
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
The combined rod load waveform is very roughly a clipped triangle wave, as
indicated by the overlay on this plot. Such a waveform contains a rich series of
harmonic frequency components. We would expect a spectrum of this waveform to
include a combination of both odd and even harmonics since the signal shape has
some attributes of pulse, sawtooth, square and triangle waves.
We discussed rod load forces previously in the Rod Load presentation.
, and are included here as a refresher. For large slow speed compressors (up to
roughly 500 RPM), gas forces are typically the largest single contributor to piston rod
(and compressor frame) load.
When plotted over one complete stroke, the gas force has a complex shape,
while the inertial force is sinusoidal.

Moment Forces
Frame Vibration
Offset Throw Centerlines

Rod loads are applied along throw centerlines, which are
staggered along the length of the crankshaft. LARGE effect.
OffsetThrowForces.gif
10
The crankshaft is statically balanced with equal masses on opposite sides of the
crankshaft. However, these masses are distributed unevenly along the crankshaft.
These masses produce centrifugal forces as the crankshaft rotates. Since they are
offset from each other along the length of the crankshaft, these forces cause a
moment that tends to make the ends of the crankshaft wag away from the axial
centerline. (Shown in the associated animation, Animation-CrankMoment.avi). These
moment forces are transmitted to the main bearings, which hold the crankshaft in
axial alignment as it rotates.
Also, the centerlines of opposing throws are offset from each other, so rod loads are
applied at different locations along the length of the crankshaft. These offset rod
load forces also create moments on the crankshaft, which are transmitted to the
main bearings. Moment forces usually have dominant 1X and 2X components, and
tend to be largest at both ends of the crankshaft.

Moment Forces
Frame Vibration
Directly Opposed Throw Centerlines

Some modern designs eliminate moments by locating opposed
throws along a common centerline.
BalancedCrankDesign.gif
11
This drawing shows one available compressor design that eliminates moment forces.
This type of compressor has not been available for as long as the traditional
unbalanced designs, so there are not as many in use.
Note: Since it is impossible to create a perfect machine, there is always a small

amount of rotating unbalance, which is normally much smaller than the rod load and
moment forces.

Moment Forces
Frame Vibration
Asymmetric Crank Throws
If crankshaft does not have

counterweights, crank throw
masses are distributed unevenly.
Moment forces are much smaller

than those caused by rod loads
applied at offset throw centerlines.
Animation-CrankMoment.avi
12
The crankshaft is statically balanced with equal masses on opposite sides of the
crankshaft. However, these masses are distributed unevenly along the crankshaft.
These masses produce centrifugal forces as the crankshaft rotates. Since they are
offset from each other along the length of the crankshaft, these forces cause a
moment that tends to make the ends of the crankshaft wag away from the axial
centerline. (Shown in the associated animation, Animation-CrankMoment.avi). These
moment forces are transmitted to the main bearings, which hold the crankshaft in
axial alignment as it rotates.
Also, the centerlines of opposing throws are offset from each other, so rod loads are
applied at different locations along the length of the crankshaft. These offset rod
load forces also create moments on the crankshaft, which are transmitted to the
main bearings. Moment forces usually have dominant 1X and 2X components, and
tend to be largest at both ends of the crankshaft.

Frame Velocity Trend

Frame Vibration
NORMAL EXAMPLE: The

NORMAL EXAMPLE: The
compressor
compressor ran ran smoothly
smoothly
and
and reliably
reliably for
for two
two weeks
weeks
of
of steady-state
steady-state operation.
operation.
6.0
6.0 mm/s
mm/s peak
peak
(~0.24
(~0.24 in/s)
in/s) peak
peak
Shutdown
Shutdown
13
This plot shows frame vibration data collected from a horizontally-mounted velocity
sensor. The trend plot shows that frame vibration was fairly steady at about 6
mm/sec (0.24 inch/sec) zero-to-peak over a two-week period, until the machine was
shut down on October 4th. This is a good example of a machine that was operating
at steady conditions without any significant upsets.
Note: Solid-state (piezoelectric) velocity transducers are already integrating an

acceleration signal to obtain velocity units. If we were to integrate one more time in
order to obtain displacement, our monitoring system would be very susceptible to
low frequency noise and wiring problems. However, for diagnostic purposes, there
may be some value to this approach.

