Forms of Filler Metals Most of the filler metals are duc-

1,600 Flux Protects to Here

tile so that they can be rolled or drawn to wire or strip
in various standard forms. They may also be supplied as 1,500
powders. Nickel filler metals are available only as pow-
1,400
ders, although the powders can be bonded into wire or
strip with plastic binder materials. 1,300
Brazing Temperature
1,200
Fluxes 1,100 Flux Clear and Quiet
You will recall the importance of fluxing in the soldering 1,000
process. It carries the same, or greater, responsibility in
the brazing process. The importance of using the right 900
flux becomes clear when we consider all the things the 800 Flux Begins to Melt
flux is called upon to do. It has to stay on the tube without
700
blowing or washing away while being heated. The flux Flux Works and Bubbles
prevents oxidation from spoiling the clean metal surfaces 600
when they are being heated for brazing. As the brazing 500
alloy flows in, the flux has to flow out of the joint with-
out leaving impurities or inclusions. Finally, it should be 400

possible to clean all flux off the parts easily after the joint
has been made. Recommended types can be washed off
with water. Fluxes are available in the following forms:
Paste or liquid
Powder
Solid coating preapplied on the brazing filler metal
Vapor
Entirely apart from the protection it gives the joint, flux
also acts as a temperature indicator. Were it not for this fea-
ture, it would be difficult to get the base metal hot enough
for brazing without overheating it. When fluxed parts are
warmed up, the water in the paste boils off at 212F. Further
heating, to about 600 to 700F, makes the flux begin to work
(bubble). At 800F, the flux begins to melt. At 1,100F, the
flux is a clear, waterlike fluid, and the bright metal brazing
surface can be seen beneath it. At 1,150 to 1,300F, the braz-
ing temperature has been reached. If the parts reach 1,600F,
the flux will lose its protective qualities. See Fig. 10-20.
Brazing fluxes include the following materials:
Borates Sodium, potassium, and lithium borate
compounds are used in high temperature fluxes whose
melting range is 1,400F. Their oxide-dissolving char-
acteristics are good.
Fused borax This material is used as an active flux
at high temperatures.
Fluoborates These are compounds of fluorine,
boron, and active metals such as sodium and potas-
sium. They have better flow properties and oxide
removal properties than the borates. Protection against
oxidation is of short duration.
Fluorides Fluorides containing sodium, potas-
sium, lithium, and other elements form active fluxes
300
Water Boils Out of Flux
200
Paste
100
Room Temperature
Fig. 10-20 Here is how flux behaves as the temperature rises.
and react readily with even the most stable oxides at
elevated temperatures. They work well in dissolving
the refractory metal oxides, and they assist in braz-
ing with silver filler metals. Fluorides increase the
capillary flow of brazing filler metals.
Chlorides Chlorides are similar in their fluxing char-
acteristics to fluorides, although they are less effective.
Boric acid Boric acid is a commonly used base for
brazing fluxes and is used principally as a cleaning
agent. It assists in removing the flux residue from the
metal surface after brazing.
Alkalies These are hydroxides of sodium and potas-
sium. They elevate the temperature at which fluxes are
effective. Alkalies have the ability to absorb moisture
from the air, which limits their usefulness.
Wetting agents Chemical wetting agents are com-
monly used in paste and liquid fluxes to improve con-
tact between the flux and the metal interfaces.
Water Water is present in all fluxes. Hard water can-
not be used effectively; if no other water is available,
alcohol should be used. Study Table 10-5 for the correct
use of commercially available brazing fluxes.

264Chapter 10Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice: Jobs 10-J50J51

