Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
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by
Thesis submitted to the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geo-information Science
and Earth Observation, Specialisation: Earth Resources Exploration.
Supervisors:
Dr. T. Woldai
Dr. E.J.M. Carranza
Observer:
Dr. J.B. de Smeth (Programme Director)
Key words: imaging spectrometry; band ratios; volcanogenic massive sulphide; hydrothermal
alteration, white micas.
i
Acknowledgements
I would like to cordially thank and express my gratitude to The Royal Netherlands Government,
NUFFIC and ITC and my employing organisation Ministry of Mines of Ethiopia for giving me the
possibility to study in The Netherlands.
My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisors, Dr. Tsehaie Woldai and Dr. E.J.M. Carranza. You have
been of active support and assistance throughout the whole duration of this thesis research. Thank you for
your advice, guidance, patience and encouragement that you showed to me. I have learned a lot from you;
above all the essence of a scientific research and critical comments.
Great thanks and special appreciation go to Drs. Frank van Ruitenbeek for your valuable guidance and
critical comments that you gave me and your warm welcome whenever I need help.
I also extend my sincere gratitude to Drs. Boudewijn de Smeth for your assistance in all circumstances
and for that you gave me a lot of basic knowledge starting from Module 1 and then other specialization
courses. I am grateful to the staff and Programme Director of the AES programme, under whom I have
learnt a lot for the past 18 months.
My special thanks will go to my beloved wife and my children for your love, constant support, pray
understanding and encouragement. You are a pillar of my strength, moral and hope. I am in debt to you. I
love you.
Finally, my classmates and friends; especially my cluster mates who shared all the happiness and pains
I felt.I thank you all and wish you the best.
19 February 2007
Enschede, The Netherlands
ii
Table of contents
iii
5.3. Validation of results................................................................................................................ 47
5.3.1. Validation against geological map ............................................................................ 47
5.3.2. Validation against field spectra ................................................................................. 47
5.3.3. Validation against location of known VMS deposit occurrences ............................. 47
5.4. Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations............................................................................................ 50
6.1. Conclusions............................................................................................................................. 50
6.2. Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 51
References 53
List of figures
Figure 1.1: Location map of the study area............................................................................................. 2
Figure 1.2: Essential characteristics of an idealized volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit (adopted
from Taylor et al., 1995). Mineral abbreviations as follows: Sp, sphalerite; Gn, galena;
Py, pyrite; Ba, barite; Cpy, chalcopyrite; Po, pyrrhotite; and Hem, hematite. .................... 4
Figure 2.1: Geologic map of Gorob-Hope area (adopted from Breitkopf and Maiden, 1988). .............. 7
Figure 2.2: Geological map of the Gorob area (adopted from Preussinger (1990)). 1-calcrete and
gravel, 2-amphibolite, 3- metagabbro, 4- talc schist and related rocks, 5- metasediments,
6- zones of pre-metamorphic hydrothermal alteration, 7- magnetite-quartzite, 8- graphitic
schist, 9- F1 axial plane trace, 10- F2 axial plane trace, 11- S2 foliation, 12- F2 axial plane
and plunge, 13- L2 intersection lineation, 14- So bedding form line.................................... 8
Figure 3.1: Wavelength coverage of Landsat ETM+ and ASTER bands. ............................................ 11
Figure 3.2: Colour composite of Landsat ETM+ band ratios in RGB sequence: 5/7 (for clay), bands
5/4 (for ferrous) and bands 3/1 (for iron oxide). The bright red pixels represent
hydrothermal alteration zones............................................................................................ 12
Figure 3.3: Negated PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.2). The
bright pixels indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments....................................................... 14
Figure 3.4: Negated PC3 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.3). The
bright pixels indicate iron oxide mineral enrichments. ..................................................... 15
Figure 3.5: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.4) after masking out
the surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in hydroxyl minerals. ....... 16
Figure 3.6: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.5) after masking out
the surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in iron-oxide minerals...... 16
Figure 3.7: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.6). The bright pixels indicate
hydroxyl minerals enrichments.......................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.8: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.7) after masking out the
surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments. ................. 18
Figure 4.1: Locations of field spectral data from rock samples plotted on the geological map of Gorob
area (digitized from Preussinger (1990))........................................................................... 22
Figure 4.2: An enlarged image in natural colour combination of part of the HyMap of Gorob scene.
The map was produced using the approach explained by (van der Werff et al., 2006). The
brownish colour shows the hydrothermal zones. The dark areas represent metagabbro and
the remaining lighter areas represent metasediments (see Figure 2.2).............................. 24
Figure 4.3: Spectrum.142 and spectrum.173 interpreted as illite and muscovite, respectively, by TSG
software. Arrows and numbers (m) indicate absorption wavelength positions in the
spectrum............................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 4.4: Spectra of field samples containing dominantly of chlorite minerals: (a) Mg-chlorite
(spectrum.239), (b) intermediate chlorite (spectrum.228), and (c) Fe-chlorite
(spectrum.2690. Arrows and numbers (m) indicate absorption wavelength positions in
the spectrum....................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.5: Reflectance spectrum showing spectral parameters that were determined from near-
infrared reflectance spectra. DAlOH is depth AlOH-absorption feature of white mica, DFeOH
is depth of FeOH-absorption of chlorite (Clark, 1999). A is reflectance minimum of
iv
AlOH-absorption feature, B is reflectance minimum of FeOH-absorption feature, Rx is
reflectance at wavelength x, and Wy is wavelength position of feature y (adopted from
Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005). .............................................................................................26
Figure 4.6: Box plots of (A) mineral versus WMAI and (B) mineral versus wavelength position of
reflectance minimum. Boxes represent inter-quartile range that contains 50% of values.
Line across the box indicates mean; the circle indicates an outlier. ..................................27
Figure 4.7: Plot of white mica alteration index versus wavelength position of reflectance minimum.
Circles with different colour indicate the distribution of the minerals in the diagram.
Arrows represent the direction of the abundance of chlorites, white micas, and Al content
in the minerals. ...................................................................................................................28
Figure 4.8: Portions of geological map (see Figure 2.2) overlain with locations of field samples with
WMAI values equal to one and less than one. Hydrothermal zones are shown in blue and
VMS ore bodies are in dark grey. Boxes labelled as B, C and D enlarged images for visual
clarity. .................................................................................................................................29
Figure 4.9: Sample number versus depth absorption of illite peak around 2.200 m wavelength. This
graph shows AlOH depth (DAlOH) variability of illite in the field samples. .......................30
Figure 4.10: Spectra of illite minerals showing variation on depth and shape of absorption around
2.200 m wavelength. Spectrum 62t, spectrum.322, spectrum.279 and 32t are collected
from field samples and interpreted by TSG software for visual clarity. Spectrum 62t has
the highest white mica absorption depth (DAlOH)................................................................30
Figure 4.11: Typical reflectance spectra of white mica (Clark, 199). Dotted and solid rectangles and
numbers in nanometers (nm) indicate wavelength positions of spectral bands in the
HyMap imagery used..........................................................................................................31
Figure 4.12: False colour composite (RGB) of band ratio images (R=2.171m/2.187m,
G=2.187m/2.205m and B=2.356m/2.257m). Polygons with black colour boundary
are hydrothermal zones (see Figure 2.2). Box B is an enlargement from Box A...............32
Figure 4.13: Endmember spectra collected from the HyMap imagery (section 4.2.1). Spectra
representing AlOH, FeOH and MgOH absorption depths were selected and plotted in
Figure 4.14 for clarity (visually).........................................................................................32
Figure 4.14: Endmembers selected from Figure 4.12. Arrows and numbers (m) in spectra indicate
absorption wavelengths of H-O-H, Al-OH, Fe-OH and Mg-OH........................................33
Figure 4.15: Subsets of reflectance spectra (Figure 4.12). This diagram shows absorption depth
(DAlOH) variability in white micas. Relative absorption depth at 2.2050 m in
decreasing order was SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4 and SM5.....................................................33
Figure 4.16: Plots of endmember spectra (SM1), field spectra (spectrum.142, illite) and USGS library
spectra (illite 3 spec). The endmember spectra collected from airborne imagery (SM1)
shows a good match to field spectra and USGS library spectra.........................................33
Figure 5.1: False colour composite of rule images SM3, SM2 and SM1 (in RGB sequence) produced
using endmembers collected from the HyMap imagery (Figure 4.13). Green colour in
these images indicates the hydrothermal alteration zones (see also Figure 4.12A), whereas
other colours represent unaltered areas. Boxes labelled as B, C and D represent areas
enlarged images from Box A for visual clarity. .................................................................36
Figure 5.2: Image output of SAM classification using endmembers derived from HyMap band ratios
(Figure 4.13). Legends SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4 and SM5 represent spectra with AlOH
absorption depth (around 2.200 m) in decreasing order (Figure 4.15). Most of the spectra
(endmembers) are mapped in the hydrothermal alteration zones (Figure 2.2). Boxes
labelled as B, C, D and E represent areas enlarged from Box A for visual clarity. ...........37
Figure 5.3: Image output of the SAM classification using endmembers derived from the field spectral
data. Boxes labelled as B, C and D represent areas enlarged from Box A for visual clarity.
