A curious and useful theorem in two-dimensional electrostatics

J. D. Jackson

Citation: Am. J. Phys. 67, 107 (1999); doi: 10.1119/1.19203

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A curious and useful theorem in two-dimensional electrostatics
J. D. Jackson
University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-7300
~Received 5 October 1998; accepted 21 October 1998!
In 1956 metrologists Thompson and Lampard established a new theorem in two-dimensional
electrostatics that gives calculable capacitances for practical systems possessing a certain symmetry.
The theorem is well known among those concerned with electrical standards, but not so well known
beyond. This paper brings the theorem to a wider audience with a pedagogical discussion of it, first
by treating a simple example by standard methods of electrostatics, then proving the Riemann
mapping theorem on which the theorem is based. The ThompsonLampard theorem and its
generalization are then proved and its use in metrology described. Along the way, some curious
results about series and products are exhibited. 1999 American Association of Physics Teachers.

I. INTRODUCTION cylinder closely by another continuous cylinder that is also

Most of the significant theorems in electricity and magne-
tism are 100200 years old, from a time when giants in
mathematical physics were laying down the subject with pre-
cision and elegance. It is surprising then to find that a curious
new theorem in two-dimensional electrostatics only emerged
in the second half of the 20th century, in 1956.1 The theorem
had its origins in a search for precision in electrical measure-
ments, and while well known in metrological circles,2 seems
lesser known elsewhere. I confess to my ignorance until the
theorem was brought to my attention by the editor of this
journal in late 1997. His awareness of the theorem came
from the paper in this journal on SI units by Zimmerman.3
There is a thorough if modest literature on the theorem
and its extensions.46 The purpose of the present paper is to
give a pedagogical discussion of the theorem and to illustrate
its power with simple-seeming examples.
What is this new theorem of Thompson and Lampard? In
its original form,1 it reads ~adapted slightly!:
Let the closed curve ~see Fig. 1! be the cross section
of a conducting cylindrical shell, which cross section
has one axis @plane# of symmetry ac but is otherwise
arbitrary. Further, let this shell be divided into four parts
by two planes at right angles, the line of intersection of
the planes being parallel to the generator and one of the
planes containing the symmetry axis ac. Then the direct
capacitance, per unit length of the cylinder, between
opposing parts of the shell ~for example, ab to cd!, due
to the field inside ~or outside! the shell, is a constant:
e0
C 05 ln 252.818 376 pF/m.
p
The electrostatic situation envisioned in the theorem is that
the surface in Fig. 1 between a and b is held at fixed poten-
tial V while the rest of the cylinder is at zero potential. The
direct capacitance between the opposing parts of the shell is
the ratio of the negative of the total charge per unit length on
the surface between c and d to the voltage difference V. Here
~as in later references cited above! we use the term cross
capacitance to denote the theorems direct capacitance
per unit length, with the per unit length understood. We
consider here only the charge on the inner surface of the
segment cd. In general, there will be charge on the outside,
too. In practice, this can be minimized by surrounding the
grounded. Then in the limit of infinitesimal gaps, the only
charge on the exterior of our chosen cylinder will be on the
segment ab ~and on the inner side of the surrounding cylin-
der in its immediate neighborhood!. See Sec. VI for a prac-
tical realization.
The amazing aspects of the theorem are that the cross
capacitance is independent of ~1! the shape of the cylindrical
surface ~apart from its symmetry!, and ~2! the location of the
plane bd perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, provided it
intersects the cylinder. If we think of the plane bd at various
positions along the figure, we can imagine that there is some
compensation at workwhen the segment ab is small, the
segment over which the charge density cd is summed is large
and vice versa. But the curiosity is that the compensation is
complete! This property and the resulting insensitivity to er-
rors are what makes the theorem of practical importance to
metrologists.
The plan of our discussion is to begin with some general
aspects of cross capacitances in terms of Green functions in
two or three dimensions, then to examine in a straightfor-
ward manner the example of a cylinder of square cross sec-
tion ~with its two different symmetry axes!. The square and
its generalization, the rectangle, illustrate the lengthy route
one must take to the simple end result, if the Thompson
~1!
Fig. 1. Cross section of a cylindrical conducting shell with plane of sym-
metry, but otherwise arbitrary. The cylinder axis is perpendicular to the
page. The symmetry plane intersects the page in the line ~a,c!. A perpen-
dicular plane, whose line of intersection with the first is parallel to the
generator of the cylinder, intersects the page in the line ~b,d!. Infinitesimal
gaps occur at a, b, c, and d, so that the four electrodes can be placed at
various potentials.

