Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
ed
We saw in Chapter 4 that by the mid-first
millennium CE the landscape of the subcontinent
was dotted with a variety of religious structures
h
stupas, monasteries, temples. If these typified
certain religious beliefs and practices, others have
pu T
is
been reconstructed from textual traditions,
including the Puranas, many of which received
re ER
their present shape around the same time, and yet
bl
others remain only faintly visible in textual and
visual records.
New textual sources available from this period
include compositions attributed to poet-saints,
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Fig. 6.1
A twelfth-century bronze sculpture of
Manikkavachakar, a devotee of Shiva
who composed beautiful devotional songs in Tamil
BHAKTI -SUFI TRADITIONS 141
ed
variety of forms. practices of peasant societies.
He found that peasants
1.1 The integration of cults observed rituals and customs
Historians who have tried to understand these that emanated from dominant
h
developments suggest that there were at least two social categories, including
processes at work. One was a process of disseminating
pu T
priests and rulers. These he
is
Brahmanical ideas. This is exemplified by the classified as part of a great
composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic tradition. At the same time,
re ER
texts in simple Sanskrit verse, explicitly meant to peasants also followed local
bl
be accessible to women and Shudras, who were
generally excluded from Vedic learning. At the same
time, there was a second process at work that of
practices that did not
necessarily correspond with
those of the great tradition.
These he included within the
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a continuous dialogue between what sociologists have and little traditions changed
described as great Sanskritic Puranic traditions over time, through a process of
and little traditions throughout the land. interaction.
While scholars accept the
Fig. 6.2
Jagannatha (extreme right) with his
sister Subhadra (centre) and his
brother Balarama (left)
142 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II
ed
amongst goddess cults as well. Worship of the
goddess, often simply in the form of a stone smeared
with ochre, was evidently widespread. These local
deities were often incorporated within the Puranic
h
framework by providing them with an identity as a
pu T
is
wife of the principal male deities sometimes they
were equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, in
re ER
other instances, with Parvati, the wife of Shiva.
bl
Fig. 6.3
Sculpture of a Buddhist goddess,
1.2 Difference and conflict
Marichi (c. tenth century, Bihar), Often associated with the goddess were forms
an example of the process of of worship that were classified as Tantric. Tantric
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ed
expressions of devotion ranged from the routine goddesses worshipped in your
worship of deities within temples to ecstatic town or village, noting their
adoration where devotees attained a trance-like names and the ways in which
state. The singing and chanting of devotional they are depicted. Describe
h
compositions was often a part of such modes of the rituals that are
pu T performed.
is
worship. This was particularly true of the Vaishnava
and Shaiva sects.
re ER
bl
2. Poems of Prayer
Early Traditions of Bhakti
In the course of the evolution of these forms of
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ed
Some historians suggest that the Alvars and
You (Vishnu) manifestly like Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against
those servants who express the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas
their love for your feet, or at least attempted to reform the system. To some
h
though they may be born extent this is corroborated by the fact that bhaktas
pu T
outcastes, more than hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from
is
the Chaturvedins who are Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even
re ER
strangers and without from castes considered untouchable.
The importance of the traditions of the Alvars
bl
allegiance to your service.
and Nayanars was sometimes indicated by the
claim that their compositions were as important
Do you think
as the Vedas. For instance, one of the major
Tondaradippodi was
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Source 2
Perhaps one of the most striking features of these
Shastras or devotion? traditions was the presence of women. For instance,
the compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were
This is a verse composed by widely sung (and continue to be sung to date). Andal
Appar, a Nayanar saint: saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses
express her love for the deity. Another woman,
O rogues who quote the law
Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted
books,
tt
A demon?
ed
This is an excerpt from a poem by Karaikkal Ammaiyar in
which she describes herself:
The female Pey (demoness)
h
with . . . bulging veins,
pu T
is
protruding eyes, white teeth and shrunken stomach,
red haired and jutting teeth
re ER
bl
lengthy shins extending till the ankles,
shouts and wails
while wandering in the forest.
be C
ed
temples, including those at Chidambaram, Thanjavur
and Gangaikondacholapuram, were constructed
under the patronage of Chola rulers. This was also
the period when some of the most spectacular
h
representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were
pu T
is
produced. Clearly, the visions of the Nayanars
inspired artists.
re ER
Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the
bl
Vellala peasants. Not surprisingly, rulers tried to
win their support as well. The Chola kings, for
Fig. 6.5 instance, often attempted to claim divine support
An image of Shiva as Nataraja and proclaim their own power and status by building
be C
Discuss...