Frame Velocity Waveform

Frame Vibration
Non
Non drive
drive end
end
Center
Center
Drive
Drive end
end
Frame Velocity (in/s)
Velocity (ips)
ABNORMAL EXAMPLE: Vibration

ABNORMAL EXAMPLE: Vibration of
of
the
the non-drive
non-drive end
end was
was out
out of
of phase
phase
with
with the
the rest
rest of
of the
the machine.
machine. TheThe
cause
cause was
was found
found toto be
be aa damaged
damaged
machine
machine foundation.
foundation.
Crank Angle (deg)
14
This example plot shows unfiltered velocity data for the frame of an electric motor driven, 327
RPM horizontal balanced opposed three throw reciprocating compressor plotted against crank
angle position. Velocity transducers were mounted at three points along the frame oriented at 90
degrees left (viewed driver to driven), where 0 degrees is true vertical.
For a frame that is rigidly connected to a foundation in good condition, very little differential
movement exists between one part of the frame and another. The frame moves as a rigid body
and both the phase and amplitude of the vibration signal from all of the transducers should be
similar.
From the direct waveform it can be seen that a strong 2X crankshaft speed component exists. It
can also be observed that the amplitude and phase are very similar for the transducer on the drive
end and in the center of the frame. In contrast, the non-drive measurement indicates a high
amplitude velocity that is nearly opposite the other two measurements.
This compressor has a crankshaft driven oil pump at the non-drive end of the compressor. In
addition to the oil pump, a variety of flanged connections, gauges and transducers are installed at
the non-drive end of the compressor to support the lubrication system. Over the years of
operation oil leaks have occurred at this end of the machine. Over time, the oil penetrated the
concrete foundation and grout that help keep the machine secured to the foundation. The erosion
of the grout/concrete system at the non-drive end allowed the high differential motion across the
frame.

Frame Velocity Spectrum

Frame Vibration
Amplitude (in/s peak) 1X

1X
NORMAL EXAMPLE: Multiple

NORMAL EXAMPLE: Multiple
harmonics
harmonics are are produced
produced by
by the
the
complex
complex non-sinusoidal
non-sinusoidal shape
shape
of
of the
the rod
rod load
load waveform.
waveform.
2X
2X
3X,
3X, etc.
etc.
Frequency (Orders)
15
- Additional frequency components up to 10X or higher.

- Significant 1X and 2X frequency components.
- 7.5 Hz and 15.0 Hz in this example (450 RPM).
This spectrum plot displays frame velocity data for a different compressor from the
one on the previous slide.
Due to the collection settings for the waveform data in this example, this plot has a
very high resolution of 0.23 Hz between adjacent spectral lines (selected frequency
span of 120 Hz divided into 512 separate spectral lines, or bins). Frame velocity
usually includes significant 1X and 2X components, which correspond to 7.5 Hz and
15.0 Hz for this machine.
Note: Magnitude for a frame velocity signal is usually low (less than 0.3 ips). However,
at low frequencies, even small amplitudes of measured velocity correspond to large
amounts of displacement.

Velocity Filtering
Frame Vibration
Mechanical
Mechanical Valve
Valve Vibration
Vibration &&
Forces
Forces Mechanical
Mechanical Forces
Forces
Bandpass
Bandpass Filter
Filter
Amplitude (in/s peak)
1/2X
1/2X to
to 20X
20X
Frequency (Orders) 20X

20X
16
Valve acoustic noise travels across the distance piece, frame extension and
crosshead guide. To avoid false trips when crosshead accelerometers have been
installed, the filters on the rack should be set between 1/2X and 20X