107 Am. J. Phys. 67 ~2!, February 1999 1999 American Association of Physics Teachers 107

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Lampard theorem is not at ones disposal. We follow these
examples with a physicists proof of the Riemann mapping
theorem and then a derivation of the theorem in two ways,
one by solution of the two-dimensional potential problem
with a circular boundary via a series expansion and the other
by Poissons integral solution. The latter permits easy access
to a generalization of the theorem to unsymmetric situations.
Apart from the brief description in Sec. VI, we do not
consider the practicalities of construction of precision ca-
pacitors or the errors coming from lack of exact symmetry.
For these, the reader may consult the literature.24,19
II. FORMAL SOLUTION FOR A CROSS
CAPACITANCE IN THREE OR TWO DIMENSIONS
The electrostatic boundary value problem for the potential
within a charge-free volume enclosed by a surface S, of
which a segment S 1 is held at constant potential F5V and
the rest at zero potential ~as in Fig. 2! is a standard Dirichlet
problem. The solution is7
Since the Green function is symmetric in x and x8 , C 12
5C 21 , the cross capacitance found if S 2 is held at fixed
potential while the rest of S is at zero and the total charge on
S 1 is determined. This symmetry can be viewed as an illus-
tration of Greens reciprocation theorem. That is the reason
the dashed lines along the surfaces in Fig. 1 do not distin-
guish which segment is at fixed potential and which contains
the charge of interest. Note also that in Fig. 1 with its axis of
symmetry the cross capacitance of ~a,b! and ~c,d! is the same
as the cross capacitance of ~b,c! and ~d,a!.
In the two-dimensional situation, the relevant Dirichlet
Green function features in a proof of the Riemann mapping
theorem, which is at the heart of the ThompsonLampard
theoremsee Sec. IV below.
III. CYLINDER OF SQUARE CROSS SECTION
As a first example of calculation of cross capacitance, we
take a cylinder of unit square cross section. As shown in Fig.
3, there are two types of symmetry for a square. In Fig. 3~a!,

F ~ x! 52
1
4p
E S
da 8 F ~ x8 !
] G ~ x,x8 !
]n8
the symmetry axis is chosen as the vertical line at x51/2,
with the orthogonal plane put at y5a. In Fig. 3~b!, the
symmetry axis is the diagonal line y5x, and the orthogonal,

52
4
V
p
E S1
da 8
] G ~ x,x8 !
]n8
, ~2!
y511a2x.
A. Square with symmetry axis parallel to sides
where the integrations are over the indicated surfaces, da 8 is We first consider the solution of the two-dimensional
an area element, n8 is an outwardly directed normal at da 8 , Laplace equation in the interior of the square, with the pe-
and G(x,x8 ) is the Dirichlet Green function for the problem rimeter of the square held at zero potential except for the
~G vanishes on the surface S and satisfies 2 G524 p d (x segment indicated at upper left in Fig. 3~a! by the dashed
2x8 ) in the interior of S!. lines ~x50, a,y,1! and ~0,x,1/2, y51!, which is held
The inwardly directed electric field at the surface S is at unit potential. We eventually want the charge on the
] F/ ] n; the surface charge density is s 5 e 0 ] F/ ] n. The total complementary segment of the boundary ~1/2,x,1, y50!
charge on the surface S 2 is given by the integral, and ~x51, 0,y,a!, but we first determine the potential

E E ]F F(x,y).
Q 25 da s 5 e 0 da . ~3! A series expansion for the appropriate Green function is
S2 S2 ]n not difficult to write down. We begin with the basic building
The cross capacitance C 12 is the ratio of the negative of the blocks, sin(npx), sinh(npy), and cosh(npy). In order to make
charge Q 2 to the potential V on S 1 . Thus we have the result, G(x,y:x 8 ,y 8 ) vanish on the boundary, but have the required
delta-function discontinuity, we use a completeness relation
C 125
e0
4p
E E
S2
da
S1
da 8
] 2 G ~ x,x8 !
]n ]n8
. ~4!
in x and x 8 , together with the correct combination of func-
tions in y, to obtain8
`
1
G ~ x,y;x 8 ,y 8 ! 58 (
n51 n sinh~ n p !
sin~ n p x ! sin~ n p x 8 !

3sinh~ n p y , ! sinh@ n p ~ 12y . !# , ~5!

Fig. 2. An arbitrary closed conducting surface S encloses a charge-free
volume V. The surface segment S 1 of S is held at fixed potential while the
rest of S is held at zero potential. The cross capacitance C 12 is defined to be
the negative of the total charge on the noncontiguous surface segment S 2 of
S divided by the fixed potential on S 1 .
Fig. 3. Examples of a cylinder of square cross section as special cases of
Fig. 1. The dashed lines indicate the two regions of interest, one held at
fixed potential and the other the region whose total charge ~per unit length!
defines the cross capacitance. In ~a! the symmetry axis is chosen as the line
x51/2. In ~b!, the diagonal y5x is the symmetry axis.

108 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999 J. D. Jackson 108

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where y , (y . ) is the smaller ~larger! of y and y 8 . We now b n 5 ~ cosh@ n p ~ 12a !# 2cos~ n p /2!!
construct the solution for the potential according to ~2!. We
need 2 ] G/ ] n 8 along the line x 8 50, a,y,1: 3 ~ cos~ n p /2! 2cos~ n p ! cosh~ n p a !! . ~12!

2
]G
]n8
5
]G
]x8 F G x 8 50
The summation in ~11! with the formidable coefficient
~12! is, according to the theorem, equal to ln A2, indepen-
dent of a! To demonstrate that independence is not trivial,
` although it does not involve magic. To impress upon you the
1
58 p (
n51 sinh~ n p !
sin~ n p x ! sinh~ n p y , ! power of the theorem, I give you an explicit demonstration.
First of all, we examine the asymptotic limit of b n for large
n:
3sinh@ n p ~ 12y . !# . ~6!
We also need 2 ] G/ ] n 8 along the line 0,x 8 ,1/2, y51: ~ 21 ! n21 n p
b n e

F G
4
]G ]G
2 52 so that
]n8 ]y8 y 8 51
` bn ~ 21 ! n21
1 .
58 p (
n51 sinh~ n p !
sin~ n p x ! sin~ n p x 8 ! n sinh~ n p ! 2n
Recall of the expansion of the logarithm ln(11z) shows that
3sinh~ n p y ! . ~7! the asymptotic form of the series, when extended over all n,
With ~6! and ~7! inserted into ~2!, the potential becomes sums to ln A2. This suggests the following maneuver: Add
`
and subtract the right multiple of sinh(np) to b n to give
1
F ~ x,y ! 52 (
n51 sinh~ n p !
sin~ n p x !
explicitly the desired multiple of ln 2, plus a correction term
that we hope we can show is identically zero. We thus write,
by adding zero to ~11!,
H
3 sinh~ n p y ! E0
1/2
dx 8 sin~ n p x 8 !
C5
e0
p
ln 21DC, ~13!

