\section{UVOD}\label{sec:uvod}

Uprkos naglom razvoju vjetroenergetike i porastu ukupnih instalisanih kapaciteta u svijetu, cijena
ovako generisane energije je jo uvijek visoka u poreenju sa onom dobijenom iz konvencionalnih
izvora energije. Razlog su prije svega veliki investicioni trokovi i trokovi odravanja.[upravljanje]
% \begin{figure}
% \centering
% \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{88neneno}
% \caption{Elektrino kolo}
% \label{fig:kolo}
% \end{figure}
These structures
with increasing size are becoming more and more flexible, requiring an intelligent and robust
control system that not only aims at good quality power control at the above-rated wind speeds but
that primarily focuses on the active reduction of fatigue-relevant loads on the turbine components,
as caused by wind shear, tower shadow, oblique inflow and turbulence[51]

Over the last few decades, several simulators such as GH Bladed [6], Fatigue,
Aerodynamics, Structures, and Turbulence (FAST) [7], Flex5 [8],
Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems (ADAMS) [9]
etc., have been developed for the purpose of designing and
simulating wind turbine structural dynamics.[upravljanje]

\section{KLASINE METODE UPRAVLJANJA

VJETROTURBINAMA}\label{sec:maksimizacija_snag
e}
Classical techniques such as pro-portional, integral, and derivative
(PID) control of blade pitch [3] are
typically used to limit power and
speed on both the low-speed shaft
and high-speed shaft for turbines
operating in region 3, while
generator torque control [4] is usually used in region 2. In [5],
disturbance accommodating control is used to limit power and
speed in region 3.[20]
At present, the majority of wind turbines are operating at variable rotor speed and use generator
torque control and collective blade pitch control to produce as much power as possible at wind
speeds below the rated speed, and to limit the captured power and the rotor speed at the above-rated
wind speeds. The above-rated conventional power control strategy consists of two independent
single-input single-output (SISO) control loops: generator torque control is used to achieve the
desired static generator speedtorque relationship, and collective blade pitch angle (or speed)
control consisting of simple PI (or PD) controller for keeping the generator speed at its rated
value [13].[51]

\subsection{Razvoj upravljanja}
Ranije kada je penetracija ovako generisane energije bila jo uvijek mala glavni cilj je bio da se
maksimizira proizvodnja elektrine energije. Ali ta se situacija sada mijenja.
Danas su osnovni ciljevi:
\begin{itemize}
\item maksimizacija energije,
\item minimizacija mehanikih optereenja,
\item maksimizacija kvaliteta isporuene energije.
\end{itemize}
Zapravo je osnovni cilj da se smanji cijena elektrine energije proizvedene vjetroturbinama. To se
moe postii ako se proizvodi vie energije, ako je ivotni vijek dui (to jest ako su smanjena
mehanika naprezanja koja u konanici dovode do trajnih kvarova dijelova turbine) i ako je kvalitet
energije bolje te ako su vjetro-farme bolje ``uklopljene'' u prenosni sistem (to jest ako ispunjavaju
sve rigoroznije zahtjeve za prikljuenje).

Takoe, naini upravljanja odnosno kontrole rada vjetroturbina u mnogome zavisi od mehanikih
karakteristika njenih dijelova a pogotovu od instaliranog agregata. U tabeli su date danas
najkoritenije vrste vjetroturbina: (ovdje dodati tabelu koju je i urii koristio)

Most modern utility-scale turbines operate in variable-speed

mode with the turbine speed changing continuously in response
to wind gusts and lulls. Although costly power electronics are
required to convert the variable-frequency power to the fixed utili-
ty grid frequency, variable-speed turbines can spend more time
operating at maximum aerodynamic efficiency than constant-
speed turbines. In addition, variable-speed turbines often endure
smaller power fluctuations and operating loads than constant-
speed turbines. Constant-speed turbines are connected directly
to the utility grid, which eliminates the requirement for power elec-
tronics. A constant-speed machines fixed generator frequency
forces the turbines mechanical components to absorb much of
the increased energy of a wind gust until the turbines power reg-
ulation system can respond. On a variable-speed machine, how-
ever, the rotor speed can increase, absorbing a great deal of
energy due to the large rotational inertia of the rotor.
For modern turbines and power electronics systems, the
increased efficiency and lower loads of variable-speed turbines pro-
vide enough benefit to make the power electronics cost effective.
The wind industry trend is thus to design and build variable-speed
turbines for utility-scale installations. Controlling these modern tur-
bines to minimize the cost of wind energy is a complex task, and
much research remains to be done to improve the controllers.[20]
\subsection{Fiksna brzina}