............................................................................................................................................38
Figure 5.4: White mica probability estimated using logistic regression model in Equation 5.3. Boxes
labelled as B, C, D and E represent areas enlarged images for visual clarity. High
probability values (reddish brown color) represent white micas; and northeast southwest-
v
elongated magenta colours indicate metagabbro rock units and areas that have low white
mica probability values...................................................................................................... 41
Figure 5.5: Plot of white mica probability measured in field spectra versus white mica probability
predicted from airborne spectra for prediction subset (A) and validation subset (B). ...... 42
Figure 5.6: Absorption wavelength of white micas measured from field spectra versus absorption
wavelengths of white micas predicted using the multiple regression model (Equation 5.5).
........................................................................................................................................... 44
Figure 5.7: Plots of white mica absorption wavelength predicted from airborne spectra versus white
mica probability predicted from airborne data. A represents for training samples, B for
validation subsets, C after masking out probability values 0.5 from the training subset
and D after masking out probability values 0.5 from the validation subset. Triangles
indicate absence of white mica and circles indicate presence of white mica. The
presence/absence of white micas was determined from analysis of the field spectral data
(Equation 4.2). ................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 5.8: Top panel shows white mica absorption wavelengths estimated from the airborne data
using the model (Equation 5.5). Bottom panel is an enlarged image of the northeastern
part of the top image. ......................................................................................................... 46
Figure 5.9:Image output of SAM classification using endmembers derived from HyMap band ratios
(Figure 4.13) overlain by mineral deposits and white micas and chlorites. Boxes labelled
as B, C, D and E enlarged images from Box A for visual clarity. Red circle with dark
colour at the centre in box B, C, D and E represent Gorob, Vendome, Lungui and Bruna
copper deposits, respectively. ............................................................................................ 48
List of tables
vi
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.3. Previous work and justification for using the various remotely
sensed datasets
Several studies demonstrate the importance of remote sensing to mineral exploration. There are
two general approaches for using remote sensing applications (Sabins, 1999) in mineral exploration.
The first approach is mapping of lithologies and fractures that localize ore deposits. The second
approach is recognizing hydrothermally altered rocks by their spectral signatures.
Sabins (1999) explained the use of multispectral and hyperspectral images to identify
hydrothermal alteration. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite images are beneficial to
interpretation of geology and structures. Using bands subtraction and principal component analyses,
1
Chapter 1
Torres-Vera and Prol-Ledesma (2000) presented the results and explained the possibility of spectral
enhancement of a TM image to identify oxides and hydroxyl-bearing mineral in Guanajuato district
(Mexico). However, due to their broad spectral band passes Landsat images are not effective for
detection and mapping of specific hydrothermal alteration minerals. ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne
Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) images are also useful for interpretation of geology,
structures, and hydrothermal alteration zones. Rowan and Mars (2003) compared high-resolution
laboratory reflectance spectra of selected minerals and corresponding re-sampled ASTER spectra and
showed that ASTER mineral spectra are distinguishable in spite of their much lower spectral
resolution. They also explained that the spectral reflectance differences between the carbonate
minerals (calcite and dolomite) and the muscovite minerals (Al-muscovite and Fe-muscovite) are
noticeable in the ASTER spectra, as well as in the laboratory spectra. However, detailed mineralogical
information is more obtainable by processing and analyzing hyperspectral data. Hyperspectral data
obtained from the short wave infrared (SWIR) wavelength region 2.0-2.5 m are extensively useful
for mineral mapping in hydrothermal alteration systems (Van der Meer and Bakker, 1998; Tapia et
al., 2000; Wendell and Nasubaum, 2000; Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2006). Cudahy et al. (2000) used
HyMap to identify and derive mineral maps (e.g., hydrated iron oxides and sulphate related weathered
exposures of VMS gossans). They concluded that white mica information from hyperspectral VNIR-
SWIR data is useful to map VMS discharge zones and target potential metals occurrences.
1.4.2. Datasets
The datasets used for the research are hyperspectral image (2004 Gorob-Hope HyMap scene),
ASTER image, Landsat ETM+ image, regional geological map and analogue detailed geological map.
Detail explanations for Landsat ETM+ data in section 3.2.1; for ASTER data in section 3.2.2; for
regional and detail geological maps in section 2.4; and for hyperspectral image in section 4.3.2 were
given.
2
Introduction
1.4.3. Software
The different types of software used for this research include: ENVI 4.2, Spectral Geologist
(TSG), SPSS14 and ArcGIS 9.1. ENVI 4.2 was mainly used for processing and analyses of
hyperspectral and multi-spectral images. TSG was used to interpret field spectra data and calculate
their absorption depths and wavelength regions. SPSS14 was used to carry out the statistical analyses
and to develop models of the probability of the presence or absence of white micas and estimation of
absorption wavelengths of minerals in the study area. ArcGIS 9.1 was used to georeference, digitize
and capture various maps in a database. Images and maps were compared and analyzed in ArcGIS 9.1.
3
Chapter 1
Figure 1.2: Essential characteristics of an idealized volcanogenic massive sulphide deposit (adopted
from Taylor et al., 1995). Mineral abbreviations as follows: Sp, sphalerite; Gn, galena; Py, pyrite; Ba,
barite; Cpy, chalcopyrite; Po, pyrrhotite; and Hem, hematite.
4
Introduction
5
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
7393052
522198
Faults
5
530198
5
2.5 0
2.5 0
538198
5 Kilometers
5 Kilometers
mica schist;metagreywacke;migmatite
546198
monzogranite
monzogranite (migmatitic;foliated;biotite-rich)
schist (graphitic)
surficial deposits
Figure 2.1: Geologic map of Gorob-Hope area (adopted from Breitkopf and Maiden, 1988).
The Damaran Orogenic Belt, which strikes ENE across Central and Northern Namibia, is part of
the late Precambrian to early Paleozoic Pan African network of mobile belts (Downing and Coward,
1981). The Damara Orogen is formed at the triple junction of the Kalahari, Congo, and Rio-de-la-
Plata Cratons (Poli and Oliver, 2001). The depositional, metamorphic, and deformational history of
central Damara orogen is complex; and Miller (1983) summarized it into an extensional-rifting-
spreading phase and a compressional-convergence-collision phase. Jung and Mezger (2003) stated
that The early history is characterized by deposition of a widespread flysch facies. and suggested
that crustal thinning took place around 700 Ma ago and might be accompanied by limited seafloor
spreading and its outcome is the 300 km long Matchless Amphibolite belt in Gorob-Hope area (Figure
2.1).