Why do you think kings were
interested in proclaiming their
connections with bhaktas?
BHAKTI -SUFI TRADITIONS 147
ed
Lingayats continue to be an important community real world
in the region to date. They worship Shiva in his
manifestation as a linga, and men usually wear a Here is a vachana composed
small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the by Basavanna:
h
left shoulder. Those who are revered include the When they see a serpent
pu T
jangama or wandering monks. Lingayats believe carved in stone they pour
is
that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva milk on it.
re ER
and will not return to this world. Therefore they do If a real serpent comes they
bl
not practise funerary rites such as cremation, say: Kill. Kill.
prescribed in the Dharmashastras. Instead, they To the servant of the god who
ceremonially bury their dead. could eat if served they say:
The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and Go away! Go away!
be C
the pollution attributed to certain groups by But to the image of the god
Brahmanas. They also questioned the theory of which cannot eat they offer
o N
4. Religious Ferment in
North India
During the same period, in north India deities such as
Vishnu and Shiva were worshipped in temples, often built
with the support of rulers. However, historians have not
found evidence of anything resembling the compositions
of the Alvars and Nayanars till the fourteenth century.
How do we account for this difference?
ed
Some historians point out that in north India this
was the period when several Rajput states emerged. In
most of these states Brahmanas occupied positions of
importance, performing a range of secular and ritual
h
functions. There seems to have been little or no attempt
is
At the same time other
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religious leaders, who did not
bl
function within the orthodox
Brahmanical framework, were
gaining ground. These included
the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas.
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ed
in the north-western parts of the subcontinent
during the same period. From the seventh century,
with the advent of Islam, these regions became part
of what is often termed the Islamic world.
h
5.1 Faiths of rulers and subjects
pu T
is
One axis of understanding the significance of these Ulama (plural of alim, or one
connections that is frequently adopted is to focus on
re ER
who knows) are scholars of
the religions of ruling elites. In 711 an Arab general Islamic studies. As preservers of
bl
named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, which
became part of the Caliphs domain. Later (c. thirteenth
century) the Turks and Afghans established the
this tradition they perform
various religious, juridical and
teaching functions.
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zimma, protection) developed for peoples who followed including a record of his
revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and Christians, remembered words and deeds.
and lived under Muslim rulership. They paid a tax With the expansion of Islamic
no
called jizya and gained the right to be protected by rule outside Arabia, in areas
Muslims. In India this status was extended to Hindus where customs and traditions
as well. As you will see (Chapter 9), rulers such as were different, qiyas (reasoning
the Mughals came to regard themselves as emperors by analogy) and ijma
of not just Muslims but of all peoples. (consensus of the community)
In effect, rulers often adopted a fairly flexible policy were recognised as two other
towards their subjects. For instance, several rulers sources of legislation. Thus, the
gave land endowments and granted tax exemptions sharia evolved from the
to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish Quran, hadis, qiyas and ijma.
religious institutions and also expressed respect and
150 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II
Source 5
A church in Khambat
ed
Fig. 6.7 This is an excerpt from a farman (imperial order) issued
A Mughal painting depicting by Akbar in 1598:
Emperor Jahangir with a Jogi
Whereas it reached our eminent and holy notice that
h
the padris (fathers) of the Holy Society of Jesus wish
to build a house of prayer (church) in the city of
pu T
is
Kambayat (Khambat, in Gujarat); therefore an exalted
mandate is being issued, that the dignitaries of
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the city of Kambayat should in no case stand in their
bl
way but should allow them to build a church so that
they may engage themselves in their own worship. It
is necessary that the order of the Emperor should be
obeyed in every way.