[21]
[21]

\subsection{Promjenljiva brzina}[20]

[49]
Nowadays, most of utility-scale wind turbines are installed
with individual blade actuation mechanism to control each blade
independently. Furthermore, they are also equipped with several
sensors on blades as well as on tower and nacelle, making them
inherently multi-input multi-output (MIMO) systems.[upravljanje]

A control law, which we refer to as the standard control,

for region 2 operation of variable-speed turbines is to let the
control torque tc (that is, the generator torque) be given by
t c = Kw2 ,
where the gain K is given by
1
Cp max
K=
rAR3 ,
2
l
3[20]
\subsection{pitch metoda}[21]
Dio iz 21 koji je relativno mali ali ima fini pid kontroler.

\section{MODERNE METODE}
As all these (basic and additional) controllers influence each other, it is
important to decouple them by constraining their activities at different non-overlapping frequency
ranges by means of proper filtering. To avoid such a disintegrated control design procedure, modern
control design methods can be used for the design of multi-input multi-output (MIMO) controllers
that directly aim at optimizing a trade-off between several design objectives at the same time,
such as basic power regulation, robust stability to high-frequency unmodelled dynamics, improved
resonant mode damping and control bandwidth limitation [51]
Since modern wind
turbines are large, flexible structures operating in uncertain environments, advanced control
technology can improve
their performance. For example, advanced controllers can help decrease the cost of wind energy by
increasing turbine
efficiency, and thus energy capture, and by reducing structural loading, which increases the
lifetimes of the components and structures.[21]

Modern wind turbine control designs often use the state-space representation to evaluate controller
gains.
Comparing to the traditional PI or PID controllers, state-space control has the advantage of being
able to handle
Multi-Input Multi-Output (MIMO) systems. Full-state feedback (FSFB), state estimation, Linear
Quadratic Gaussian
(LQG), Linear Quadratic Regulation (LQR) and Disturbance Accommodating Control (DAC) are
techniques
commonly associated with state-space control.

The reduction of mechanical loads on the

tower and blades is another area of turbine control research
[6][8]. Finally, [9][12] use adaptive control to compensate for
unknown and time-varying parameters in regions 2 and 3.[20]

\subsection{Podjela upravljanja na nivoe}

On the lowest control level are the internal generator,
power electronics, and pitch actuator controllers, which
operate at higher rates than the turbine-level control. These
low-level controllers operate as black boxes from the per-
spective of the turbine-level control. For example, the gener-
ator and power electronics controllers regulate the generator
and power electronics variables to achieve the desired gen-
erator torque, as determined by the turbine-level control.
The low-level controllers depend on the types of generator
and power electronics, but the turbine-level control does
not. For example, CART has a squirrel-cage induction gen-
erator and full-processing pulse-width modulation power
electronics. If the generator torque controller controls the
high-speed shaft torque, then the stability analysis of the
turbine-level control does not depend on these details. In
this project, we ignore the particulars of the high- and low-
level controls and focus on the turbine-level control.[20]

Utility-scale wind turbines have several levels of con-

trol, namely, supervisory, operational, and subsystem. As
shown in Figure 7, the top-level supervisory control deter-
mines when the turbine starts and stops in response to
changes in the wind speed and also monitors the health of
the turbine. The operational control determines how the
turbine achieves its control objectives in Regions 2 and 3.
The subsystem controllers are responsible for the genera-
tor, power electronics, yaw drive, pitch drive, and remain-
ing actuators.[21]
[21]
[21]

adaptive control[20]
Prepisati iz 20
The adaptive controller attempts to have the turbine power
track the wind power, assuming that the maximum power
coefficient Cp max and the optimal tip-speed ratio are
unknown. In contrast, adaptive controllers such as those in
[10][11] focus on different uncertainties and assume some
knowledge of the Cp surface, particularly and Cp max . In addi-
tion, the averaging period used in this article is long compared
to the time periods used by the adaptive controller in [9].[20]
nadalje se u 20 razmatra stabilnost to bih ja izostavio
\section{MODELOVANJE VJETROTURBINA}