Kuiseb Formation is the youngest unit in the stratigraphic column of Swakop Group (Preussinger,
1990). Matchless Member Amphibolite (MMA) is a member of the Kuiseb Formation with prominent
assemblages of lenses of foliated amphibolite, chlorite amphibolite schist, talc schist, and metagabbro.
7
Chapter 2
The MMA occurs over the whole strike length of the Kuiseb Formation as a narrow band of
amphibolites interbedded with metasediments. Preussinger (1990) recognized the metasediments in
the Gorob-Hope area as metaturbidites. As reported by Klemd and Okrusch (1990), typical
intercalations within the MMA are magnetite quartzites and chloritic schists.
Silicate assemblages in the wall rocks of the metamorphosed sulphide deposits of Matchless
indicate that metamorphism took place under temperatures between 5500 and 6250C and minimum
pressure of 6-8 k bar (Klemd and Okrusch, 1990). In addition to regional metamorphism, the northern
limb of the Hope synform underwent a further thermal event caused by the post-tectonic intrusion of
the Donkerhuk Granite (Preussinger, 1990).
Figure 2.2: Geological map of the Gorob area (adopted from Preussinger (1990)). 1-calcrete and gravel, 2-
amphibolite, 3- metagabbro, 4- talc schist and related rocks, 5- metasediments, 6- zones of pre-metamorphic
hydrothermal alteration, 7- magnetite-quartzite, 8- graphitic schist, 9- F1 axial plane trace, 10- F2 axial plane
trace, 11- S2 foliation, 12- F2 axial plane and plunge, 13- L2 intersection lineation, 14- So bedding form line.
2.2.1.1. Metabasites
In Gorob-Hope area, there are two bands of amphibolites with a maximum thickness of 400 m
each (Preussinger, 1990). The two bands are the hanging wall band and the outer band, which are best
developed in the southern limb and the core of the Hope synform, respectively. The two distinct
amphibolite layers appear to coalesce on the northern limb (Mineral Resources of Namibia, 2006).
Pillow-structures are widespread within the Matchless Member Amphibolite (MMA). Further, in the
8
Description of the study area
structural footwall of the Gorob area, there are several boudinaged, sill-like and thin amphibolite
layers interpreted as metamorphosed gabbroic intrusions (Preussinger, 1990).
2.2.1.2. Metasediments
Graded units and psammitic intercalations are the two main types of metasediments (Preussinger,
1990). Graded units that are originally derived from deposition by turbidity currents have high lateral
continuity (Preussinger, 1990) . Layers and boudins of calc-silicate rock (hornblende-garnet gneiss)
are frequent within the graded cycles and they are interpreted by Preussinger (1990), as original
contents of detrital carbonates. Unlike graded units, psammitic intercalations are laterally
discontinuous but of very homogeneous composition and without preserved sedimentary structures
(Preussinger, 1990). The rock types change from psammitic quartzbiotiteplagioclase schists to
pelitic staurolitemuscoviteplagoclase schists. Preussinger (1990) interpreted the psammitic turbidite
beds north of the amphibolites at Gorob as a number of coarsening- and thickening-upward cycles,
which are tectonically inverted.
9
Chapter 2
In general, mineralization in the study area is regarded as typical of proximal volcanogenic sulfide
deposits formed at site of sea-floor spreading (Mineral Resources of Namibia, 2006). Preussinger
(1990) explained that massive sulfide deposits in the Gorob-Hope area is hosted by pelitic and
psammitic schists of the Kuiseb Formation and are associated with MMA. He also suggested that
hydrothermal convection and expulsion of metal-rich fluids on the seafloor have been the main ore
forming processes; and magnetite-quartzites (iron-formation) at Gorob were interpreted as
metamorphosed ferruginous cherts of exhalative origin and synsedimentary faulting would have
provided migration ways for the hydrothermal fluids. There are eight separate sulfide-mineralized
lenses in the Gorob-Hope area of which Gorob, Vendome, Luigi, Bruna, and Hope are in the Gorob-
Hope area (see Figure 2.2). However, according to Pirajno and Jacob (1991) the sulfide ore bodies
occur as not only lenses but also as pods and disseminations within the schists and are associated with
zones of magnetite-quartzite. These deposits are stratabound but Matchless Mine is not (Pirajno and
Jacob, 1991). It reaches across the lithologic boundaries and structurally controlled (Mineral
Resources of Namibia, 2006). Vesignieite, a secondary copper mineral (BaCu3 (VO4)2(OH)2), was
found in the gossan zone of Gorob, Vendome, Bruna and Hope lenses (Schneider and Lauenstein,
1992). Preussinger (1990) reported that gossan lenses are tectonically controlled and concentrated at
the boundary of the magnetite- quartzites and the quartz-muscovite schists. According to his remark,
the iron-content of the originally altered rocks or pre-metamorphic alteration zones is responsible for
their most characteristic feature in the field.
10
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
11
Chapter 3
enhances geological units (Rigol and Chica-Olmo, 1998); and colour composites of ratios 5/7, 5/4, 3/1
in RGB sequence highlighted hydrothermally altered areas.
7395044
7389044
7389044
524148 530148 536148 542148
,
Kilometers
0 2 4 8
Figure 3.2: Colour composite of Landsat ETM+ band ratios in RGB sequence: 5/7 (for clay), bands 5/4 (for
ferrous) and bands 3/1 (for iron oxide). The bright red pixels represent hydrothermal alteration zones.
12
Hydrothermal alteration mapping with multispectral data
The first principal component (PC1) is composed of a positive weighting from all the six bands
(Table 3.1). As it is observed, the first principal component does not contain spectral features relevant
in this analysis, as it is a combination of all bands with a major contribution from band 3, which has
the largest standard deviation (SD) of 31.41. The eigenvalue, PC1 accounts for 95.84 % of the total
variance. Overall brightness, or albedo, is effectively mapped into PC1. The remaining components
showed decreasing variance caused by differences between spectral regions and between individual
bands. According to the Crosta and Moore (1989) approach, the magnitude and sign (positive or
negative) of eigenvector loadings are indications of which spectral properties of surface materials
(rocks, vegetations, and soils) are responsible for the statistical variance mapped into each PC. The
second component (PC2) indicates in visible and near infrared data and short wave infrared data. High
positive values in this PC are due to the high EM (Electro-Magnetics) reflectance values of visible
and near infrared data, whereas the negative values are due to the low EM reflectance of the infrared
data. Negated PC3 indicates iron-oxide enrichments, as band 1 and band 3 are inversely related.
Hydroxyl minerals are enhanced in PC4 as this PC has higher loading of band 5, but with opposite
sign with band 7. PC4 has positive contribution of band 5 (0.5935) and negative contribution of band
7 (-0.4546). This is in accordance with spectral characteristics of hydroxyl minerals that have
reflectance in band 5 and absorption in band 7 (Figure 3.1.). The PC5 represents vegetation as it has
reflectance in band 4 and opposite loading in band 3. The PC6 most probably relates to noise.