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Source 6
ed
prayers five times a day (namaz/salat ); giving alms
(zakat ); fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm );
and performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj ).
However, these universal features were often
h
overlaid with diversities in practice derived from
pu T
is
sectarian affiliations (Sunni, Shia), and the influence
of local customary practices of converts from different
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social milieus. For example, the Khojahs, a branch Fig. 6.8
bl
of the Ismailis (a Shia sect), developed new modes A Khojaki manuscript
of communication, disseminating ideas derived from The ginan were transmitted
the Quran through indigenous literary genres. These orally before being recorded in the
Khojaki script that was derived
included the ginan (derived from the Sanskrit jnana,
be C
in special ragas during daily prayer meetings. of Khojahs in the Punjab, Sind
Elsewhere, Arab Muslim traders who settled and Gujarat.
along the Malabar coast (Kerala) adopted the
local language, Malayalam. They also adopted Matrilocal residence is a
local customs such as matriliny (Chapter 3) and practice where women after
matrilocal residence. marriage remain in their natal
The complex blend of a universal faith with local home with their children and
traditions is perhaps best exemplified in the the husbands may come to stay
architecture of mosques. Some architectural features with them.
tt
no
Fig. 6.9
A mosque in Kerala,
c. thirteenth century
Note the shikhara-like roof.
152 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II
ed
5.3 Names for communities
We often take the terms Hindu and
Muslim for granted, as labels for
religious communities. Yet, these
h
terms did not gain currency for a very
Fig. 6.10
is
Atiya mosque, Mymensingh district, Sanskrit texts and inscriptions dating
re ER
Bangladesh, built with brick, 1609 between the eighth and fourteenth
centuries point out that the term
jewel in the crown of all the terms sometimes had a derogatory connotation, but they
existing mosques of Kashmir. rarely denoted a distinct religious community of Muslims
Built in 1395, it is one of the best
in opposition to Hindus. And as we saw (Chapter 5),
no
Discuss...
Find out more about the architecture of mosques in
your village or town. What are the materials used to
build mosques? Are these locally available?
Are there any distinctive architectural features?
BHAKTI -SUFI TRADITIONS 153
ed
Instead, they laid emphasis on seeking salvation several ways. According to
through intense devotion and love for God by following some scholars, it is derived
His commands, and by following the example of the from suf, meaning wool,
Prophet Muhammad whom they regarded as a perfect referring to the coarse
h
human being. The sufis thus sought an interpretation woollen clothes worn by
pu T
of the Quran on the basis of their personal experience. sufis. Others derive it from
is
safa, meaning purity. It may
6.1 Khanqahs and silsilas
also have been derived from
re ER
By the eleventh century Sufism evolved into a well-
suffa, the platform outside
bl
developed movement with a body of literature on the Prophets mosque,
Quranic studies and sufi practices. Institutionally, where a group of close
the sufis began to organise communities around the followers assembled to learn
hospice or khanqah (Persian) controlled by a teaching about the faith.
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Names of silsilas
their hair.
Most sufi lineages were
When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah, a
named after a founding
no
ed
Are there any khanqahs or to the ba-sharia sufis who complied with it.
dargahs in your town or
village? Find out when these
were built, and what are the 7. The Chishtis in the
h
activities associated with Subcontinent
pu T
them. Are there other places
is
Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India in
where religious men and the late twelfth century, the Chishtis were the
re ER
women meet or live? most influential. This was because they adapted
ed
settled in Lahore and wrote a
Barani, all of whom wrote about the Shaikh.
book in Persian called the Kashf-
Practices that were adopted, including bowing before
ul-Mahjub (Unveiling of the
the Shaikh, offering water to visitors, shaving the
Veiled) to explain the meaning
heads of initiates, and yogic exercises, represented
h
of tasawwuf , and those who
attempts to assimilate local traditions.
pu T
practised it, that is, the sufi.
is
Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed several spiritual Hujwiri died in 1073 and was
successors and deputed them to set up hospices in buried in Lahore. The grandson
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various parts of the subcontinent. As a result the of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni
bl
teachings, practices and organisation of the Chishtis constructed a tomb over his
as well as the fame of the Shaikh spread rapidly. grave, and this tomb-shrine
This in turn drew pilgrims to his shrine, and also to became a site of pilgrimage for
the shrines of his spiritual ancestors. his devotees, especially on his
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death anniversary.