\section{SMANJENJE MEHANIKIH
NAPREZANJA}\label{sec:mehanicka_naprezanja}
nai sliku koja opisuje ta se najvie kvari kod wt
takoe pad cijena wt energije kroz istoriju i poreenje sa tradicionalnim izvorima

[64b]

\subsection{Softver}
SYMDYN is a publicly available code developed primarily
for wind turbine controls research at the National Renewable En-
ergy Laboratory. It has been validated with ADAMS software and
independently with the FLEX5 wind turbine simulator SYM-
DYN represents the flexibility of the tower, drive train, and blades
as rigid bodies connected with torsional joint springs. A total of
8 + Nb degrees of freedom DOFs are allowable, where Nb is the
number of blades. The DOFs are all relative angular displace-
ments measured between adjacent rigid components. The current
version of SYMDYN is written in FORTAN and compiled with
MATLAB. [12]
symulation codes in [64b] gdje ima I softver za probleme kontrole

\subsection{Vrste naprezanja}
The sources of the structural loadings are also due to
stochastic process and to periodic processes. The stochastic
process is referred to as turbulence that determines wind
speed at different times and heights. These periodic processes
are due largely to two effects termed wind shear and tower
shadow. Wind shear is used to describe the variation of wind
speed with height while tower shadow describes the reduction
of wind speed due to the tower structure .For a three bladed wind turbine, since the three blades are
at different positions and under turbulent and periodic wind
field, they are subjected to periodic blade loadings with
oscillating magnitude which are very undesirable since they
cause oscillatory stress on the structure which are responsible
for a significant contribution to fatigue loads.[45]

\subsection{Kontrole za smanjenje mehanikih naprezanja}

Postoje linearni I nelinearni modeli koji se koriste u kontrolerima vjetroturbina
koritenje lidar i sodara
mimo i siso

u [12] je pokazano da nema velikog napretka u individual pitch prema collective pitch
In Region 2:

Individual pitch is no more effective than collective pitch

on the CART for load mitigation of tower bending,
drive-train torsion, or blade flap bending. This is because
the teetering hub already reduces asymmetric out-of-
plane loads, and the mean pitch angles in region 2
make all in-plane aerodynamic loads insensitive to pitch
perturbation.
The collective pitch controller has effectively reduced
tower fore-aft fatigue damage equivalent load by more
than 50\% in simulation and 70\% in field tests without
sacrificing damage in other components.
Both pitch controllers incur a negligible drop in energy
capture and are well within CART pitch operating limits.
In Region 3:
Simulations show that both individual and collective
pitch controllers reduce fatigue damage in tower fore-aft
bending and low-speed shaft torsion by up to 50\%. This
is because these are driven by symmetric aerodynamic
rotor loads. A 2030\% reduction is realized in field test
results.
Individual pitch has reduced tower side-side fatigue
damage by a significant 70\%, whereas collective pitch
gives only a 25\% reduction because it cannot provide the
necessary asymmetric in-plane loads. Field test results
suggest that both state-space controllers perform the
same, providing a more modest 20\% reduction in tower
side-side fatigue.

\subsubsection{Individual pitch}[26][27,45,49,51,

[58]
Standard approach for reduction of structural loads is to design a
control loop for each harmonic that is to be reduced, as shown in[58]
[58]

[58]
Modern wind turbines offer the possibility of even more advanced load reductions by means
of individual pitch control (IPC). To take advantage of that, additional measurements are needed,
such as blade root bending moments. Since these are taken in the rotating reference frame, they
give rise to a periodic system. This periodicity can fortunately be circumvented by transforming
all quantities, defined on the rotating reference frame, to the fixed reference frame by using the
so-called Coleman transformation [12], sometimes also referred to as dq transformation [13].
The blade root flapwise bending moments, for instance, are transformed into fictitious rotor tilt
and yaw moments, which are used by the IPC to compute tilt-oriented and yaw-oriented pitch
signals. These IPC controller outputs are transformed back to the original (rotating) reference
frame, resulting in individual blade pitch signals. Besides the fact that the Coleman transformation
makes the application of well-developed control theory for linear time-invariant (LTI) systems to
the IPC problem possible, it also offers the additional advantage that it allows the collective pitch
control design to be decoupled from the IPC design, since the IPC loop has only a negligible effect
on the collective pitch control loop at low frequencies, where the controllers are active [51]