Principal component analysis of four TM bands (1, 4, 5, and 7) is shown in Table 3.2. Analysis for
the four bands is similar to those for the six bands. Landsat TM bands 1, 4, 5, and 7 can be used for
the hydroxyl mapping (Loughlin, 1991). Omission of TM bands 2 and 3 is to avoid mapping of iron
oxides. The PC1 is composed of a positive weighting from all the four bands (Table 3.2). As it is
indicated by the eigenvalues, PC1 accounts for 95.14 % of the total variance. Overall brightness, or
albedo, is effectively mapped into PC1. The values of PC2 for TM1 and TM4 are negative while the
values for the same PCA for TM5 and TM7 is positive (Table 3.2). This is the contrast between
visible and SWIR region in the image. Hydroxyl mapping by PCA on TM bands 1, 4, 5, and 7 is to
examine the eigenvector loadings (Loughlin, 1991) for bands 5 and 7, in both of PC3 and PC4. It is a
methodology to find which (PC3 or PC4) has a moderate or strong loading from both bands, with
opposite signs (Loughlin, 1991). Negating PC4 (Figure 3.3) is needed because the loading on TM5 is
13
Chapter 3
negative and the loading on TM7 is positive (Table 3.2) so that the anomalous pixels, which may
suggest clay alterations, are brightest in all cases (Loughlin, 1991).
Figure 3.3: Negated PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.2). The bright pixels
indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments.
Table 3.2: Principal components analysis on four TM bands (TM1, TM4, TM5, and TM7), Gorob-Hope area.
Input Bands TM1 TM4 TM5 TM7
Band Means 119.10 122.32 161.20 148.58
SD of Bands 16.42 24.66 28.20 21.80
Eigenvector matrix Eigenvalue (%)
PC1 0.3363 0.5350 0.6184 0.4672 95.14
PC2 -0.6292 -0.4533 0.3260 0.5406 2.45
PC3 0.6261 -0.4766 -0.3246 0.5248 1.99
PC4 -0.3146 0.5301 -0.6371 0.4627 0.42
Principal component analysis for the iron-oxide minerals was also carried out; and the rules
applied for mapping iron oxides are similar to those for hydroxyl mapping. The bands used are 1, 3, 4,
and 5 of Gorob-Hope scene. Table 3.3 describes the principal components transformation on these
bands. The omission of one SWIR band (TM7) is to avoid hydroxyl mapping (Loughlin, 1991). To
enhance iron oxides as bright pixels (Figure 3.4), PC3 was negated as band 3 has negative loading and
band 1 has positive loading (Loughlin, 1991).
Table 3.3: Principal components analysis on four TM bands (TM1, TM3, TM4, and TM5), Gorob-Hope area.
Input Bands TM1 TM3 TM4 TM5
Band Means 119.10 159.83 122.32 161.20
SD of Bands 16.42 31.41 24.66 28.20
Eigenvector matrix Eigenvalue (%)
PC1 0.3033 0.6157 0.4821 0.5446 96.83
PC2 0.6491 0.3259 -0.0501 -0.6855 2.09
PC3 0.6211 -0.3103 -0.5365 0.4798 0.85
PC4 0.3178 -0.6469 0.6909 -0.0572 0.23
14
Hydrothermal alteration mapping with multispectral data
Figure 3.4: Negated PC3 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ bands (Table 3.3). The bright pixels
indicate iron oxide mineral enrichments.
The PCA approach described above enhanced not only the hydrothermal alteration minerals but
also the surficial deposits (Figure 2.1). The DN value of pixels of surficial deposits could influence
the loadings of the PCs. Hence, the surficial deposits in the geological map are masked out and the
PCA technique was re-applied. The rules applied for mapping hydroxyls and iron oxides in these
areas (after the surficial deposits are masked out), are similar to those before they were masked out.
The results are shown in Table 3.4 and 3.5 and the corresponding maps Figures 3.5 and 3.6,
respectively.
Table 3.4: Principal Component analysis on four bands (TM1, TM4, TM5, and TM7) after masking out the
surficial deposits, Gorob-Hope area.
Input Bands TM1 TM4 TM5 TM7
Band Means 55.11 52.69 71.31 68.23
SD of Bands 56.27 55.05 73.81 70.12
Eigenvector matrix Eigenvalue (%)
PC1 0.44 0.43 0.57 0.55 99.58
PC2 -0.27 -0.73 0.17 0.61 0.20
PC3 -0.82 0.34 0.45 -0.08 0.19
PC4 0.24 -0.42 0.67 -0.57 0.03
15
Chapter 3
Figure 3.5: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.4) after masking out the surficial
deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in hydroxyl minerals.
Table 3.5: Principal Component analysis on four bands (TM1, TM3, TM4, and TM5) after masking out the
surficial deposits, Gorob-Hope area.
Input Bands TM1 TM3 TM4 TM5
Band Means 55.11 69.57 52.69 71.31
SD of Bands 56.27 72.61 55.05 73.81
Eigenvector matrix Eigenvalue (%)
PC1 0.43 0.56 0.42 0.57 99.62
PC2 0.86 -0.32 -0.40 -0.04 0.19
PC3 -0.25 -0.45 -0.25 0.82 0.17
PC4 -0.13 0.62 -0.77 0.07 0.02
Figure 3.6: PC4 image resulting from using four Landsat ETM+ band (Table 3.5) after masking out the
surficial deposits. The bright pixels indicate enrichments in iron-oxide minerals.
16
Hydrothermal alteration mapping with multispectral data
Table 3.6: Principal components analysis on six ASTER Bands, Gorob-Hope area.
Input Bands Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
Band Means 25.35 8.66 8.13 7.37 5.52 4.29
SD of Bands 3.64 0.91 0.90 0.88 0.70 0.47
Eigenvector matrix Eigenvalue (%)
PC1 0.904 0.221 0.219 0.212 0.167 0.112 98.80
PC2 0.424 -0.381 -0.444 -0.489 -0.398 -0.284 0.99
PC3 0.044 -0.549 -0.477 0.322 0.576 0.186 0.12
PC4 -0.015 0.512 -0.630 0.483 -0.227 -0.236 0.05
PC5 -0.013 0.493 -0.323 -0.615 0.478 0.214 0.02
PC6 -0.011 0.018 0.162 -0.027 0.450 -0.878 0.01
Figure 3.7: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.6). The bright pixels indicate hydroxyl
minerals enrichments.
17
Chapter 3
Table 3.7: Principal components analysis on six ASTER Bands after masking out the surficial deposits Gorob-
Hope area.
Input Bands Band 4 Band 5 Band 6 Band 7 Band 8 Band 9
Band Means 11.400 4.041 3.779 3.412 2.543 1.999
SD of Bands 11.614 4.081 3.824 3.460 2.584 2.022
Eigenvector matrix Eigenvalue (%)
PC1 0.8453 0.2967 0.2780 0.2517 0.1879 0.1470 98.88
PC2 0.5292 -0.5415 -0.4597 -0.3414 -0.1953 -0.2463 0.92
PC3 -0.0722 -0.5165 -0.1719 0.4376 0.6978 0.1417 0.11
PC4 -0.0009 -0.5004 0.7859 -0.3491 0.0221 0.0981 0.05
PC5 -0.0059 -0.2467 0.2167 0.6845 -0.4670 -0.4534 0.03
PC6 -0.0167 0.2016 0.1314 -0.1955 0.4702 -0.8261 0.01
Figure 3.8: PC2 image resulting from using six ASTER bands (Table 3.7) after masking out the surficial deposits.
The bright pixels indicate hydroxyl minerals enrichments.
18
Hydrothermal alteration mapping with multispectral data
Hydrothermal alteration areas highlighted by the analyses results of this chapter together with
hydrothermal zones delineated in the geological map (Figure 2.2) are investigated further for
alteration mineral abundance and zonation mapping with hyperspectral data in the next chapter.