 Table 10-5 Information on Applications for Brazing Fluxes1

AWS Metal Combinations for Effective

Brazing which Various Fluxes Are Suitable Temperature Major Methods
Flux Range of Constituents Physical of
Type No. Base Metals Filler Metals Flux (F) of Flux Form Application2
1 Aluminum and aluminum alloys Aluminum-silicon (BAlSi) 7001,190 Fluorides; Powder 1, 2, 3, 4
chlorides
2 Magnesium alloys Magnesium (BMg) 9001,200 Fluorides; Powder 3, 4
chlorides
3A Copper and copper-base alloys Copper-phosphorus (BCuP) 1,0501,600 Boric acid, Powder 1, 2, 3
(except those with aluminum); Silver (BAg) borates, Paste
iron-base alloys; cast iron; fluorides, Liquid
carbon and alloy steel; fluoborate
nickel and nickel-base alloys; wetting agent
stainless steels; precious
metals (gold, silver,
palladium, etc.)3
3B Copper and copper-base alloys Copper (BCu) 1,3502,100 Boric acid Powder 1, 2, 3
(except those with aluminum); Copper-phosphorus (BCuP) Borates Paste
iron-base alloys; cast iron; Silver (BAg) Fluorides Liquid
carbon and alloy steel;
nickel and nickel-base alloys; Gold (BAu) Fluoborate
stainless steels; precious Copper-zinc (RBCuZn) Wetting agent
metals (gold, silver, Nickel (BNi)
palladium, etc.)
4 Aluminum-bronze; Silver (BAg); copper- 1,0501,600 Borates Powder 1, 2, 3
aluminum-brass4 zinc (RBCuZn); copper- Fluorides Paste
phosphorus (BCuP) Chlorides
5 Copper and copper-base alloys Copper (BCu); copper- 1,4002,200 Borax Powder 1, 2, 3
(except those with aluminum); phosphorus (BCuP) Boric acid Paste
nickel and nickel-base alloys; Silver (BAg 819) Borates Liquid
stainless steels; carbon and Gold (BAu); copper-zinc
alloy steels; cast iron and (RBCuZn)
miscellaneous iron-base alloys;
precious metals (except gold Nickel (BNi)
and silver)
1
This table provides a guide for classification of most of the proprietary fluxes available commercially. For additional data, consult AWS specification for brazing filler metal A5.8
ASTM B260; consult also AWS Brazing Manual, 1991 ed.
2
1-sprinkle dry powder on joint; 2-dip heated filler metal rod in powder or paste; 3-mix to paste consistency with water, alcohol, monochlorobenzene, etc.; 4-molten flux bath.
3
Some Type 3A fluxes are specifically recommended for base metals listed under Type 4.
4
In some cases Type 1 flux may be used on base metals listed under Type 4.

Joint Design brazing, the quantity of production, the method of

As in our study of the soldering process, our main concern
in brazing practice will be joints in copper tubing and pip-
ing. It is well, however, to consider briefly the other types
of joints that are brazed in industry.
The design of a joint to be brazed depends upon a num-
ber of factors. The most important are:
Composition of base and filler metals Members to
be brazed may be of similar or dissimilar materials.
Types of joints In selecting the type of joint for
brazing, the following conditions must be given con-
sideration: the brazing process to be used, the fabri-
cation or manufacturing techniques required before
applying filler metal, and service requirements such
as pressure, temperature, corrosion, and tightness. The
two basic types of brazed joints are the butt joint and
the lap joint. Lap joints have the highest efficiency,
but they have the disadvantage of increasing the thick-
ness of the joint. The strength of butt joints is usually
less than that of lap joints. Figure 10-21 illustrates the
various types of brazed joints.
Service requirements Your attention is again
called to the importance of the service a part is ex-
pected to provide. The use to which an assembly is
subject is the determining factor. The characteristics
of the material to be carried in the system affect

Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice: Jobs 10-J50J51 Chapter 10265
 Preplaced Shim