7.2 Chishti devotionalism: ziyarat and qawwali
Even today Hujwiri is revered
Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints is
o N
Fig. 6.12
A seventeenth-century painting of
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya and
his disciple Amir Khusrau
ed
to visit the tomb. He went there fourteen times,
sometimes two or three times a year, to seek
blessings for new conquests, fulfilment of vows, and
the birth of sons. He maintained this tradition until
h
1580. Each of these visits was celebrated by
pu T
is
generous gifts, which were recorded in imperial
documents. For example, in 1568 he offered a huge
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cauldron (degh) to facilitate cooking for pilgrims.
bl
He also had a mosque constructed within the
compound of the dargah.
be C
Fig. 6.13
Shaikhs greeting the Mughal
emperor Jahangir on his pilgrimage
o N
painting.
tt
no
BHAKTI -SUFI TRADITIONS 157
Source 7
ed
(humble soul) Jahanara ... went from the capital shrine of Nasiruddin Chiragh-i
Agra in the company of my great father (Emperor Dehli in his Muraqqa-i Dehli
Shah Jahan) towards the pure region of (Album of Delhi):
incomparable Ajmer I was committed to this idea, The Shaikh (in the grave)
h
that every day in every station I would perform two
is not the lamp of Delhi
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cycles of optional prayer
but of the entire country.
is
For several days ... I did not sleep on a leopard skin People turn up there in
re ER
at night, I did not extend my feet in the direction of the crowds, particularly on
bl
blessed sanctuary of the revered saving master, and I Sunday. In the month
did not turn my back towards him. I passed the days of Diwali the entire
beneath the trees. population of Delhi visits
On Thursday, the fourth of the blessed month of it and stays in tents
be C
Ramzan, I attained the happiness of pilgrimage to the around the spring tank for
illuminated and the perfumed tomb With an hour of days. They take baths to
daylight remaining, I went to the holy sanctuary and obtain cures from chronic
o N
rubbed my pale face with the dust of that threshold. diseases. Muslims and
From the doorway to the blessed tomb I went barefoot, Hindus pay visits in the
kissing the ground. Having entered the dome, I went same spirit. From morning
around the light-filled tomb of my master seven times
special place?
no
ed
(Arabic word meaning saying), example, the prem-akhyan (love story) Padmavat
a hymn sung at the opening or composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved
closing of qawwali . This was around the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the
followed by sufi poetry in Persian,
king of Chittor. Their trials were symbolic of the souls
h
Hindavi or Urdu, and sometimes
journey to the divine. Such poetic compositions were
pu T
using words from all of these
is
often recited in hospices, usually during sama.
languages. Qawwals (those who
A different genre of sufi poetry was composed in
re ER
sing these songs) at the shrine of
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya always and around the town of Bijapur, Karnataka. These
bl
start their recital with the qaul. were short poems in Dakhani (a variant of Urdu)
Today qawwali is performed in attributed to Chishti sufis who lived in this region
shrines all over the subcontinent. during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
These poems were probably sung by women while
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Charkhanama
Fig. 6.14
tt
ed
The Chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind.
Rather than accumulate donations, they preferred
to use these fully on immediate requirements
such as food, clothes, living quarters and ritual
h
necessities (such as sama ). All this enhanced the
pu T
is
moral authority of the shaikhs, which in turn
attracted people from all walks of life. Further, their
re ER
piety and scholarship, and peoples belief in their
bl
miraculous powers made sufis popular among the
masses, whose support kings wished to secure.
Kings did not simply need to demonstrate their
association with sufis; they also required legitimation
be C
as prostration and kissing of the feet. Occasionally association were not the same
the sufi shaikh was addressed with high-sounding as those of the Chishtis. In
titles. For example, the disciples of Nizamuddin some cases, sufis accepted
Auliya addressed him as sultan-ul-mashaikh (literally, courtly offices.