19
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
4.2. Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of light as a function of wavelength that has been emitted, reflected, or
scattered from a solid, liquid, or gas (Clark, 1999). Shifts in position and shape of absorption bands in
the electromagnetic spectrum are caused by variations in the material compositions (Clark, 1999). In
general, the 0.45-2.5 m wavelength region provides mineralogical information based on analysis of
electronic absorption features in transitional metals, especially iron and of molecular absorption
features in carbonate, hydrate, and hydroxide minerals (Hunt, 1977). Many hydrothermal alteration
mineral spectra display well-defined and characteristic features in the regions near 1.4, 1.76, and 2.0-
2.4 m (Hunt, 1977). Vibrational transitions associated with hydroxyl and water produce absorption
features near1400 nm (OH and H2O) and 1900 nm (H2O) (Clark, 1999; Pontual et al., 1994). Other
important spectral absorption features that distinguish different silicates in SWIR occur at
wavelengths near 2200, 2250 and 2330 nm, which are related to the bending and stretching of the
bonds between AlOH, FeOH, and MgOH, respectively (Clark, 1999; Pontual et al., 1994).
4.3. Datasets
4.3.1. Field spectral data
The field spectral reflectance measurements in the study area were collected by the Geological
Survey of Namibia in 2000, 2002 and 2004 using ASD (Atomic Spectral Device) in and around the
hydrothermal alteration zones. The location of the field spectral data and the frequency of the
minerals identified are shown in Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1, respectively. The field spectral
measurements were visually inspected and then analyzed using the Spectral Geologist (TSG)
software. However, there are no other available data such as thin section results to compare or support
the TSG mineral identifications. Therefore, these available data were initially accepted and the further
analyses in this study were carried out based on them. These field spectral datasets were the main
inputs for analyses to identify hydrothermal alteration zones and to develop white mica probability
and their absorption wavelengths.
21
Chapter 4
7396742
7396742
R
49
R R
50
7394742
7394742
R
39
45
R
38
R
42
7392742
7392742
R
30
1 0.5 0 Kilometers
S2_foliation
fault
F1_axial_plane
F2_axial_plane_trace
So_bedding_from_lines
Field_spectra
Figure 4.1: Locations of field spectral data from rock samples plotted on the geological map of Gorob area
(digitized from Preussinger (1990)).
22
Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data
Table 4.1: Minerals analyzed from field spectral samples using TSG software.
Mineral Number of spectra Per cent (%)
Ankerite 2 0.5
Aspectral 11 2.9
Biotite 99 26.2
Brucite 1 0.3
Calcite 1 0.3
Dark 2 0.5
Diaspore 2 0.5
Epidote 4 1.1
Fe-Chlorite 1 0.3
Fe-Tourmaline 4 1.1
Halloysite 5 1.3
Hornblende 48 12.7
Illite 30 7.9
Int-Chlorite 102 27.0
Jarosite 1 0.3
K-Alunite 2 0.5
kaolinite 1 0.3
Mg-Clays 1 0.3
Mg-Chlorite 14 3.7
Muscovite 26 6.9
Opal 14 3.7
Paragonite 3 0.8
Phlogopite1 2 0.5
Tremolite 1 0.3
Total 377 100.0
23
Chapter 4
Figure 4.2: An enlarged image in natural colour combination of part of the HyMap of Gorob scene. The map was
produced using the approach explained by (van der Werff et al., 2006). The brownish colour shows the
hydrothermal zones. The dark areas represent metagabbro and the remaining lighter areas represent
metasediments (see Figure 2.2).
24
Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data
Fe-chlorite (Figure 4.4, bottom) is an artifact of strong Fe2+ (Clark, 1999; Hunt, 1977; Pontual et al.,
1994).
Figure 4.3: Spectrum.142 and spectrum.173 interpreted as illite and muscovite, respectively, by TSG software.
Arrows and numbers (m) indicate absorption wavelength positions in the spectrum.
(a (b)
)
(c)
Figure 4.4: Spectra of field samples containing dominantly of chlorite minerals: (a) Mg-chlorite (spectrum.239),
(b) intermediate chlorite (spectrum.228), and (c) Fe-chlorite (spectrum.2690. Arrows and numbers (m) indicate
absorption wavelength positions in the spectrum.
25
Chapter 4
Figure 4.5: Reflectance spectrum showing spectral parameters that were determined from near-infrared
reflectance spectra. DAlOH is depth AlOH-absorption feature of white mica, DFeOH is depth of FeOH-absorption of
chlorite (Clark, 1999). A is reflectance minimum of AlOH-absorption feature, B is reflectance minimum of
FeOH-absorption feature, Rx is reflectance at wavelength x, and Wy is wavelength position of feature y (adopted
from Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005).
D AlOH
WMAI = (Equation 4.1)
D AlOH + D FeOH
(W A 2146nm)
D AlOH = R ( R2146nm R2236nm ) RWA (Equation 4.2)
90
(WB 2236nm)
DFeOH = R2236nm ( R2236nm R2286nm ) RWB (Equation 4.3)
50
Box plots of mineral versus WMAI and mineral versus wavelength position of reflectance
minimum were created (Figure 4.6). Values of WMAI (Figure 4.6A) higher than 0.75 indicate that
white mica dominates in the reflectance spectra; and values lower than 0.6 indicate chlorite
dominance (Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005). These thresholds were determined from the reflectance
spectra. Absorption feature of white micas dominate the lower wavelength positions (Figure 4.6B). In
turn, the position of an absorption feature is a function of Al content of white mica (Van Ruitenbeek
et al., 2005); as the content of Al increases, the wavelength position of absorption feature decreases
from 2209 nm to 2195 nm range (Figure. 4.6B)
26
Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data
(A)
0.8
White mica alteration index
0.6
0.4
Chlorite dominant
0.2
0.0
(B)
2250 Low
wavelength position of reflectance minimum (nm)
IntChlorite
2240
2230
Al content
2220
2210
2200
2190
High
Illite IntChlor. MgChlori. Muscovit. Paragoni.
Minerals
Figure 4.6: Box plots of (A) mineral versus WMAI and (B) mineral versus wavelength position of reflectance
minimum. Boxes represent inter-quartile range that contains 50% of values. Line across the box indicates mean;
the circle indicates an outlier.
27
Chapter 4
A scatter plot of WMAI versus wavelength position of reflectance minimum was also created
(Figure 4.7). A WMAI of 1.0 indicates that a sample contains dominantly of white mica but not
chlorite, while a WMAI of 0.0 indicates that a sample contains dominantly of chlorite but not white
mica (Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2005). The scatter plot shows that composition of most of the field
samples is dominantly white mica while few of the field samples dominantly contain chlorite
minerals. Field samples consisting dominantly of white mica have higher WMAI values than field
samples consisting dominantly of chlorite minerals.
Low
2220 Legend
Illite
Wavelength position of reflectance minimum (nm)
IntChlorite
MgChlorite
Muscovite
2215 Paragonite
2210
Al content
2205
2200
High
2195
Figure 4.7: Plot of white mica alteration index versus wavelength position of reflectance minimum. Circles with
different colour indicate the distribution of the minerals in the diagram. Arrows represent the direction of the
abundance of chlorites, white micas, and Al content in the minerals.
The field spectral samples with WMAI values equal to 1.0 are plotted and overlaid on the
geological map shown in Figure 2.2. These samples are located within hydrothermal zones very close
to the structural hanging wall of VMS mineralized zones (Figure 4.8). The position of the samples
with WMAI values of 1.0 is consistent with the report of Preussinger (1990) that the top of
stratigraphic sequence of the VMS mineralization in the study area is towards the south and it is
consistent with position of hydrothermal alteration in a model of VMS deposit (Figure 1.2). Thus,
while it was not possible in this research to study actually the mineralogy of field samples of
hydrothermally altered and mineralized outcrops, the analysis of the field spectral data especially the
WMAI values, indicates that minerals in the hydrothermal zones associated with the VMS deposits
contain white mica.
