Filtration

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 Filtration
Filtration process is widely used in water and
wastewater treatment for the removal of particulate
materials commonly found in water.

In this process, water passes through a filter medium,

and particulate materials either accumulate on the
surface (SSF) of the medium or are collected through
its depth (RSF).
A wide range of media is utilized in filtration systems
 Types of Filters
Mechanical Filtration (micro-strainers)

Granular media filtration

Roughing filtration
Rapid sand filtration (RSF)
Slow sand filtration (SSF)

Membrane Filtration
Microfiltration/Ultrafiltration
Nanofiltration
Reverse Osmosis
Types of Filter Media
Types Examples Size range

Screens Polyethylene, stainless 1-100 m

steel, cloth effective of the
opening
Diatomaceous Siliceous fossil
earth remains 7 50 m

Granular Sand, anthracite, coal, 0.1 10 mm

magnetite, garnet,
coconut shell
Types of Rapid (Deep Bed) Filters

Gravity or Pressure Filters

Single media, dual media or multi-media filter e.g.
sand alone, anthracite + sand,
GAC + anthracite + sand.
anthracite +sand + garnet
Upflow and Downflow filters
Constant rate and declining rate filters

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 Important characteristics of granular
media filter
Grain size distribution
effective size, uniformity coefficient
Density
Hardness/Attrition loss
Solubility in acid
Sphericity
Cost
 Particle removal in Rapid Filtration
Straining-Removes particles that are too large to pass through
the openings between sand grains.
dC
C
dz
-Filtration coeffcient,m-1
C- mass of particles ,mg/L
Z-depth of filter ,m

Sedimentation-removes particulate suspended matter of finer

sizes than the pore openings by precipitation upon the surface
of the sand grains
Sedimentation efficiency is the ratio of surface loading to
settling velocity of suspended particles.
 Particle removal in Rapid Filtration
Adsorption- removes finely divided suspended
mater, colloidal and molecular dissolved impurities

Chemical activity -dissolved impurities are broken

into simpler substances or converted into insoluble
compounds which are removed by sedimentation,
straining and adsorption.

Biological activity -the action of microorganisms

living in and on the filter bed
 Filtration
Materials for Rapid Filtration Media
Sand
Anthracite coal
Garnet
Granular activated carbon- adsorption and filtration

Effective Size and Uniformity Coefficient

Filter material are processed to remove largest by sieving and smallest
particle by washing to get a narrower size distribution.
Effective Size (ES d10) - the media grain size with diameter less than 10%
of the media by weight
Uniformity coefficient (UC) ratio of the 60th percentile media grain
diameter (diameter at which 60% of the media by weight is smaller) to the
effective size d 60
UC
d10
 Sieve Analysis
Effective size (d10) = 10% of the grains are
smaller than this size
d60 = 60% of the grains are smaller than this
size
Uniformity coefficient = UC = d60/d10
 Sieve Analysis
Weight of sand = 100 g

Aperture Weight of Weight of Weight of % Retained Cumulative Cumulative

size Sieve Sieve & Sand sand % Retained % Passing
mm g g g

1.80 467.4 467.4 0.0 0.00% 0.00% 100.00%

1.6 481.2 489.1 7.9 7.91% 7.91% 92.09%
1.4 477.6 488.2 10.6 10.61% 18.52% 81.48%
1.12 445.1 476.1 31.0 31.03% 49.55% 50.45%
1.00 467.5 485.8 18.3 18.32% 67.87% 32.13%
0.90 441.2 461.2 20.0 20.02% 87.89% 12.11%
0.8 439.3 449.8 10.5 10.51% 98.40% 1.60%
0.63 445.7 447.3 1.6 1.60% 100.00% 0.00%
Pan 438.2 438.2 0.0 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%
Total 99.9 100.00%

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Sieve Analysis
Sieve Analysis of Sand

100%

90%

80%
Cumulative % passing

70%

60% d10 = 0.88 mm

d60 = 1.21 mm
50% UC = 1.38
40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Aperture size (m m )

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 Hydraulic parameters of Filters
Filtration rate or velocity of flow V (m/h) = Q/A
where
Q = Flow rate (m3/h)
A = area of filters (m2)