Good

Preplaced Washer

Good

Preplaced Shim
Insulation
Cable Solid
Conductor
Terminal

Tip Bad

Conductor Arm
Fig. 10-22 Preplacement
of brazing filler metal in shim
Fig. 10-21 Typical joints for brazing. form. The bad shim is locked
in so that there is no room
for expansion or for gases to
escape.
joint design. Isit liquid, solid, or gas? What are its
temperature and pressure ranges? Is it corrosive?
The joint must maintain the properties in the base
metal and filler metal that the material demands.
These properties include tensile strength and resis-
tance to impact, fatigue, and extremes of temperature
Fig. 10-23 Methods of
and pressure. preplacing brazing filler
Stress distribution Joints should be designed to metal in wire form.
Insert
avoid stress concentrations at the brazed area that may
cause tearing. Pressure tightness
Placement of brazing filler metal Before designing Wherever possible, the
a brazed joint, it is necessary to select the brazing lap joint should be used
process and the manner in which the filler metal will in the fabrication of
be applied to the joint. In most torch-brazed joints pressure-tight assem-
the filler metal is simply face-fed. Mass factory pro- blies. In making these
duction, however, may require the use of automatic joints, the entire surface
equipment for thepreplacement of brazing filler to be joined must have
metal. See Figs.10-22, 10-23, and10-24. Completed uniform coverage. There
Electric conductivity In brazing an electrical joint, Joint must be no channels or
consideration must be given to the resistance set up bare spots through which
by the brazed joint. In general, brazing filler materials leakage can occur. It is
Fig. 10-24 Preinserted
have a lower electrical conductivity than copper. One silver-brazing alloy in a groove also important in brazing
approach is to use a shorter lap, thus reducing the bulk flows both ways through the a closed assembly that it
of the joint. cup to make a joint. be vented in some way to

266Chapter 10Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice: Jobs 10-J50J51