1 E 1

a
dy 8 sinh~ n p y , ! sinh@ n p ~ 12y . !# . J where the extra bit ~which is a rapidly convergent series
because the leading asymptotic behavior has been removed!
~8! is
`
Because we are interested in the potential and its derivatives 2e0 cn
only for y,a, we can put y , 5y and y . 5y 8 in ~8!. The DC5
p (
n51 n sinh~ n p !
~14!
integrals are then elementary; the result for the potential in
the lower region is with

H J
`
2 @ cosh@ n p ~ 12a !# 2cos~ n p /2!# ~ 21 ! n
F ~ x,y ! 5
p n51
( n sinh~ n p !
c n 5b n 1
2
sinh~ n p ! . ~15!

3sin~ n p x ! sinh~ n p y ! . ~9! Now our task is to show, first, that DC is independent of a,
and second, that it vanishes! Using the fact that cos(np/2)
To find the total charge on the complementary segment of
50 for n odd and (21) n/2 for n even, so that
the boundary, we need the normal electric field at ~y50,
cos(np)cos(np/2)5cos(np/2), and some identities among
1/2,x,1! and ~x51, 0, y,a!. The charge density at y
the sum and products of hyperbolic functions, c n can be
50 is s 1 52 e 0 @ ] F/ ] y # y50 and the charge density at x
expressed as the sum of two terms, the first dependent upon
51 is s 2 51 e 0 @ ] F/ ] x # x51 . If we denote the coefficient in
a and the second independent of it:
the curly brackets in ~9! by B n , we find the corresponding
charges to be c n 5c ~n1 ! 1c ~n2 ! ,

E
`
1 2e0 where
Q 15
1/2
dx s 1 5
p ( B n @ cos~ n p ! 2cos~ n p /2!# ,
n51 ~ 21 ! n
~10! c ~n1 ! 5 $ 4 cos~ n p /2! cosh~ n p /2!
E
` 2
a 2e0
Q 25
0
dx s 2 5
p (
n51
B n cos~ n p !@ cosh~ n p a ! 21 # .
3cosh@ n p ~ 122a ! /2# 2cosh@ n p ~ 122a !# % ~16!
The negative sum of the two charges is the cross capacitance and
for the complementary segments shown by the dashed lines
~ 21 ! n
in Fig. 3~a!: c ~n2 ! 5 $ sinh~ n p ! 2cosh~ n p ! 2 @ 11 ~ 21 ! n # % .
` 2
2e0 bn ~17!
C5
p ( n sinh~ n p !
, ~11!
n51
Consider now c (1)
n . The first term in the curly brackets van-
where ishes for odd n, and if we set n52m, cos(np/2)(21) n