\subsubsubsection{1p}[56,45,
With the increase of wind turbine dimension and
capacity, the wind turbine structures are subjected to prominent
loads and fatigue which would reduce the lifetime of wind
turbines. Individual pitch control (IPC) is used in this paper to
attenuate the blade root bending moment and the tilt and yaw
moments and fatigue.[45] ovo se moe koristiti I za yaw mitigation (ovaj rad)
The work presented in this article demonstrates that a very significant reduction in operational
loading can be achieved by means of individual pitch action, provided a suitable measurement of
the asymmetric loading is available. A number of alternative measures of asymmetric loading have
all been found to work satisfactorily. The sensors used for this task must be very reliable, and
suitable sensors are now becoming available. To design the necessary control algorithms, a linear
model of the turbine which embodies the asymmetric loading and the effect of individual pitch
action is required, and a convenient method for generating such models is now available. Since a
multivariable controller is required, i.e. to calculate several control actions from several measured
signals, initial work was based on LQG control design methods, which are well suited to this
situation. Although this has been shown to yield good results, the design process is not
straightforward and the resulting algorithm is somewhat cumbersome. Later work has shown that is
possible to transform the problem into two decoupled single-input, single-output control loops. The
resulting algorithm is much easier to design, using classical techniques, is much more
straightforward to implement, and achieves comparable results. Detailed simulations have been
used to demonstrate that very significant reductions in operational loading can be achieved without
compromising energy capture. The pitch actuators will clearly experience greater activity and must
be designed with this in view, but the additional duty is not prohibitively large.
[26]
ovdje je bossanyi dobar ovaj njegov gore jedan rad a ima I jo jedan koji se bavi zamjenom lqr sa
dva pi kontrolera [27]
[49]

\subsubsubsection{3p}[45,56,
ima u 45 fini dio za 1p I 3p mitigaciju momenata u korjenu lopatica
ne zaboravi da je 58 dobar kao dodatak za ipc

\subsubsection{Active yaw by individual pitch}[13,45,

T facing is commonly towards the known wind. that However, in order the to maximize yawing
motion energy of capture, large scaled it is necessary wind turbines to keep canthe heavily rotor
influence of the turbine
load
distributions on the machine. Especially in cases when extreme wind direction changes occur, a yaw
control system
that isnt effective at responding towards these changes could result in catastrophic failure of the
machine.[13]

However, in order to prevent large gyroscopic loads generated by the rotating rotor, the yaw rate is
usually kept very
low. Also the nacelle is often parked and the yaw drive is not operated unless the wind direction
change reaches
some pre-defined minimum.One obvious benefit from controlling yaw through pitching the blades
is that the motorized yaw drive can be
removed[13]
\subsubsection{Tower load alleviation}
n the last part of the paper, we consider the possibility of
obtaining a preview of the wind speed from upwind turbines
in a wind farm. This idea was previously proposed in [11]
as a possible alternative to the LIDAR based control. By
analyzing data collected from a wind farm, we show that,
at least in the setup proposed in [11], this idea is not likely
to work. The results indicate that due to the large distance
between neighboring turbines, the wind speed fluctuations
experienced by two turbines are correlated only at lower
frequencies, which are not pertinent to load reduction.[15]

[21]
\section{PRIKLJUENJE NA MREU}

\section{UPRAVLJANJE MOTORIMA}

\section{KOMBINOVANE METODE}

\section{BUDUE
METODE}\label{sec:kombinovane_metode}
pametni rotor

aktivna i pasivna kontrola

\subsection{Flaps}

\section{ZAKLJUAK}\label{sec:zakljucak}
Manufacturing turbines with
massive sizes can lead into problems related to structural loads and
poor quality of generated power. To fulfill such control demands
with contradicting requirements, innovative control methods that
can handle multiobjective problems are inevitable.[upravljanje]

In this contribution, different control strategies used in large

wind turbines, both in low and high wind speed regions, are out-
lined and compared with respect to different operational aspects.[upravljanje]

\nocite{bureau1995guide, turbines2005part, lackner2007uncertainty, djurivsic2013modelovanje,

NT}

\section{LITERATURA}
\bibliographystyle{babplain}
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energetika/vetro/nova/seminarski/literatura.bib}
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\end{document}