 provide an outlet for the air or gases enclosed. If gases
are not allowed to escape during brazing, they will
create pressure on the filler metal flowing through the
joint and retard capillary attraction.
Heating Methods
Several methods of heating are used to produce brazed
joints. In selecting the method to be used, consideration
should be given to the heat requirements of the joint and
the materials being brazed, accessibility to the joint, pro-
duction quotas, compactness and lightness of design, and
the mass of the component.
Torch Brazing (TB) Four different kinds of torches are
used for the brazing process, depending on the fuel-gas
mixtures. Mixtures include:
Air-gas
Air-acetylene
Oxyacetylene
Oxyhydrogen
City gas
Natural gas
Propane
Propylene
Butane
Other oxyfuel gases
Air-gas torches provide the lowest flame temperatures
and the least heat. Both air-gas and air-acetylene torches
can be used to advantage on small parts and thin sections.
Torches that employ oxygen with city gas, natural gas,
propane, propylene, or butane provide a higher flame temper-
ature. Like air-gas torches, they are suitable for small compo-
nents, lower heating speeds, and certain brazing alloys.
Oxyhydrogen torches are often used for brazing alumi-
num and other nonferrous alloys. The temperature they
produce is higher than those of the torches previously
considered and lower than that of the oxyacetylene torch.
The danger of overheating is reduced. Excess hydrogen
provides the joint with additional cleaning and protection
during brazing.
Oxyacetylene torches provide the widest range of heat
control and the highest temperatures of all the torches
considered. They may be used in a variety of situations
and with most filler materials. Because of the high heat
possible, extreme skill must be exercised to avoid local
over-heating. It is an advantage to have the torch con-
stantly moving over the work.
Torch heating is limited to those brazing filler metals that
may be used with flux or are self-fluxing. This includes the
aluminum-silicon, silver, copper-phosphorus, and copper-
zinc classifications.
Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice: Jobs 10-J50J51 Chapter 10267
Furnace Brazing (FB)Furnace brazing is widely used
when (1) the parts to be brazed can be preassembled or
jigged to hold them in position, (2) the b razing filler met-
als can be preformed and preplaced, and (3) exacting
atmosphere control is necessary. The method of heating
varies according to the application and relative cost of the
fuel. Some furnaces are heated by gas or oil, but the ma-
jority are heated electrically. The parts to be brazed are
usually assembled and placed in trays for loading into the
furnace. The flame does not make direct contact with the
parts being brazed. Loading and unloading may be either
manual or automatic.
Induction Brazing (IB) Induction heating is used on parts
that are self-jigging or that can be fixtured in such a man-
ner that effective heating will not be reduced by the fix-
ture. Parts to be brazed act as a short-circuited resistance
unit in the electric circuit and are heated as a result. Most
of the heat generated by this method is relatively near
the surface. The interior is heated by thermal conduction
from the hot surface.
A B OU T WEL DIN G
Being Effective
In todays welding environment you will
need to read drawings, perform basic shop math, read
measurement tools, and communicate using up-to-date
welding terminology.
Resistance Brazing (RB) This process is used when small
areas are to be brazed and the material is high in electri-
cal conductivity. The heat is provided by the resistance of
the parts to the flow of high current, supplied by a trans-
former that is brought to the brazing area, through con-
ductors made of carbon, molybdenum, tungsten, or steel.
A typical application is the brazing of conductors into the
commutator slots in large electric motors or generators.
Dip Brazing (DB) Two methods are in common use:
Molten metal dip brazing
Molten chemical (flux) dip brazing
The molten metal dip process is limited to the brazing
of small assemblies such as wire connections and metal
strips. The filler metal is melted in a graphite crucible,
which is externally heated. A cover of flux is maintained
over the molten filler metal. Clean parts are immersed
into the molten metal. Care must be taken that the mass
to be brazed does not lower the temperature of the molten
metal below that necessary for brazing.
The molten chemical dip process is also limited to
small assemblies that can be dipped. The flux is heated
in a metal or ceramic container to a fluid condition. Heat
may be applied externally or by means of resistance heat-
ing of the flux itself. Parts should be cleaned, assembled,
and preferably held in jigs before dipping. Brazing filler
metal is preplaced as rings, washers, slugs, or cladding on
the base metal. After dipping, the flux is drained off while
the parts are hot. Any flux remaining must be removed by
water or chemical means after cooling.
Infrared Brazing (IRB) This process is used mostly for
brazing of small parts. The heat source is a high intensity
quartz lamp that produces a radiant heat. These lamps can
produce up to 5,000 watts of radiant energy.
Diffusion Brazing (DFB) The demands of the nuclear and
aerospace industries have forced the development of many
special processes. These processes have been given the gen-
eral term diffusion brazing. They employ a filler metal that
diffuses into the base metal under a specific set of conditions
of time, temperature, and pressure. The joint brazed by diffu-
sion bonding has a higher melting point than those joined by
the normal brazing process. Thus, diffusion bonding permits
the high service temperatures so necessary to these types of
assemblies.
Brazeable Metals
As we pointed out earlier in the chapter, our purpose here
is to provide practice in the soldering and brazing of cop-
per tubing and pipe. These are the kinds of jobs that you
will be likely to encounter as a welder. The other forms
of brazing discussed in this chapter are production pro-
cesses performed by semiskilled factory workers. It will
add to your confidence and worth as a welder, however,
to have some knowledge of the reaction of other metals
when brazed.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Aluminum and most of
its alloys can be brazed. Aluminum alloys with high mag-
nesium content are difficult to braze because of poor flux-
ing and wetting. Aluminum filler metals usually contain
silicon and belong to the BAlSi group. A flux is usually
required.
Magnesium and Magnesium AlloysMost forms can
be brazed with filler metals of the BMg group. Torch
and furnace brazing have limited applications, but dip
brazing can be used for all magnesium alloys. Corro-
sion resistance depends upon the thoroughness of flux
removal.
268Chapter 10Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice: Jobs 10-J50J51
Copper The two types of copper for industrial use are
oxygen-bearing copper and oxygen-free copper. The oxygen-
bearing coppers contain a small percentage of oxygen in the
form of cuprous oxide. At temperatures above 1,680F, the
oxide is active and reduces the ductility of the brazing mate-
rials. The tensile strength is not affected by heating.
The oxygen-free coppers do not contain copper oxide
and are not subject to oxygen migration or hydrogen em-
brittlement during brazing. Filler metals of the BAg and
BCuP groupings are used.
Low Carbon and Low Alloy Steels These steels can be
brazed without difficulty. All of the processes may be
used. The BAg, BCu, and BCuZn groups are the best
suited filler metals. A flux is necessary.