Crosshead Vibration
Acceleration
Sensor
(not to scale)
17
This drawing shows a cross section of a frame and crosshead guide with the running
gear in place. The vertical motion of the crosshead is restrained by upper and lower
tracks of the crosshead guide.
As parts wear over time, the mechanical clearances increase. The extra clearance
gives the parts more distance to gain velocity and the impacts between the
components become more energetic. As an example, such impacts can occur
between the crosshead and its guide, as the babbitt crosshead shoes slowly erode.
The mechanical impacts produce high frequency structural vibration (sometimes

called ring-down) which can be measured with an accelerometer mounted on the
crosshead guide. Crosshead acceleration signals are normally in the range of about
0.7 to 2.0 g. These signals typically have high frequency (more than 1 kHz) content.

Transducer Installation
Crosshead Vibration
Signal
Signal cables
cables
in
in conduits
conduits
Protective
sensor covers
18
Accelerometers detect high frequency vibrations associated with impacts and valve
noise. The ability of the sensor to detect these signals depends a great deal upon the
care with which the transducer is mounted to the machine case.
In this example, two accelerometers have been installed on each crosshead guide for
redundancy. The sensors are covered by protective mounting kits that protect the
accelerometers from adverse physical and environmental conditions.

Crosshead Guide Accelerometer

Crosshead Vibration
Valve Cover Acceleration Crosshead Acceleration
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Mechanical Valve Noise + Mechanical
Mechanical Valve Noise + Mechanical Filtering Rationale

19
This slide shows a spectrum from a valve cover accel on the left and a crosshead
accel on the right. In the case of the crosshead, significant signal content lies below
2000 Hertz; in contrast the valve cover accelerometers have most of the signal
content above 2000 Hertz.

MechanicalInertial
Inertial Force
Force
Valve Noise + Mechanical
Mechanical Valve Noise + Mechanical Filtering Rationale

20
This slide shows a spectrum from a valve cover accel on the left and a crosshead
accel on the right. In the case of the crosshead, significant signal content lies below
2000 Hertz; in contrast the valve cover accelerometers have most of the signal
content above 2000 Hertz.

Mechanical Impulse Evaluation

Crosshead Vibration
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
21
The filtered signal shows events related to mechanical looseness or knocks. The
signals in the filtered waveform needs to be correlated with valve events (in the case
of loose valves) or reversals (in the case of loose pistons or crossheads).

Normal Load Reversal Crosshead

Crosshead
Acceleration
Acceleration
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
23
23 203
203
22
Another interesting event also happens at the crosshead. As the gas pressures
change in the cylinder and the reciprocating masses change velocity, the combined
force at the crosshead pin reverses. Recall: This reversal is required to ensure that all
surfaces of the crosshead pin receive lubrication.
Typically, the rod load changes fairly rapidly at the point of reversal. In the example
shown here, the combined load at 20 degrees of crank angle is approximately 10,000
lbf of compression (negative rod load). Five degrees later, the load is approximately
10,000 lbf of tension (positive rod load). At 276 RPM, this 20,000 lbf load change took
place in approximately 0.003 seconds (3 milliseconds).
The large change in forces over a short time produces an effect very similar to
striking the machine elements with a (large) hammer. As the reversal occurs, the
mechanical elements of the structure ring like a bell, at their natural frequencies.
These high ringing frequencies can usually be detected by accelerometers mounted
on the crosshead guide.
Recommended Practice: Always use the combined rod load curve to identify angular
location of reversal events in the crosshead acceleration waveform.

Inadequate Load Reversal Frame

Frame
Acceleration
Acceleration
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
56
56 70
70
23
In this example, partial loading of the cylinder has caused the entire gas load curve
(blue) to occur below the zero force line. In other words, the gas is contributing
nothing but compressive load. Question: Which end of the cylinder is unloaded?
The combined load is positive (tension) from 56 degrees through 70 degrees of crank
angle. Maximum positive load is 2311.4 lbf at 67 degrees. Peak compressive load is
83,493.9 lbf at 289 degrees. This reversal of 14 degrees duration and 2.7% of the
opposite peak does not even meet the minimum requirements of API-618 (see Rod
Load module for more information).
In cases where rod reversal is inadequate or non-existent, the crosshead pin does not
shift significantly within the crosshead and connecting rod bushings. As a result, no
impacts and no structural ringing occur. The accelerometer impulse signal may be
very small even though the machine is being damaged. The absence of reversal
impulse events is not necessarily a good thing
Note: In this instance, the compressor was being subjected to partial loading for a
very short period as part of normal operations. But if the situation were to occur for
an extended time, crosshead pin damage could have occurred.