109 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999 J. D. Jackson 109

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5(21) m . This means that the part of DC that depends upon
a involves the sum,
` ficients are simple Fourier series integrals,
c ~n1 !
(
n51 n sinh~ n p !
H
`
~ 21 ! m 4 cosh~ m p ! cosh@ m p ~ 122a !#
5 (
m51 2m 2 sinh~ 2m p !
2
cosh@ m p ~ 122a !#
sinh~ m p !
. J
But since sinh(2mp)52 sinh(mp)cosh(mp), the first term is
identically equal to the second, term by term. The contribu-
n to DC vanishes. We have therefore shown that
tion of c (1)
DC is independent of a.
Next we tackle the remaining sum involving c (2)
n . Because
(2)
of the last factor in c n , there are two sums, one over all n
and the other over just even n. The two can be combined to
give
F G
` `
c ~n2 ! 1 ~ 21 ! n21 e 2n p
( n sinh~ n p !
5
2 ( n sinh~ n p !
2
n sinh~ 2n p !
n51 n51
If we denote a n 5e 2n p / @ 2n sinh(np)# and b n 51/@ 2n
3sinh(2np)#, then some simple algebra shows that a n 2 b n
52 a 2n for any n. The series in ~19! is
a 12 b 12 a 22 b 21 a 32 b 32 a 42 b 4
1 a 52 b 52 a 62 b 61 a 7 .
For clarity we group the odd n terms together,
~ a 12 b 1 !2 a 22 b 21~ a 32 b 3 !2 a 42 b 4
1 ~ a 5 2 b 5 ! 2 a 6 2 b 6 1( a 7 .
But a 1 2 b 1 52 a 2 . Hence the series becomes
a 22 b 21~ a 32 b 3 !2 a 42 b 41~ a 52 b 5 !
2 a 6 2 b 6 1( a 7 .
Now a 2 2 b 2 52 a 4 and the series becomes
~ a 3 2 b 3 ! 1 a 4 2 b 4 1 ~ a 5 2 b 5 ! 2 a 6 2 b 6 1( a 7 .
We use the relation, a n 2 b n 52 a 2n , repeatedly to change
successively the signs of all the even n as so that the rela-
tion then can be used on the even n terms as well as the odd.
The result is that we keep pushing the first term in the series
to larger and larger n. Since the coefficients vanish exponen-
tially with n, this rearrangement of the series leads in the
limit to zero for the sum in ~19!. We have thus proved that
DC50
for all a on the interval 0,a,1. The cross capacitance in
~13! reduces to the expected result, ~1!.
B. An alternative solution
The reader is justified in thinking there might be a simpler
way to find the cross capacitance. What about linear super-
position? The situation in Fig. 3~a! can be thought of as the
linear superposition of one boundary value problem with unit
potential along the top ~y51, 0,x,1/2! and another with
unit potential along the left side ~x50, a,y,1!. The first
110 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999
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can be solved using product functions, sin(npx)sinh(npy),
and the other, sinh@np(12x)#sin(npy). In each case the coef-
A n5
2
sinh~ n p !
E j2
sin~ n pj 8 ! d j 8 ~21!
j1
with j 1 50, j 2 51/2 for the first situation and j 1 5a, j 2 51
in the second. When these two solutions are added and the
~18!
total charge on the complementary segment evaluated, the
result for the cross capacitance is of the form of ~11!, but
with ~12! replaced by
b 8n 5 ~ 12cos~ n p /2!!~~ 21 ! n cosh~ n p a ! 2cos~ n p /2!!
1 ~ cos~ n p a ! 2 ~ 21 ! n !~ cos~ n p a ! 2cosh~ n p /2!! .
~22!
Alas, in comparison to ~12! this expression does not seem an
improvement. Its asymptotic form for large n still has depen-
dence on a in both exponential and trigonometric ways.
There seems to be no obvious ln 2 lurking in the woodwork.
1 Yet for 0,a,1, the series is rapidly convergentit must
. give ( e 0 / p )ln 2 if the ThompsonLampard theorem is true!
The series ~11! with coefficients ~22! is not the first series
~19! thrown onto my Macintosh in the course of preparing this
paper to verify the truth of the theorem numerically. I leave
it to the inclined readers to check it out for themselves. @I
have not worked hard here to verify the necessary analyti-
cally, as I did above in showing DC50.#
C. Square with diagonal symmetry axis
By now the reader should be persuaded that direct verifi-
cation of the ThompsonLampard theorem in simple-
seeming situations is not always easy. Before leaving the
square, however, we turn to the symmetric figure of Fig.
3~b!, for which the diagonal is the symmetry axis. With the
potential different from zero only on the top line (y51), we
can solve the Laplace equation either by a simple series so-
lution with the products, sin(npx)sinh(npy), or with the
Green function ~5!. The result is the same; we find the series
~11!, but with the coefficients,
b 9n 5 ~ cos~ n p a ! 2 ~ 21 ! n !~ 12 ~ 21 ! n cosh~ n p a !! . ~23!
In contrast to b n given by ~12!, b 9n has both cos(npa) and
cosh(npa) present. The process of showing the independence
of the sum on a and then being a multiple of ln 2 does not
appear easy! It is perhaps amusing that the series for the
cross capacitance for Fig. 3~b! can be rewritten as
H(
e0 8 sin2 ~ n p a/2! sinh2 ~ n p a/2!
C5
p n even n sinh~ n p !
~20!
1 (
n odd
8 cos2 ~ n p a/2! cosh2 ~ n p a/2!
n sinh~ n p !
. J ~24!
The trigonometric and hyperbolic dependencies on a seem
inextricably tangled in ~24!, but, according to the theorem
and numerical computation, the two sums add to ln 2, inde-
pendent of a!
The special case of a50 has been discussed by Lampard.4
It describes the cross capacitance between the opposite sides
of a square. Utilizing the expansion of 1/sinh(np), the sur-
viving sum in ~24! can be written as
J. D. Jackson 110
 8e0 1 C ~ r ! 1C ~ 1/r ! 4p
C5
p (
n odd n sinh~ n p ! 2C 0
511 d 2
ln 2

5
8e0
p (
n odd
e 2n p
n
`

(
k50
2e 22kn p ~ a50 ! . ~25! 3 ( n
n odd
S 11cosh2 ~ n p !
sinh3 ~ n p !
2
cosh~ n p !
n p sinh2 ~ n p ! D
With an interchange of the order of summations and com- 1O ~ d 3 ! . ~29!
parison of the sum over n with the expansion of ln@(11z)/ Here C 0 is the magic result ~1!. A rapidly convergent expan-
(12z)#, we find sion for the series in powers of exp@2(2k11)p# can be writ-

F G
` ten down, but it is not too illuminating.12 Numerically, the
8e0 11e 2 ~ 2k11 ! p e0
C5
p (
k50
ln
12e 2 ~ 2k11 ! p 5
p
ln M, ~26! expansion is
C ~ r ! 1C ~ 1/r !
where 5113.454 727d 2 23.455d 3 1O ~ d 4 ! .