Porosity ( ) = Volume of voids/Volume of filter

 Filtration media
Granular bed porosity
Affects the head loss and filtration effectiveness in a filter bed
Vv VT VM

VT VT

-porosity dimensionless
Vv-void volume in media,m3
VT-total volume of media bed,m3
VM-volume of media,m3
Typical Properties of filter media used in Rapid
filters
Property Unit Garnet ilmenite Sand Anthracite GAC

Effective Size mm 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4 0.4-0.8 0.8-2.0 0.8-2.0

(ES)

Uniformity UC 1.3-1.7 1.3-1.7 1.3-1.7 1.3-1.7 1.3-2.4

Coefficient
(UC)
Density, g/ mL 3.6-4.2 4.5-5.0 2.65 1.4-1.8 1.3-1.7

Porosity, % 45-58 N/A 40-43 47-52 N/A

Hardness Moh 6.5-7.5 5-6 7 2-3 Low

Adapted from: MWH, J. C. Crittenden, R. R. Trussell, D. W. Hand, K. J. Howe, and G.

Tchobanoglous.Water Treatment: Principles and Design. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley &
Sons, 2005, p. 882.
 Rapid Sand Filter (RSF)
Rapid gravity filters are designed to utilize the depth of
the filter more fully, to achieve a higher throughput of
water per unit surface.
Typical Rapid or Deep bed filters have bed depth of 1
to 2 m with relatively high filtration rate (5 to 15 m/h).

The performance of a rapid sand filter is dependent:

filtration rate
influent water characteristics e.g. turbidity
filter medium characteristics (grain size, bed depth)
 Efficiency improvements
Generally, the treatment efficiency of filters can
be improved by:
reduced filtration rates
Smaller size of the filter medium
increasing depth of the filter bed
increasing size of the flocs (in case of coagulated
water)
 Support media and under drains in sand
filters
Media in filters are generally supported by graded gravel layers
which prevent the media from reaching and clogging water
collection underdrains.

Backwash velocities should not expand the supporting gravel

layers.

Backwash velocities are usually increased slowly over a period of

at least 30 seconds to minimize the amount of disturbance in the
supporting gravel layers.

A variety of underdrain designs exist, some of which do not

require a supporting gravel layer.
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 UNDERDRAINS
Design to obtain uniform flow across the filter
Allow free passage of filtrate
Provide a pressure drop during backwashing
Allow air and water backwashing

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 UNDERDRAINS
Pipe network
Main feed pipe plus laterals
Gravel layers below sand
Must prevent the sand penetrating down

Suspended floor with nozzles

CLOSE NOZZLE SPACING <150mm
Backwash pressure must not lift floor

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 Pressure drop/Head loss in filters
The pressure drop (headloss) in deep bed filters increases
with time due to deposition of suspended solids in filter
bed (clogging) and filtration rate decreases.
The pressure within the filter can be allowed to drop to
atmospheric. If the pressure within the filter drops below
atmospheric (negative pressure), then the dissolved gases
in the water will come out of solution and will block the
pores causing poor water quality.

Filters are cleaned by backwashing with water alone or

combination of air and water.
Backwash water volume is about 1 to 5 % of production
 Granular media flow hydraulics
Hydraulic flow regimes identified by the
Reynolds number

Re-Reynolds no of flow around a sphere

v-filtration rate ,m/s
w-fluid density, kg/m3
d-media grain diameter ,m
-dynamic viscosity of fluid, kg/m.s
-shape factor ranges from 0.75 to 0.85
 Clean Filter head loss (Carmen-Kozeny eqtn)

hf=friction loss through bed of uniform size dp (m)

L=depth of filter (m)
e=porosity of bed
Vs= filtering velocity m/s
g= gravitational acceleration m/s2
dp=media grains diameter (m)
=friction factor related to coefficient of drag around particles
Headloss & Effluent Turbidity vs. Filter Run
Time
 Granular media flow hydraulics
Hydraulic flow regimes identified by the Reynolds
number
w vd
Re