Valve Operation
Crosshead Vibration
Crosshead
Crosshead
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force Acceleration
Acceleration
Valve
Valve Open
Open Valve
Valve Closed
Closed
24
Opening and closing events When the valve opens or closes, its moving
components (plate, rings, poppets, etc.) impact against the guard and the seat. These
impacts can excite the structure of the compressor to vibrate at its resonant
frequency.

Valve Movement
Crosshead Vibration
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Ideal Valve Movement Actual Valve Movement
25
For an ideal suction valve, the motion of the disc components would appear as
shown by the square wave shape in the left-hand illustration above. At the exact
instant when the pressure inside the cylinder dropped below the gas pressure in the
gas passage, the valve would open completely. The valve would then remain fully
open during the entire suction stroke. When the pressure inside the cylinder rose
above the pressure in the inlet passage, the valve would instantly close and remain
closed for the rest of the cycle. A similar drawing can be made for the discharge
valve.
In real machines, the valve actually reacts more like the illustration on the right-hand
side. In addition, if the valves are leaking, the moving elements can be seated against
the guard and some amount of gas can pass through the valve in a reverse direction.

Acoustic Effects
Crosshead Vibration Crosshead
Crosshead
Acceleration
Acceleration
Valve
Valve Open
Open Valve
Valve Closed
Closed
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Normal flow turbulence Backleakage (abnormal)
26
Acoustic effects When gas flows through the valve, turbulence produces acoustic
(sound) energy in the process gas. This sound is well within the frequency range of an
accelerometer. Also, backleakage through a closed valve can produce an ultrasonic
hiss that is detectable with a portable instrument.

Valve Cover Monitoring Crosshead

Crosshead
Crosshead Vibration
Acceleration
Acceleration
Temperature Suction
Suction Valve
Valve Cover
Cover
Acceleration
Ultrasonic Acoustic Energy
Valve Cover
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force Discharge
Discharge Valve
Valve Cover
Cover
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Temperature Sensors
27
Temperature Valve covers are quite often monitored for temperature, as shown by
the photo in this slide. Elevated valve cover temperatures are a good indication that
valve leakage is occurring and is resulting in recompressing some of the gas. This
monitoring method is especially sensitive on suction valves, since there is a large
temperature difference between the inlet gas and the hot compressed gas that is
leaking through the closed valve.
Acceleration It is less common for valve covers to be routinely monitored for

vibration, but this can be a valuable diagnostic tool for specific problems. Seismic
sensors can be attached permanently (threaded stud, epoxy, etc.) or temporarily
(hand-held, magnetic base, etc.)
Ultrasonic Acoustic Energy This measurement is typically made with a portable

handheld gun type instrument. Since airborne and structureborne ultrasonic
energy attenuates rapidly with distance, this can be a very effective method for
narrowing down our search to a specific leaky valve.

Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Crosshead Guide Acceleration Time Waveform Example

28
When viewed without timing or other measurements, the signal looks like several
disconnected impulse/impact events.
Referring to the diagnostic methodology at the beginning of the course, it is critical to

understand the relationship between these events and what is happening in the
machine.
When viewed without timing or other measurements, the signal looks like a several
disconnected impulse/impact events.
By timing this waveform relative to top dead center and combining with other
measurements, each event can be dispositioned.