F G
`
11e 2 ~ 2k11 ! p 8
M5 )
k50 12e 2 ~ 2k11 ! p
. ~27!
Could M52? Yes, it could! It turns out that ~27! is a special
case of the ratio of two Jacobi theta functions9you have
heard of them, I am sure.10 For those of us who are Jacobi-
theta-function-challenged, it is sufficient to have the author-
ity of a formula in Gradshteyn and Ryzik11 to convince us
that the right-hand side of ~27! is a complicated way of writ-
ing 2. For more depth, expertise in elliptic functions is re-
quired. Actually, once we have proved the Thompson
Lampard theorem, M52 is proved without any recourse to
theta functions.
I have spent considerable time trying to show that ~24! is
equal to the canonical result, independent of a and have
failed. Its proof ~for me at least! depends on the validity of
the theorem.
D. Cross capacitance of sides of rectangular cylinder
Study of the two cross capacitances between opposite
sides of a rectangular cylinder allows us to comment briefly
on issues of imprecision in construction of a capacitance
standard. Lampard discusses this situation in detail.4 Let the
ratio of the sides of the rectangle be r. Let one side of unit
length be held at fixed potential and the charge on the oppo-
site side be computed. Call the resulting cross capacitance
C(r). Then let a side of length r be held at fixed potential;
the cross capacitance between it and its opposite side is
C(1/r). It is easy to see from the previous discussion that the
only change in ~24! is to replace sinh(np) by sinh(npr) or
sinh(np/r):
8e0 1 geometries in the w plane, amenable to solution. One well-
C~ r !5
p (
n odd n sinh~ n p r !
~28!
and similarly for C(1/r). The dependence on r has the ex-
pected consequence. For r.1, the sides of unit length are
farther apart; the charge density induced on one side in re-
sponse to the voltage on the other is less than for r51 and so
is the cross capacitance.
The issue of the effects of small departures from square
cross section ~with its exactly known answer! can be ad-
dressed by making a Taylor series expansion for C(r)
around r51. Let d 5r21. The Taylor series expansions of
both C(r) and C(1/r) will be of the form, A1B d 1D d 2
1 but the linear term in d will vanish in the average. We
find
2C 0
~30!
The coefficients of the powers of d are not particularly small,
but the average is relatively insensitive to small departures
from r51, even though the individual values differ markedly
from C 0 . For example, for r50.8, we find C(r)/C 0
51.888 62, C(1/r)/C 0 50.455 04, while the average is
1.1706.
Having shown ~with difficulty! that the theorem seems
true for the special geometry of the square, we turn to its
proof in general. For that we need the Riemann mapping
theorem.
IV. RIEMANN MAPPING THEOREM
Because analytic functions of a complex variable z5x
1iy satisfy the CauchyRiemann equations, the real and
imaginary parts of such functions separately satisfy the
Laplace equation in two dimensions. Complex analysis
therefore is a useful tool in two-dimensional electrostatics.
Furthermore, many complicated boundary value problems
may be simplified by means of conformal transformations.
Consider the one-to-one mapping w5 f (z), with f (z) ana-
lytic and f 8 (z)0. Analytic functions of z are mapped into
analytic functions of w. If two continuous curves in the z
plane intersect at z5z 0 , the angle between the curves is
maintained for the corresponding curves in the w plane, even
though they are rotated by the angle arg f 8(z0) and are locally
magnified by u f 8 (z 0 ) u . Such transformations are called con-
formal transformations. Two-dimensional boundary value
problems with various surfaces ~lines! or parts of surfaces
held at different potentials may be transformed into simpler
known example is the SchwarzChristoffel transformation,
which maps the interior of a simple closed polygon in the z
plane into the upper half w plane.
At the heart of the ThompsonLampard theorem is the
Riemann mapping theorem.13,14 Paraphrasing Copson13 and
referring to Fig. 4~a! and ~b!, we state the theorem as fol-
lows:
If S is the simply connected domain in the z plane
bounded by a simple closed curve C, there exists a
unique analytic function f (z), regular in S, such that
w5 f (z) maps S conformally on u w u ,1 ~the unit circle!
and also transforms the point z5z 0 within C into the
origin and a given direction at z5z 0 into the positive
direction of the real axis.