Stainless Steels This category covers a wide range of base
metals. Most of the BAg, BCu, and BCuZn filler metals
may be used. The BAg grades that contain nickel are gen-
erally best for corrosion resistance. Filler metals contain-
ing phosphorus should be avoided on highly stressed parts
because brittle nickel and iron phosphides may be formed
at the joint interface. The BNi filler materials should be
used for all applications above 800F to obtain maximum
corrosion resistance. A flux is necessary.
High Carbon and High Speed Tool Steels The brazing
of high carbon steel is best accomplished prior to or at
the same time as the hardening operation. The harden-
ing temperatures for carbon steels range from 1,400 to
1,500F. Therefore, filler metals having brazing tem-
peratures above 1,500F should be used after hardening.
When brazing and hardening are done at the same time,
filler metals having a solidus at or below the hardening
temperature should be used. A flux is necessary.
Nickel and High Nickel AlloysThese metals may be
brazed by the standard processes. They are subject to em-
brittlement when mixed with sulfur and metals with low
melting points such as lead, bismuth, and antimony. Nickel
and its alloys are subject to stress corrosion cracking during
brazing and should therefore be annealed before brazing.
When high corrosion resistance is desired, the BAg groups
are used. The BNi filler metals offer the greatest corro-
sion and oxidation resistance and elevated-temperature
strength. The BCu materials may also be used.
Cast Iron The brazing of cast iron is somewhat difficult.
It requires thorough cleaning with electrochemical flame,
grit-blasting, or chemical methods. When the percentage
of silicon and graphitic carbon in cast iron is relatively low,
the brazing alloys wet without difficulty. Where the per-
centage is high, wetting is difficult. The high temperature
filler metals such as BCu may be used. When silver braz-
ing alloys with low melting points are used, they reduce
the oxidation effect and make wetting easier. Cast iron
with high carbon content has a low melting point, and care
must be taken to use as low a temperature as possible to
avoid melting the surface area.
Other MetalsAircraft and missile development have
brought into use a number of metals and materials that
lend themselves to brazing. These include such metals as
tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum, niobium, beryllium,
titanium, and zirconium. Most of these can be brazed
with the silver-based filler metals as well as other filler
metals to meet special conditions.
In addition to the reactive and refractory metals listed
previously, brazing may also be applied to certain types
of ceramics and to join graphite to graphite and graphite
to metals. Another expanding application is the brazing
of dissimilar metals. There appears to be no limit to the
uses of the various brazing processes.
Practice Jobs: Brazing
Brazing materials suitable for joining copper tubing may
be divided into two classes: the silver alloys and the cop-
per-phosphorous alloys. The two classes have fairly wide
differences in their melting and flowing characteristics.
The welder should consider these characteristics as well
as the time required to make a joint when selecting filler
metal. For joining copper tube with copper or bronze cap-
illary fittings, any brazing alloy in the BAg and BCuP
classifications provides needed strength and tightness.
Instructions for Completing Practice Job
10-J51
The following general procedure should be followed for
brazing copper tubing and pipe. Brazing should be done in
each position until joints of acceptable quality are produced.
1. Select copper tubing with diameters ranging from 2 1 120,000
to 112 inches and copper fittings to match the tube
diameters. Cut the tubing into 12-inch lengths that
can be recut for each new joint. Review the informa-
tion concerning cutting methods on page 263.
2. Refer to pages 263 to 265 for the proper way to
measure, cut, and clean the tube ends. Tube ends
and sockets must be thoroughly cleaned and free
of burrs.
3. Choose and apply a flux in accordance with the
recommendations of the manufacturer of the
brazing alloy. Apply the flux with a brush to the
cleaned area of the tube end and the fitting socket.
Do not use too much flux, and do not apply flux
Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice: Jobs 10-J50J51 Chapter 10269
to areas outside the brazing area. Be especially
careful not to get flux inside the tube. Apply flux
immediately after cleaning, even though the parts
are not going to be brazed immediately. The flux
prevents oxidation, which gradually affects clean
metal surfaces even at ordinary room tempera-
tures. If the fluxed surfaces dry out, add some
fresh flux when you are ready to braze. Use flux
that has the consistency of honey. Add water if it
gets stiff. A great deal of brazing trouble can be
prevented by keeping the flux just rightnot too
thick and not too watery. Never use a dirty brush
for applying flux.
4. Assemble the joint by inserting the tube into the
socket of the fitting, hard against the stop. Support
the two parts so that they are lined up true and
square. The joint may be positioned with the aid of
a vise, V-blocks, clamps, or other devices. Avoid
massive metal supports or clamps with large areas
in contact near the joint, because they will tend to
suck the heat out of the pipe and the fitting.
The strength of a brazed copper tube joint depends
to a large extent on maintaining the proper clear-
ance between the outside of the tube and the socket
of the fitting. Check the clearance gap carefully.
Figure10-25 indicates that as the clearance increases,
the tensile strength of the brazed joint is reduced. Be-
cause copper tubing and braze-type fittings are accu-
rately made for each other, the tolerances permitted for
each ensure that the capillary space will be kept within
the limits necessary for a joint of satisfactory strength.
5. Brush additional flux at the joint around the cham-
fer of the fitting. A small twist of the tube and fit-
ting helps to spread the flux over the two surfaces.
The joint is now ready for brazing.
140,000
Pounds per Square Inch
100,000
Tensile Strength
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Clearance of Gap
Thousandths of an Inch
Fig. 10-25 Tensile tests with brazing alloy having a strength of
42,000 p.s.i. show that a small clearance gap makes a joint with as
much as three times the strength of the alloy itself.
 6. Use an oxyacetylene torch for brazing, and adjust
the flame to slightly excess acetylene. Propane Alloy Just Starting
to Flow
and other gases are sometimes used on small
assemblies.
7. Heat the tube, beginning at about 1 inch from the
edge of the fitting. Sweep the flame around the tube
in short strokes, up and down, at right angles to the
run of the tube. It is very important that the flame Fitting Pipe
be in constant motion to avoid burning through the Alloy Wets the Surface Fillet
tube. If the flame is permitted to blow on the tube,
it may also wash the flux away. Heating the tube
first makes it expand. This causes the tube to press
Takes Feeding
against the cup, and some heat gets carried through Readily
to warm up the fitting. Generally, the flux may be Fitting Pipe
used as a guide to how long to heat the tube. Con- Completed Joint with Full Fillet
tinue heating after the flux starts to bubble and until
the flux becomes quiet and transparent, like clear
water. This indicates that the tube has reached the
Fitting Pipe
brazing temperature.
8. Switch the flame to the fitting at the base of the cup. Beyond Halfway Flow Gets Faster