Valve Opening & Closing Events

Plot
Plot
Crosshead
Crosshead
0
0 92
92 180
180 283
283
Cursor
Cursor Acceleration
Acceleration
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
0
0 40
40 180
180 225
225
29
This plot shows the Pressure vs. Crank Angle curves for the #1 cylinder of a six-
cylinder machine. The blue circles indicate the opening and closing points for the
suction and discharge valves at both the head end and crank end of the cylinder. The
crank angles associated with these eight valve events are labeled.
Observe that the plot cursor has been placed on the suction valve opening event for
the crank end chamber. The crank angle of the cursor is displayed in the plot header.
We used the cursor in this way to identify the angular location of the other valve
events as well.
Recommended Practice: Always use cylinder pressure waveforms to identify crank

angle for valve opening and closing events for a specific cylinder at a specific set of
operating conditions.
Note: Even though we are looking at valve opening and closing events, we cannot
ignore load reversal events. When rod load changes between tension and
compression, the crosshead pin shift within the clearances of its bushings. Even
though this shift is small, it can produce an impact-like impulse that may be
detected by an accelerometer on the crosshead guide.

Inertial
Inertial Force
Force
Crosshead Guide Impulse Events

0
0 40
40 92
92 180
180 225
225 283
283 Valve
Valve Events
Events
23
23 203
203 Load
Load Reversal
Reversal Events
Events
30
This plot shows shows impulse events measured at the cylinder end of the crosshead
for the compressor that we have been discussing.
Valve Events: The six crank angles that correspond to valve events are labeled for
reference. These show us where to look for the presence of valve-related impulse
events. When this waveform sample was collected, we experienced a large impulse
at 92 degrees, a smaller impulse at 225 degrees, and even smaller impulses at 0 and
40 degrees. There may be a very small impulse at 180, but it is difficult to tell for sure.
Crosshead Events: Impulse events can also occur when the crosshead pin shifts in its
bushings at the point of load reversal. At the time this sample was collected, there
was a medium-sized impulse at 23 degrees, and possibly a very small one at 203
degrees.
For higher pressure cylinders such as this one, it is not uncommon to see valve
signatures from accelerometers on the crosshead guide. It may be possible to detect
valve events from head end valves as well as from crank-end valves. In fact, this
vibration can sometimes be detected all the way across the frame on opposing
crosshead guides. On cylinders with multiple suction and discharge valves on the
same chamber, it is very difficult to pick out a poorly operating valve from its
neighbors with crosshead accelerometers. In such a situation, ultrasonic
microphones are much better suited for performing detailed analysis of individual
valves.

Plot Cursors
225
225
Use synchronized cursors

between plots to correlate events
that occur at the same crank angle.
In this example, we are correlating

valve events with crosshead
impulse events.
Inertial
Inertial Force
Force 225
225
System 1 Display allows us to synchronize cursors between one or more plots. This
way, we can move the cursor to an event in one plot (such as the pressure vs. crank
angle plot shown here) and it will automatically track in another plot (such as in the
crosshead acceleration vs. crank angle plot shown above). By using this technique, it
is easy to observe that the crank end suction valve opening event corresponds to an
acceleration impulse event at 225 degrees.
For the cylinder and operating conditions that we have been evaluating, the following
crank angles correspond to the valve opening and closing events:
000 HE discharge valve closes.

000 CE suction valve closes.
040 HE suction valve opens.
092 CE discharge valve opens.
180 CE discharge valve closes.
180 HE suction valve closes.
225 CE suction valve opens.
283 HE discharge valve opens.

Data Analysis
Cylinder
Cylinder Crosshead
Crosshead
Pressure
Pressure Acceleration
Acceleration
Simultaneous
Simultaneous
events
events may
may bebe
causally
causally related.
related.
Crosshead
Crosshead Rod
Rod
Acceleration
Acceleration Position
Position
32
Cylinder Pressure, Rod Position, Frame Velocity and Valve Cover Acceleration
Valve acceleration events - correlated to pressure events making it possible to

identify valve problems such as stiction, flutter, etc.
Crosshead acceleration - correlated to rod load reversals for early identification of

excessive crosshead pin/bushing clearances
Exact correlation of piston rod movement to events inside cylinder resulting in early
diagnosis of clearance problems
At gos reversal there is an impact and rod ring down This shows the
piston is loose

Practice Exercises
Frame Vibration
Crosshead Vibration
33
Practice exercises for each module may be used for self-study or for instructor-led
group review sessions.