111 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999 J. D. Jackson 111

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Fig. 4. Conformal mapping from the z plane to the w plane. ~a! Arbitrary
closed curve C encloses a simply connected region S. Letters indicate arbi-
trary points along C. ~b! Unit circle with Greek letters indicating the w-plane
images of the four boundary points in the z plane.
The two parts of Fig. 4 give visual representation to the
mapping.
We now give a physicists proof of the theorem, fol-
lowing Copson. The proof appeals because it is based on our
knowledge of electrostatics. First, assume that f (z) exists as
a unique analytic function, regular in S. Since z5z 0 maps to
w50, so that f (z 0 )50, it must be that f (z)/(z2z 0 ) is regu-
lar and nonzero in S. We may therefore write
f ~ z ! 5 ~ z2z 0 ! e c ~ z ! ,
where c (z) is regular in S. Since u f (z) u 51 on the boundary
C, c (z) must have a real part that satisfies
lnu z2z 0 u 1Re c ~ z ! 50 on C.
But both the real and imaginary parts of a regular analytic
function satisfy the two-dimensional Laplace equation. Also,
we recognize that lnuz2z0u is, up to a constant, the potential
of a line source, l521/2, at z5z 0 . The real function,
V ~ z,z 0 ! 5lnu z2z 0 u 1Re c ~ z ! ,
is equal to 2G(z,z 0 )/2, where G(z,z 0 ) is the two-
dimensional Dirichlet Green function for the region S
bounded by the contour C. Alternatively, V is the electro-
static potential ~in Gaussian units! of an axial line charge l
521/2 located at (x 0 ,y 0 ) within a grounded conducting
right cylindrical shell C. The function Re c(z) is the solution
of the Laplace equation ~within S! caused by the ~image!
sources external to S that make the Green function vanish on
the boundary curve C.15
We now appeal to the existence and uniqueness of the
Green function or the line-charge potential.16 The real func-
tion Re c(z) is therefore determined in principle. The
CauchyRiemann conditions enable us to determine Im c(z),
apart from an additive constant. This constant can be chosen
to make a given direction, say, the dashed line (z 0 ,a) in Fig.
4~a!, map into the direction ~0,a!, the positive x axis, in Fig.
4~b!. The regular function c (z) determines the conformal
mapping, according to ~31!. This completes the physicists
proof of the existence of a unique conformal mapping that
takes the interior of any simply connected region with
boundary curve C into the interior of the unit circle.
Two comments:
~1! Further mappings can take the interior of the circle into
the upper half plane, but we use the circle in Sec. V to
prove the ThompsonLampard theorem.
~2! Although the Riemann mapping theorem establishes the
existence of a unique mapping, it does not assist in the
112 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999
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Fig. 5. The unit circle that is the mapping of the contour of Fig. 1. The
points labelled a, b, g, and d are the images of a, b, c, and d in Fig. 1.
Because of the axis of symmetry in Fig. 1, the points b and d are symmetri-
cally located with respect to the line ~a,g!. The angle j depends upon the
positions of b and d in Fig. 1 and the specific conformal transformation. The
cross capacitance C 1 is defined by the dashed arcs and is independent of j.
finding of the function f (z) for any specific situation.
Finding f (z) may not be easy. For example, the square is
~31! mapped into the circle by means of elliptic functions.17
Small wonder that our series solutions involved Jacobis
elliptic theta functions!
~32! V. PROOF OF THE THOMPSONLAMPARD
THEOREM AND ITS GENERALIZATION
With the Riemann mapping theorem under our belts, we
proceed to the easier problem of proving the Thompson
Lampard theorem for a cylinder of circular cross section. We
~33! first consider the original theorem for a cross section with an
axis of symmetry, as in Fig. 1, and do it by an elementary
series solution for the potential. We then consider the two
cross capacitances for the more general situation of Fig. 4
and establish the theorems generalization, using the Poisson
integral solution for the Laplace equation in a unit circle.
A. Basic new theorem by series solution
Any cross section with an axis of symmetry, such as
shown in Fig. 1, can be conformally mapped into the unit
circle. The points ~a,b,c,d! on its perimeter curve C are
mapped into the points indicated by the points ~a,b,g,d! in
Fig. 5. The axis of symmetry ~a,c! in Fig. 1 evidently maps
into a diameter of the circle. The phase of the conformal
transformation f (z) can be chosen to make the diameter
~a,g! horizontal. The point b in Fig. 1 maps to the image
point b somewhere on the upper semicircle. By symmetry
the point d in Fig. 1 maps to the image point d. The confor-
mal transformation determines the value of the angles 6j
that specify the locations of symmetric images a and d. All
that matters here is that the angles are symmetric on either
side of the x axis. Segments of the boundary C in Fig. 1 that
are held at fixed potentials are mapped into segments of the
unit circle at the same potentials. Cross capacitances and
other observables found easily for the circular boundary ap-
ply equally to the symmetric boundary. @Numerical values of
some quantities will, of course, depend on the exact form of
the conformal transformation, but the cross capacitances do
not.#
J. D. Jackson 112
 Consider the cross capacitance if the arc ~a,b! in Fig. 5
with subtended angle j is held at unit potential while the rest
of the unit circle is held at zero. The basic solution for the
potential F~r,f! inside the circle is an expansion in r n times
sines and cosines of n f :
`
B. The ThompsonLampard theorem via Poissons
integral
The series solution ~34! and ~35! to the Dirichlet problem
inside the unit circle can be combined and summed formally
to yield Poissons integral solution18 for the potential,

F~ r,f !5 ( r n @ a n cos~ n f ! 1b n sin~ n f !# .

n51
~34! F~ r,f !5
1
2p
E 2p

0
F ~ 1,f 8 !
12 r 2
11 r 22 r cos~ f 8 2 f !
2 d f 8.
~42!
The coefficients are
Consider now the more general geometry of Fig. 4~b!, with
a n5
1
p
E 0
2p
F ~ 1,f ! cos~ n f ! d f ,
the arc segment ~a,b! held at unit potential while the rest of
the circle is at zero potential. We seek the cross capacitance
of the arc segment ~g,d!, namely, the negative of the total
~35!
E
1 2p charge on this arc. The surface charge density is
b n5 F ~ 1,f ! sin~ n f ! d f . e 0 ] F/ ]r u r 51 . The result for the cross capacitance is
p 0

Explicitly, we have C5
e0
2p
E fE
g
d
d
b

a
df8
1
12cos~ f 8 2 f !
, ~43!

1 1 where we now have specified the ends of the arcs by the

a n5 sin~ n j ! , b n5 @ 12cos~ n j !# . ~36!
np np corresponding angles.
Now
The negative of the total charge on the arc ~g,d! is propor-
tional to the integral of ( ] F/ ]r u r 51 ) from f 5 p to f
52 p 2 j . We thus have
E dx
1
12cos x
52cot~ x/2! ,

2Q
5
e 0 n51
`

( E 2p2j

p
n @ a n cos~ n f ! 1b n sin~ n f !# d f . E dx cot~ x/2! 52 ln@ sin~ x/2!# .