28
Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data
Figure 4.8: Portions of geological map (see Figure 2.2) overlain with locations of field samples with WMAI
values equal to one and less than one. Hydrothermal zones are shown in blue and VMS ore bodies are in dark
grey. Boxes labelled as B, C and D enlarged images for visual clarity.
29
Chapter 4
0.5
Absorption depth near 2200 nm
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
4
2
tru 8 t
UM t
tru 4 t
50
43
74
28
79
TR 64
ec .59
10
ec .14
ec .17
ec .27
ec .32
32
4
2
.2
.1
.1
.2
.3
m
m
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
tru
ec
ec
ec
ec
ec
EC
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
sp
SP
Sample number
Figure 4.9: Sample number versus depth absorption of illite peak around 2.200 m wavelength. This graph shows
AlOH depth (DAlOH) variability of illite in the field samples.
Figure 4.10: Spectra of illite minerals showing variation on depth and shape of absorption around 2.200 m
wavelength. Spectrum 62t, spectrum.322, spectrum.279 and 32t are collected from field samples and interpreted
by TSG software for visual clarity. Spectrum 62t has the highest white mica absorption depth (DAlOH).
30
Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data
The variability of spectral features of illite in the field samples suggest mineral zonations in the
hydrothermally altered rocks association with the VMS deposits in Gorob area (Figure 1.2). In this
area chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and pyrite are the main ore minerals (Haussinger et al., 1993; Klemd and
Okrusch, 1990; Preussinger, 1990). However, the field spectral data did not include these ore minerals
and they could not be mapped by the mapping methods used in this research. Therefore, it was
attempted to determine spatial distribution of illite from the field spectral data based on their
absorption depth at 2.200 m. The results do not, however show clear spatial distribution of illite
based on their absorption depths at 2.200 m in the field spectral data. This might be due to the
structural complexities (section 2.3) and/or the samples were not collected traverse to the zonations of
the hydrothermally altered areas.
Figure 4.11: Typical reflectance spectra of white mica (Clark, 199). Dotted and solid rectangles and numbers in
nanometers (nm) indicate wavelength positions of spectral bands in the HyMap imagery used.
Colour composites of various combinations of band ratio images were then created and carefully
studied for their distinguishable zonations (for example, 2.171m/2.187m in red, 2.187m /2.205m
in green and 2.356/2.257 m in blue). The colour composite showing the best result is displayed in
Figure 4.12. This image and the continuum removed reflectance image were displayed and
geographically linked using ENVI 4.2 software. Then, the spectra of the areas showing distinct
zonations (Figure 4.12) were collected for analysis of endmembers (Figure 4.13). Endmembers having
absorption features at and near 2.20 m (AlOH absorption) include SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4 and SM5;
31
Chapter 4
and endmembers having absorptions at and near, 2.25 m (FeOH absorption) include SC1, SC2, SC3
and SC4. The other endmembers collected having absorptions at and near 2.30 m (MgOH
absorption) include S01, S02, S03 and S04. Endmember spectra SM1, SC1 and S02 were selected for
AlOH, FeOH and MgOH adsorptions, respectively, and plotted (Figure 4.14) for visual clarity.
Moreover, to show the spectral variability within the groups (AlOH, FeOH, MgOH) of the
endmembers collected, endmembers showing AlOH absorption (2.2050 m), as an example, are
plotted in Figure 4.15. In order to evaluate the spectra of the endmebmers collected, spectrum SM1, as
an example, were compared with the field spectra and USGS library spectra (Figure 4.16).
536613 538613 540613 542613 541936 542436 542936 543436
739 5793
739 5793
Kilometers
B
739 4746
7394746
0 0.4 0.8 1.6 2.4
739 5293
739 5293
739 2746
7392746
739 4793
739 4793
Kilometers
0 0.125 0.25 0.5
A B
536613 538613 540613 542613 541936 542436 542936 543436
Figure 4.12: False colour composite (RGB) of band ratio images (R=2.171m/2.187m, G=2.187m/2.205m
and B=2.356m/2.257m). Polygons with black colour boundary are hydrothermal zones (see Figure 2.2). Box B
is an enlargement from Box A.
Figure 4.13: Endmember spectra collected from the HyMap imagery (section 4.2.1). Spectra representing AlOH,
FeOH and MgOH absorption depths were selected and plotted in Figure 4.14 for clarity (visually).
32
Alteration mineral abundance and zonations mapping with hyperspectral data
Figure 4.14: Endmembers selected from Figure 4.12. Arrows and numbers (m) in spectra indicate absorption
wavelengths of H-O-H, Al-OH, Fe-OH and Mg-OH.
Figure 4.15: Subsets of reflectance spectra (Figure 4.12). This diagram shows absorption depth (DAlOH)
variability in white micas. Relative absorption depth at 2.2050 m in decreasing order was SM1, SM2, SM3,
SM4 and SM5.
Figure 4.16: Plots of endmember spectra (SM1), field spectra (spectrum.142, illite) and USGS library spectra
(illite 3 spec). The endmember spectra collected from airborne imagery (SM1) shows a good match to field
spectra and USGS library spectra.
33
Chapter 4
34
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
n
ti ri
i =1
= cos 1/ 2 1/ 2
(Equation 5.1
n n
ti2
ri2
i =1 i =1
The output of SAM for each pixel is an angular distance between the endmember spectrum and
reference spectrum in radiance (ranging from zero to /2). The output of SAM is a new data set with
as many bands as the number of input endmebmers given to the algorithm (Equation 5.1). The SAM
classifier has other output images called rule images, which show the best SAM match between the
reference and the test (endmember) spectrum at each pixel. Darker pixels in these images represent
smaller spectral angles and thus spectra that are more similar to the reference spectrum and vice versa.
The endmembers used in application of the SAM classification were those collected in section 4.5
and the field spectra. The SAM classification was performed on HyMap image spectra pertaining to
the areas where hydrothermal alteration zones are delineated by the techniques discussed in sections
3.3, 3.4 and 3.5 and those indicated on the detailed geological map (Figure 2.2). For endmembers
derived from both the field spectral data and the HyMap data, the wavelength regions between 0.5 and
1.40 m and between 2.20 and 2.48 m were used for the classification in order to avoid matching
effects for the classification of large absorptions of OH and H2O at and around 1.40 m and 1.9 m
(Figure 4.13), respectively. The maximum angle (i.e., 0.1 radiance) used in the classification
procedures and minimum threshold for both field spectra and airborne spectra endmembers were used.
The results of the SAM classification using the airborne spectra and using the field spectra are shown
in Figures 5.2 and 5.3, respectively; the rule image of the airborne spectra is shown in Figure 5.1.
35
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1: False colour composite of rule images SM3, SM2 and SM1 (in RGB sequence) produced using
endmembers collected from the HyMap imagery (Figure 4.13). Green colour in these images indicates the
hydrothermal alteration zones (see also Figure 4.12A), whereas other colours represent unaltered areas. Boxes
labelled as B, C and D represent areas enlarged images from Box A for visual clarity.
The results show that hydrothermally altered rocks associated with the VMS deposits in the study
area can be mapped using endmembers derived from airborne hyperspectral images and spectral data
collected in the field. In this study, surface compositional mapping was carried out using spectral
endmembers selected from field spectral data and HyMap data.
The spectra of the endmembers collected from the airborne hyperspectral image of the study area
interpreted as white mica based on their absorption at and near 2.200 m mapped along the
hydrothermal alteration zones mapped by Preussinger, (1990). Endmembers that had absorption
around the AlOH absorption feature (Figure 4.13) were mapped close to the magnetite-quartzites (see
Figure 2.2). These endmembers were mapped on the structural hanging wall of the ore body (Figure
5.2) except around Baruna (see section 2.2.1.3 and 5.3.3) where these endmembers are plotted on the
structural footwall of the ore body.