Example Acceleration Trend

4 DANGER setpoint
DANGER setpoint
Intermittent
Intermittent alarm
alarm prompted
prompted
staff
staff to
to evaluate
evaluate corresponding
corresponding
waveform
waveform samples.
samples.
ALERT setpoint
ALERT setpoint
Crosshead Acceleration (g)
Time (s) 34
This plot shows vibration trends both crosshead accelerometers on two opposing
throws of a 6-throw compressor.
Cylinder pressure data was normal
At approximately 12:36:42, the overall acceleration began to trend upward on both

accelerometers. From 12:36:42 until 12:38:06 the overall vibration trend crossed over
and under the threshold, but did not remain above the alert setting long enough to
trigger the alert for either accelerometer. The alert triggered at 12:38:07 on the East
accelerometer (the East accelerometer is the transducer closest to the cylinder). The
overall amplitude continued to rise and fall above threshold for the West
accelerometer and finally stayed above the threshold long enough the trigger the
alert at 12:39:30.

Example Acceleration Waveform

TDC BDC TDC
One
One cylinder
cylinder had
had aa very
very high
high
impulse
impulse at,
at, and
and just
just before
before
TDC
TDC while
while the
the intermittent
intermittent
alarm
alarm was
was occurring.
occurring.
Crosshead Acceleration (g)
Further
Further investigation
investigation showed
showed that
that
condensation
condensation waswas occurring
occurring at
at
the
the knockout
knockout drum
drum upstream
upstream of
of
the
the affected
affected cylinder.
cylinder.
0 100 200 300

Crank Angle (deg)
35

09 Compressor Vibration (Compressed)

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09 Compressor Vibration (Compressed)

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Compressor Vibration

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Understanding compressor characteristics allows us to more effectively evaluate the measured

DRAFT. December, 2007 1

Vibration Condition Monitoring

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Component Failures Common compressor problems produce recognizable

DRAFT. December, 2007 2

Vibration Condition Monitoring

Frame Vibration Crosshead Vibration

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

-Crankshaft bearings excess clearance caused by inadequate lubrication, wear,

DRAFT. December, 2007 3

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Crosshead Acceleration: Acceleration sensors are installed on each crosshead to

Note: Although not strictly a vibration measurement, accurate crank angle

DRAFT. December, 2007 4

Sensor Mounting Guidelines

Temperature limits Stud mounting hole Mounting surface spot-

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

-Sensors may be unreliable if ambient or machine surface temperatures exceed

DRAFT. December, 2007 5

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Largest Gas forces (part of combined rod load)

DRAFT. December, 2007 6

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

DRAFT. December, 2007 7

Rod Load Forces

Opposing forces are transmitted to the frame through the

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

DRAFT. December, 2007 8

Rod Load Forces

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

We discussed rod load forces previously in the Rod Load presentation.

DRAFT. December, 2007 9

Offset Throw Centerlines

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

DRAFT. December, 2007 10

Directly Opposed Throw Centerlines

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Note: Since it is impossible to create a perfect machine, there is always a small

DRAFT. December, 2007 11

Asymmetric Crank Throws

If crankshaft does not have

Moment forces are much smaller

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

DRAFT. December, 2007 12

Frame Velocity Trend

NORMAL EXAMPLE: The

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

Note: Solid-state (piezoelectric) velocity transducers are already integrating an

DRAFT. December, 2007 13

Frame Velocity Waveform

ABNORMAL EXAMPLE: Vibration

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

DRAFT. December, 2007 14

Frame Velocity Spectrum

Amplitude (in/s peak) 1X

NORMAL EXAMPLE: Multiple

2007 General Electric Company. All rights reserved.

- Additional frequency components up to 10X or higher.

DRAFT. December, 2007 15

Frequency (Orders) 20X