~37! Therefore the cross capacitance associated with the arcs

~a,b! and ~g,d! becomes

F S D S D
G
Combining the elementary integrals with the coefficients, we
find d2b
g2a
sin sin
e0 2 2

S D S D
`
2Q 1 1 C 1 5 ln . ~44!
e0
5
p (
n51 n
$ sin2 ~ n j ! 1 @ 12cos~ n j !# p
sin
d2a
sin
g2b
2 2
3 @~ 21 ! n21 1cos~ n j !# % . ~38! This expression is the general result in closed form for non-
contiguous segments with arbitrary angles.
The term in the series independent of j, @ (21) /n # , when n21
For the symmetric situation already considered, we have
summed, gives ln 2. We thus find the cross capacitance to be the angles in Fig. 5, namely, a 50, b 5 j , g 5 p , and d
52 j . The argument of the logarithm then becomes

F G
e0

S D S D
C 15 @ ln 21D # , ~39!
p d2b g2a
sin sin
2 2 sin~ 2 j ! sin~ p /2!

S D S D
where 5
d2a g2b sin~ 2 j /2! sin~ p /22 j /2!
` sin sin
1 2 2
D5 ( n
$ sin2 ~ n j ! 1 @ 12 ~ 21 ! n21 # cos~ n j !
n51 sin~ j !
5 52, ~45!
2cos ~ n j ! % .
2
~40! sin~ j /2! cos~ j /2!

An alternative form for D is independent of the angle j. The magical ln 2 emerges in ~44!,
as it must.
`
2 1
D5 (
n even n
cos~ n j ! 2 (
n51 n
cos~ 2n j ! . ~41!
C. Generalization of the theorem
Putting n52m in the first sum converts it into the second.
Therefore D50, independent of j; the result of the theorem There are two cross capacitances in Fig. 4~a! and ~b!. We
is demonstrated explicitly. have labelled C 1 the one involving the arcs ~a,b! and ~g,d!
We note in passing that the other cross capacitance C 2 , of Fig. 4~b!. We label as C 2 the one involving the arcs ~b,g!
involving the arcs ~b,g! and ~d,a!, is equal by symmetry to and ~d,a!. The result for C 2 can be read off ~44! by suitable
C 1 5C 0 . relabelling of the angles ~a b , b g , g d , d a !:

113 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999 J. D. Jackson 113

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 e0
C 2 5 ln
p
sin
a2g
2
a2b
2
Fsin

sin
d2b
sin
2
d2g
2
S D S D
S D S D G . ~46!

Now consider the following sum, created from ~44! and ~46!:
e 2 p C 1 / e 0 1e 2 p C 2 e 0
1

S D S D
5
g2a d2b
sin sin
2 2

F S D S D S D S DG
3 sin
g2b
2
sin
d2a
2
1sin
b2a
2
sin
d2g
2
.
Fig. 6. ~a! Ideal cylindrical boundary with cross section made up of four
quarter circles. ~b! Cross section of the NIST precision cross capacitor that
approximates to high accuracy the ideal of ~a!. The four cylindrical elec-
~47! trodes are 6.35 cm in diameter with clearances of 0.36 cm between elec-
trodes. The movable central electrode ~shield rod! is 2.72 cm in diameter
Straightforward trigonometry leads to the numerator being and only extends part way down the length of the other four. The grounded
equal to the denominator, with the result that the two adja- outer shell is 18.16 cm in inner diameter. The electrode at the upper right is
cent cross capacitances satisfy the general identity, at a fixed, nonzero potential and all the others are grounded. The change in
cross capacitance DC, upper right and lower left, is measured when the
e 2 p C 1 / e 0 1e 2 p C 2 e 0 51. ~48! shield rod is displaced by Dz: u DC/Dz u 5( e 0 ln 2)/ p .

This result holds for the arbitary set of ~two-dimensional!

surfaces of Fig. 4~a! that are conformally mapped into the
arcs of Fig. 4~b!. There is no requirement of axial symmetry the cross capacitance.19 According to the theorem, a change
for the initial set of electrodes. The general result ~48! was
Dz in the position of the shield rod produces a change in the
first published by van der Pauw,5 although special cases were
given by Lampard4 ~and the general result in an unpublished cross capacitance of DC52Dz( e 0 / p )ln 2.
report!. Of course, when the symmetry of Fig. 1 obtains, one The basic idea of the measurement is clear, but practical
implementation of the theorem involves may subtleties of
finds C 1 5C 2 and ~48! reduces to the answer of the original
design and sophisticated procedures. The interested reader
theorem.
may consult Refs. 2, 19, and the papers cited therein.