36
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
B
7394330
7394330
C
D
E
1 0.5 0 1 Kilometers
7391330
7391330
538235 541235 544235
542349 542849 541198 541698
,
160 80 0 160 Meters
739 4801
7394801
73 9 55 8 0
73 9 55 8 0
160 80 0 160 Meters
,
739 4301
7394301
73 9 50 8 0
73 9 50 8 0
B C
,E
7393149
7393149
739 4464
7394464
,
739 3964
7393964
60 30 0 60 Meters
D
7392949
7392949
739 3464
7393464
300 150 0 300 Meters
37
Chapter 5
536 831 538 831 540831 542831 542261 542 461 542 661 542861
Kilometers
0 0.03
0.06 0.12
7395600
7395600
B
Kilometers
0 0.4 0.8 1.6
7394792
7394792
C
D
739 5400
739 5400
739 2792
739 2792
739 5200
739 5200
B
536 831 538 831 540831 542831 542261 542 461 542 661 542861
541431 541631 539203 539503 539803 540103
Kilometers
0 0.020.04 0.08
7394073
7394073
7394582
7394582
7393773
7393773
D
7393473
7393473
7394382
7394382
Kilometers
C 0 0.050.1 0.2
spectrum.142--illite spectrum.343--halloysite
spectrum.155--hornblende spectrum.101-- intermediate chlorite
spectrum.175--intermediate chlorite spectrum.123--muscovite
spectrum.187--intermediate chlorite spectrum.24t--illite
spectrum.206--opal spectrum.67t--muscovite
unclassified WMAI < 1
WMAI = 1 Hydrothermal alteration zone
Figure 5.3: Image output of the SAM classification using endmembers derived from the field spectral data. Boxes
labelled as B, C and D represent areas enlarged from Box A for visual clarity.
38
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
1
Pi = ( b0 + b j x ij +.....+ b n x in ) (Equation 5.2)
1+ e
where:
Pi is the estimated white mica probability (ranging from 0 to 1) in the pixel that spatially coincides
with the ith rock sample;
xij is the jth predictor (airborne band ratio) value of the pixel that spatially coincides with the ith rock
sample;
bj is the jth regression coefficient, j = 1, .,n;
n is the number of predictors.
Maximum likelihood method was used to estimate the coefficient of the logistic regression model
in order to minimize the difference between measured white mica probability in rocks samples and
estimated white mica probability in spatially coinciding airborne pixels.
Analyses of reflectance spectra of field rock samples with field spectrometer indicated that 46.6%
of the samples collected contain white micas and chlorites (see Table 4.1). However, only 184
samples that are within and around the hydrothermal zones were selected for this research. White
mica is present in 39% of the 184 samples used as prediction subset and 38% of the184 samples used
as validation subset. Measuring very small absorption depths of AlOH (i.e., DAlOH 0.02) is difficult
and introduces errors. Therefore, samples with white micas with DAlOH 0.02 were not used in the
white mica probability analysis.
The probability of white micas being present in the rock samples was modelled with the following
logistic regression equation:
where:
Lu is the radiance value of the airborne spectral band with centre wavelength u.
39
Chapter 5
The positive regression coefficient of the airborne band ratio L2240 nm to L2205 nm in the
Logistic regression model indicates that the steeper the slope in the airborne spectra the higher the
white mica probability in the ground. The squared ratios of the regression coefficient to their standard
errors, the Wald value, of predictor variable L2240 nm/L2205 nm was 8.944 and the p- value of the
predictor variable was 0.003. These statistical parameters indicate that the band ratio chosen was
useful to the model or the band ratio used contribute significantly to estimating absence or the
presence of white mica (SPSS, 2005). The overall percentage of classification is 82.40 for the
prediction and 73.90 for the validation, (using a white mica probability threshold value of 0.50). The
statistical parameters of this model are also compared (Table 5.1) with the parameters of models
produced using the band ratios used by Van Ruitenbeek et al. (2006). Band ratio 2240/2205 resulted
in the model with highest classification percentage and smallest p-value was therefore selected to
predict white mica probability, which is shown in Figure 5.4. Plots of measured white mica
probability in field spectra versus predicted white mica probability calculated from airborne spectra
show a good fit for both prediction and validation subset (Figure 5.5).
Table 5.1: Statistical parameters of logistic regression model (Equation 5.3) of white mica probability using
different band ratios as predictors.
Band ratio Constant Coefficient Wald value p-value Overall classification percentage
2240/2205 -68.767 72.703 8.499 0.003 82.40
2171/2187* -70.984 66.072 6.872 0.009 79.40
2008/2082* -12.770 31.276 1.211 0.271 72.10
2136/2187 -33.289 26.846 4.336 0.003 72.1
2136/2205 -30.441 23.665 4.775 0.029 76.5
2136/2223 -15.813 11.950 1.507 0.220 70.6
2153/2187 -39.123 33.820 4.839 0.028 76.5
2187/2205 -83.002 79.354 2.648 0.104 73.5
2223/2205 -110.35 109.377 8.651 0.003 75.0
2356/2257 -4.361 5.648 0.420 0.517 72.1
2100/2187 -19.056 14.900 2.419 0.120 70.6
2136/2205** -31.401 24.413 5.405 0.020 73.90
*Band ratios and parameters used by Van Ruitenbeek et al. (2006).
**Band ratio and parameters used in validation subset.
The white mica probability map was visually compared with the hydrothermally altered zones
indicated in the geological map (Figure 2.2). Most white mica probability values greater than 0.5 plots
within the hydrothermal zones. However, these values also plot around the rims of the gabbroic units
(Figure 2.2). Figure 5.4E clearly shows that white mica probability values are higher around the rims
than within the gabbroic intrusion units. This may be due to metamorphic alteration of the
surrounding rock units by the heat of the late gabbroic intrusions (Preussinger, 1990). It is not only
that relatively high values of white mica probability plot around the gabbroic units but also that the
probability of white micas towards the centre of the gabbroic units is very low. This shows that the
model (Equation 5.3) adequately predicts the probability of absence or presence of white micas.
40
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
B
580290 0 580 Meters
7395032
7395032
C E
D
Legend
7393032
7393032
Alteration_Zones
Probability
Value
High : 0.999898
A
Low : 0.000000
7395683
7394846
140 70 0 140 Meters
7394646
7394646
7395483
7395483
7394446
7394446
7395283
7395283
7394246
7394246
C
7395083
7395083
B
542 161 542361 542561 542 761 542961 540 986 541186 541386 541586 541786 541 986
538647 539047 539447 539847 540247 540647 542178 542678
260 130 0 260 Meters
7394275
7394275
7393875
7393875
7395008
7395008
Metagabbro
7393475
7393475
D E
7393075
7393075
Meters
0 65 130 260
538647 539047 539447 539847 540247 540647
542178 542678
Figure 5.4: White mica probability estimated using logistic regression model in Equation 5.3. Boxes labelled as
B, C, D and E represent areas enlarged images for visual clarity. High probability values (reddish brown color)
represent white micas; and northeast southwest-elongated magenta colours indicate metagabbro rock units and
areas that have low white mica probability values.
41
Chapter 5
1.0
(A)
Measured white mica probability in field spectra
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
1.0
(B)
Measured white mica probability in field spectra
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
R Sq Linear = 0.642
0.5
0.4
0.3
Figure 5.5: Plot of white mica probability measured in field spectra versus white mica probability predicted from
airborne spectra for prediction subset (A) and validation subset (B).