Heat uniformly by sweeping the flame from the

fitting to the tube until the flux on the fitting stops
Fig. 10-27 Wet metal surfaces cause brazing alloy to flow into
bubbling. Avoid overheating the fittings. the gap.
9. When the flux appears liquid and transparent on both
the tube and the fitting, start sweeping the flame
back and forth along the axis of the joint to maintain Fig. 10-27. When the joint is filled, a continuous
heat on the parts to be joined, especially toward the fillet of brazing alloy will be visible completely
base of the cup of the fitting. The flame must be kept around the joint. Stop feeding as soon as the
moving to avoid burning the tube or fitting. joint is filled. If the alloy fails to flow or has a
10. It is helpful to brush some flux on the brazing rod tendency to ball up, it indicates either oxidation
and to play the flame on the rod briefly to warm of the metal surfaces, or insufficient heat on the
it up. Apply the brazing rod at a point where the parts to be joined. If the work starts to oxidize
tube enters the socket of the fitting. Because the during heating, there is not enough flux or the
temperature of the joint is hot enough to melt the flux is too thin. If the brazing alloy flows over
brazing alloy, keep the the outside of either member of the joint, one
flame away from the member is overheated, the other member is
Apply Alloy Here
rod as it is fed into the underheated, or both members are at the wrong
joint. Keep both the fit- temperature.
ting and the tube heated 11. After the brazing alloy has set, clean off the re-
by moving the flame maining flux with a wet brush or cloth. Wrought
back and forth from one fittings may be chilled quickly. It is advisable, how-
to the other as the filler ever, to allow cast fittings to cool naturally to some
alloy is drawn into the extent before cleaning. All fluxes must be removed
joint, Fig. 10-26. When before inspection or testing.
the proper temperature 12. Practice these joints in all positions until you
Fitting
is reached, the alloy have mastered the control of heat and the flow
will flow readily into of the brazing material. You are now ready for a
the space between the check test.
Fig. 10-26 Pull the alloy
tube outer wall and the 13. Use the same tests outlined for testing a soldering
in with a brushing motion of
fitting socket, drawn the torch. Concentrate a good joint, pages 266 to 267. All the conditions and
in by the natural force deal of the heat on the base results are similar. Carry out both the surface
of capillary attraction, of the cup. inspection and the water pressure test.

270Chapter 10Soldering and Brazing Principles and Practice: Jobs 10-J50J51