VI. PRACTICAL USE OF THE THEOREM

The origins of the theorem were in metrology, with prac- VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS
tical goals of precision in defining the absolute farad and
The curious ThompsonLampard theorem of electrostat-
ohm. As pointed out by Zimmerman,3 the National Institute
ics, far from being merely a curiosity, is of practical impor-
of Standards and Technology ~NIST! has implemented the
tance. It provides a calculable capacitance for geometries
concept of the theorem to design a precision capacitor, as
that are relatively easy to fabricate into real devices. Basic
have those responsible for metrology in other countries. The
standards of the farad and the ohm are more accurate, thanks
favored four-part cylindrical boundary is the interior inter-
to its use.
section of four circles of radius a inside a square of sides 4a, For the mathematical physicist, the theorem elicits wonder
as shown in Fig. 6~a!. The advantages of this geometry are and amusement. Unbelievable results such as
many. In particular, the manner in which the electrodes ap-
proach each other in cusplike fashion means that the errors 8 sin2 ~ n p a/2! sinh2 ~ n p a/2!
resulting from the presence of the necessary small gaps are (
n even n sinh~ n p !
extremely small. The practical realization of this boundary in
the NIST capacitor19 is shown in Fig. 6~b!. 8 cos2 ~ n p a/2! cosh2 ~ n p a/2!
The four long precision cylinders define the boundary. 1 (
n odd n sinh~ n p !
5ln 2,
With end effects neglected ~and the shield rod absent!, the
cross capacitance for cylinders of length L is just C(L) valid for any a (0,a,1), and its special case (a50),
5LC 0 . End fringing effects are present, of course, but the
8
measurement technique circumvents both these effects and
the need to make an absolute measurement of the length L.
(
n odd n sinh~ n p !
5ln 2,
The grounded shield rod is inserted on the axis a distance z
are causes for wonder, as is the equivalent product,
into the configuration. Its diameter is such as to give a close

F G
`
enough fit to prevent any significant charge accumulation on 11e 2 ~ 2k11 ! p 8
the cross electrode over the distance z. With the shield )
k50 12e 2 ~ 2k11 ! p
52.
rod in place, the cross capacitance can be written C(z,L)
5(L eff2z)C0 , where L eff takes into account the end effects. The physicist, if not the mathematician, may view these re-
The NIST apparatus is such that small changes in z can be lations as true curiosities, most easily proved by means of the
created and measured with great accuracy, as can changes in very practical ThompsonLampard theorem of electrostatics.

114 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999 J. D. Jackson 114

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Editor Romer for bringing the Thompson
Lampard theorem to my attention. If you enjoyed this paper
I should get the credit; otherwise Romer should get the
blame. He is the one who twisted my arm to write it. @A joke,
in case anyone was in doubt.# I also thank Michael Berry for
pointing me to the Jacobi theta function identity ~27!. At the
time, I had not absorbed that it was all in Lampard.4
1
A. M. Thompson and D. G. Lampard, A New Theorem in Electrostatics
and its Application to Calculable Standards of Capacitance, Nature ~Lon-
don! 177, 888 ~1956!.
2
B. W. Petley, The Fundamental Physical Constants and the Frontier of
Measurement ~Hilger, Bristol, 1985!, pp. 142145. 14
3
N. M. Zimmerman, A primer on electrical units in the Syste`me Interna-
tional, Am. J. Phys. 66, 324331 ~1998!. 15
4 16
D. G. Lampard, A new theorem in electrostatics and its application to
calculable standards of capacitance, Proc. IEEE 104C, 271280 ~1957!. 17
5
L. J. van der Pauw, A method of measuring specific resistivity and Hall
effect of discs of arbitrary shape, Philips Res. Rep. 13, 19 ~1958!. 18
6 19
D. G. Lampard and R. D. Cutkosky, Some results on the cross-
capacitances per unit length of cylindrical three-terminal capacitors with
thin dielectric films on their electrodes, Proc. IEEE 107C, 112119
~1960!.
7
J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics ~Wiley, New York, 1998!, 3rd
ed., p. 39.
8
See, for example, Ref. 7, p. 89, Problem 2.15.
9
E. T. Whittaker and G. N. Watson, A Course in Modern Analysis ~Cam-
bridge U. P., Cambridge, 1952!, 4th ed., reprinted, Chap. XXI.
10
It turns out that string theorists make use of Jacobis elliptic and theta
functions. Consult your local string person for details.
11
I. S. Gradshteyn and I. M. Ryzhik, Table of Integrals, Series, and Products
~Academic, New York, 1965!, 4th ed., p. 924, formula 8.197.4.
12
My expansion of the sum is S52e 2 p @ (121/p )14(321/p )e 22 p 16(5
21/p )e 24 p 1 # . The third term here disagrees with Lampards Eq.
~43!Ref. 4. He has a coefficient 210 instead of 16.
13
E. T. Copson, Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable ~Oxford U.P.,
Oxford, 1935!, reprinted 1955, pp. 185187.
C. E. Pearson, Handbook of Applied Mathematics ~Van Nostrand, New
York, 1983!, pp. 261263.
See, for example, Ref. 7, pp. 3840.
See Ref. 7, pp. 37, 38.
H. Kober, Dictionary of Conformal Representations ~Dover, New York,
1957!, 2nd ed., p. 182.
See Ref. 7, p. 89, Problem 2.12.
R. D. Cutkosky, New NBS measurements of the absolute farad and
ohm, IEEE Trans Instrum. Meas. IM-23, 305309 ~1974!.

LESSONS FROM THE SSC

It has been said that experience is the name everyone gives to his or her mistakes. Experience
now tells us that big projects, whether in physics or biology, must have the support of the research
community, be managed soundly, and have some clearly articulated value to society. Perhaps
those lessons may be some small compensation for the money and effort that went into the SSC
and may help in the formulation of a more successful strategy when the next big project is
proposed.

David F. Voss and Daniel E. Koshland, Jr., The Lessons of the Super Collider, Science 262, 1799 ~1993!.

115 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 67, No. 2, February 1999 J. D. Jackson 115

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