42
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
where:
yi is the estimated absorption wavelength of the pixel that spatially coincides with the ith rock
sample;
xij is the jth predictor (airborne band ratio) value of the pixel that spatially coincides with the ith rock
sample;
cj is the jth regression coefficient, j = 1, .,n;
n is the number of predictors.
Least squares method was used to estimate the coefficient of the linear regression model so that
the difference between measured absorption wavelengths in rock samples and estimated absorption
wavelengths in spatially coinciding airborne pixels is minimized.
Analysis of field samples reflectance spectra obtained with the field spectrometer indicate that
absorption wavelengths of white micas in the rock samples vary from 2195 nm to 2219 nm. The
absorption wavelength of white mica in a rock sample was modelled with the following regression
equation:
where:
Lu is the radiance value of the airborne spectral band with centre wavelength u of the pixel that
spatially coincides with the rock sample
For the regression model in Equation 5.5, R2 is 0.436, and adjusted R2 is 0.422; t-value for the
predictor variable is: -5.558 and p-value is 0.000. These statistical parameters indicate the band ratios
used contribute significantly to estimating the absorption wavelength of white mica (SPSS, 2005).
The negative regression coefficient for the band ratio in Equation 5.5 indicates that airborne band
ratio L2171 nm to L 2187 nm is correlated negatively with the absorption wavelength of white mica
(Van Ruitenbeek et al., 2006). This in turn, indicates that the higher the ratio the steeper the slope and
the shorter the absorption wavelength (Figure 4.11).
Measured absorption wavelength from field spectra versus the estimated absorption wavelength of
white micas using the model (Equation 5.5) is plotted in Figure 5.6. For white micas having DAlOH
0.02, the predicted absorption wavelengths from the airborne spectra range from 2194 nm to 2209 nm,
whereas the measured absorption wavelengths from field spectra range from 2195 nm to 2208 nm
(Figure 5.6) .
43
Chapter 5
Absorption wavelength prediction from airborne spectra (nm)
2210
2205
2200
2195
The regression model for absorption wavelength of white mica (Equation 5.5) does not relate
presence or absence of white micas. In order to determine the prediction success of the model
(Equation 5.5), pixels that contain white mica larger than 0.5 in the probability values (Equation 5.3)
were masked. Absorption wavelength predicted from airborne spectra versus white mica probability
predicted from airborne spectra was plotted (see Figure 5.7A and 5.7B). The majority of the samples
that do not contain white mica (determined from analysis of the field spectra samples, Equation 4.2)
have low values (0.5) of predicted white mica probability (Figure 5.7). Absence of white micas
having probability values higher than 0.5 in Figures 5.7C and 5.7D demonstrates that airborne-derived
predicted white mica probability value was an effective mask for absence of white mica.
44
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
Absent Absent
Present Present
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.5
(C) White mica
Predicted white mica probability from airborne spectra
(D)
Predicted white mica probability from airborne spectra
Absent
White mica Present
Absent 0.8
Present
0.4
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.0
Figure 5.7: Plots of white mica absorption wavelength predicted from airborne spectra versus white mica
probability predicted from airborne data. A represents for training samples, B for validation subsets, C after
masking out probability values 0.5 from the training subset and D after masking out probability values 0.5
from the validation subset. Triangles indicate absence of white mica and circles indicate presence of white mica.
The presence/absence of white micas was determined from analysis of the field spectral data (Equation 4.2).
45
Chapter 5
Figure 5.8: Top panel shows white mica absorption wavelengths estimated from the airborne data using the
model (Equation 5.5). Bottom panel is an enlarged image of the northeastern part of the top image.
46
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
Surface compositional mapping (section 5.1.1) and presence or absence of white micas determined
using the model developed in section 5.2.1 (probability of white mica occurrence) showed a good
match in spatial distribution of hydrothermal alteration minerals in the study area. However, this
spatial coincidence must be validated using ground truth in the study area. Therefore, in this chapter
ground geological map, field spectral data and mineral deposits were used for validations of analyses
results of this research.
47
Chapter 5
B
7395225
7395225
C
D
A
7393225
7393225
E
1 0.5 0 1 Kilometers
210 105 0 210 Meters
7395624
7395624
B
7394527
7394527
7395224
7395224
C
7394127
7394047
7394047
7393647
7393647
D
7392911
7392911
E
140 70 0 140 Meters 100 50 0 100 Meters
Figure 5.9:Image output of SAM classification using endmembers derived from HyMap band ratios (Figure 4.13)
overlain by mineral deposits and white micas and chlorites. Boxes labelled as B, C, D and E enlarged images
from Box A for visual clarity. Red circle with dark colour at the centre in box B, C, D and E represent Gorob,
Vendome, Lungui and Bruna copper deposits, respectively.
48
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
5.4. Discussion
The analyses results of the field spectra data, airborne imagery data and the results of the models
for the estimation of the absence or presence of white micas for the hydrothermal minerals showed
good distribution of spatial coincidence. These results were integrated by overlaying them on the
ArcMap environment in order to evaluate spatial coincidence of the classification results of the
analyses. Most of the endmembers having wavelength absorption at 2.2050 m (SM1, SM2, SM3,
SM4 and SM5) collected from airborne imagery; illite, muscovite and halloysite from the field
spectra; and white micas that had high probability value (> 0.5) were mapped (see blocks B and C in
Figure 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4) within the hydrothermal zone mapped in the detail ground geological map
(Figure 2.2). Few areas were mapped as halloysites in surface compositional mapping (Figure 5.3B)
using the field spectral data. Halloysites might be newly formed minerals as a result of weathering of
chlorites while white micas persisted (Ehara Suryantini et al., 2005).
On the other hand, the analyses results showed that most of the white micas that were mapped
around Gorob and Vendome (Figure 2.2) in all the analyses were not mapped around Luigi (Figure
2.2). Around Luigi (Figure 5.1D, 5.2D, 5.3D and 5.4D) most of chlorites in the field spectra
endmembers, SM2 (see section 4.5) in the airborne imagery endmembers and very low probability
value of the presence of white micas estimated by the model (Equation 5.3) were mapped. Figures 5.1,
5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 showed these spatial distributions of the analyses results of the field spectra data,
airborne spectra and the model developed (Equation 5.3).
In addition to the spatial coincidence of the results of field spectral data, airborne imagery and the
white mica probability map produced using the model (Equation 5.3), absorption wavelengths of
white micas were estimated using the white mica absorption wavelength model (Equation 5.5). Unlike
for the estimation of probability of absence or presence of white micas in section 5.2.1, samples for
estimation of white mica absorption wavelengths were not enough to split into training and validation
sets. Therefore, all samples were used to develop the model (Equation 5.3). The result of estimation of
absorption wavelength of white micas is plotted in Figure 5.7 and Figure 5.8. White micas having
high probability values are with low absorption wavelength range (Figure 5.7).
49
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
50
Integrated analysis of field spectra and HyMAP data
6.2. Recommendations
1. Thin section, whole rock geochemical and isotope analyses results should be used to
validate/support spectral identification results of minerals by TSG software.
2. In order to prove the usefulness of the spectral evidences obtained from illite for identification of
ore deposit vectors, samples should be collected traverse to hydrothermal zonations.
3. In spite of structural complexity of the study area, if field spectral data is collected along and
across hydrothermal zones, it may be possible to delineate spatial distribution of white micas in
both horizontal and vertical mineral zonations.
4. It may also be possible to identify discharge and recharge vents of volcanic massive sulfide
deposits if more field spectral samples are collected systematically (vertical and horizontal
hydrothermal alteration mineral zones).
51
Spectral Remote Sensing of Hydrothermal Alteration associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits,
Gorob-Hope area, Namibia
M.Sc. Thesis by Sisay Ayalew Amera
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