Re-Reynolds no of flow around a sphere
v-filtration rate ,m/s
w-fluid density,kg/m3
d-media grain diameter ,m
-dynamic viscosity of fluid, kg/m.s
 Example
Calculate the head loss across a bed of uniformsize sand
particles of 0.4 mm in diameter with shape factor of 0.85 and
specific gravity of 2.65. The filter bed depth is 0.67 m an the
porosity is 0.4. Clean water at 20oC is passing through the bed
at a filtering velocity of 5.0 m/h.
 Back washing
The reversal of the direction of water flow
through the filter.
After a period of time the filters get clogged
and need to be cleaned.
Rapid upward flow lifts the particles and keep
them in suspension until they are washed out.
Treated water from storage tanks is used for
backwash cycle
 When is back washing needed?
Head loss is high such that the filter no longer
produce water at the desired rate.
Floc starts to break through the filter and turbidity of
filter effluent is high.
A filter reaches a given hour of operation.
From the filtration clear water flows under ground
into a storage tank called clear well.
Water is chlorinated ,fluoridated and stabilized as it
gets to the distribution pumps
 Filter backwashing
Fluidisation of the bed of media using water only
Light loading of non-sticky deposits
For sand (0.65mm) ABOUT 20 to 25m/h
Water only but with surface jet wash or rakes
Only useful if most of the deposits are in the top few
centimetres of media
 FILTER BACKWASHING
Air scour followed by water wash
TYPICALLY 25m/h AIR AND 20 to 25m/h WATER
SOME COMPANIES USE LOWER WATER (15 m/h)
Simultaneous air and water
The most vigorous backwash conditions
TYPICALLY AIR >25m/h, WATER >10m/h

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 FILTER BACKWASHING
Wash until clean - typically
Drain down to backwash overflow weir
AIR SCOUR AT 25m/h FOR 5 min
WATER WASH AT 20m/h FOR 10 min (10 to 15% BED
EXPANSION)
Often with a surface cross wash to help move the dirt to
the weir

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 FILTER DESIGN
Design factors
Water quality reaching the filter
Filter media
Material
Grading
Media depth
Rate of filtration
Backwash rate
Air
Water
Underdrain system
Hydraulic control
Filter construction
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 Rapid Filter Design
Number of filters
Determined by the overall capacity of the
treatment plant.
N 1.2Q 0.5

Q=max plant flow rate mgd

N-number of filters
Minimum of 4 filters although small plants can have
as few as 2.
Practical maximum size of a filter is 100m2
Details of Rapid Gravity Filter

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Slow sand filter
 Slow Sand Filtration
Contains biological activity hence called Bio-sand filter
Organisms and particles collect in the greatest density in the
top layers of the sand, gradually forming a biological zone
biological zone is sometimes referred to as 'schmutzdecke' or
'filter cake'
Cleaned by scraping of the bio-film and/or the top sand layer.
Slow sand filters have filtration rates of up to 0.4 m/hour
Can remove particles that are smaller than the spaces
between sand grains
Removes particles mainly at the surface of the sand bed.
 Rapid Sand Filters
Is mainly used in combination with other water purification
methods
Biological filtration is not part of the purification process
Used to remove impurities and remnants of flocculants in
most municipal water treatment plants
As a single process, it is not as effective as slow sand filtration
in production of drinking water
Water in rapid filters passes quickly through the filter beds
Filtration rates of up to 21 m/hour.
Physical straining is the most important mechanism
 Rapid sand Filters Vs Slow sand Filters
RSF
filtrate quality<1N.T.U
90% removal of coliforms,
50 90% removal of Cryptosporidium and
Giardia cysts,
10% removal of colour,
5% removal of Total Organic Content
Flow rates btwn 2.5-5 m/h
Made of graded sand ,dual media filters
Suspended matter penetrate deeper
Backwash for cleaning
Pretreatment necessary :coagulation,
flocculation and sedimentation
SSF
a filtrate quality<1NTU
95% removal of coliforms
99% removal of Cryptosporidium and
Giardia cysts,
75% removal of colour, 10% removal of
TOC
Flow rates around 0.3 m/h
Effective size 0.15-0.35mm
Shallow penetration of solids 0,5-2 cm
hence cleaned by manual methods
No pretreatment is usually necessary