Sultan amongst shaikhs).
160 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II
Source 9
ed
deed of ownership to two gardens and much land,
along with the provisions and tools for their
maintenance. The ruler had also made it clear that
What aspects of the he was relinquishing all his rights to both the
relationship between the sufis gardens and land. The master had not accepted
h
and the state do you think are that gift. Instead, he had lamented: What have I to
pu T
best illustrated in this account? do with gardens and fields and lands? None of
is
What does the account tell us our spiritual masters had engaged in such activity.
re ER
about the modes of Then he told an appropriate story: Sultan
bl
communication between the Ghiyasuddin, who at that time was still known as
Shaikh and his disciples? Ulugh Khan, came to visit Shaikh Fariduddin (and)
offered some money and ownership deeds for four
Fig. 6.15
villages to the Shaikh, the money being for the benefit
be C
The dargah of Shaikh Salim Chishti of the dervishes (sufis), and the land for his use.
(a direct descendant of Baba Farid) Smiling, Shaikh al Islam (Fariduddin) said: Give me
constructed in Fatehpur Sikri, the money. I will dispense it to the dervishes. But as
o N
Akbars capital, symbolised the for those land deeds, keep them. There are many who
bond between the Chishtis and the long for them. Give them away to such persons.
Mughal state.
tt
no
BHAKTI -SUFI TRADITIONS 161
ed
No one lord of the world
8.1 Weaving a divine fabric: Kabir but two?
Kabir (c. fourteenth-fifteenth centuries) is perhaps Who led you so astray?
one of the most outstanding examples of a poet-saint
God is called by many names:
h
who emerged within this context. Historians have
Names like Allah, Ram, Karim,
pu T
painstakingly tried to reconstruct his life and times
is
Keshav, Hari, and Hazrat.
through a study of compositions attributed to him
Gold may be shaped into
re ER
as well as later hagiographies. Such exercises have
proved to be challenging on a number of counts. rings and bangles.
bl
Verses ascribed to Kabir have been compiled in
three distinct but overlapping traditions. The Kabir
Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or
Isnt it gold all the same?
Distinctions are only words
we invent
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sect of Kabir) in Varanasi and elsewhere in Uttar Kabir says they are both
Pradesh; the Kabir Granthavali is associated with mistaken.
the Dadupanth in Rajasthan, and many of his
o N
ed
tried to analyse the language, style and content to
establish which verses could be Kabirs. What this
Fig. 6.16 rich corpus of verses also signifies is that Kabir was
Roadside musicians, a seventeenth- and is to the present a source of inspiration for
h
century Mughal painting
those who questioned entrenched religious and
pu T
It is likely that the compositions
is
of the sants were sung by social institutions, ideas and practices in their
such musicians. search for the Divine.
re ER
Just as Kabirs ideas probably
bl
crystallised through dialogue
and debate (explicit or implicit)
with the traditions of sufis and
yogis in the region of Awadh (part
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ed
8.2 Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word
Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu
merchant family in a village called Nankana Sahib
h
near the river Ravi in the predominantly Muslim
pu T
Punjab. He trained to be an accountant and studied
is
Persian. He was married at a young age but he spent
re ER
most of his time among sufis and bhaktas. He also
travelled widely.
bl
The message of Baba Guru Nanak is spelt out in
his hymns and teachings. These suggest that he
advocated a form of nirguna bhakti. He firmly
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ed
8.3 Mirabai, the devotee princess
Mirabai (c. fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) is perhaps
the best-known woman poet within the bhakti
h
tradition. Biographies have been reconstructed
is
were transmitted orally for centuries. According to
re ER
these, she was a Rajput princess from Merta in
Fig. 6.17 Marwar who was married against her wishes to a
bl
A fifteenth-century stone sculpture
(Tamil Nadu) depicting Krishna
playing the flute, a form of the
deity worshipped by Mirabai
prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, Rajasthan. She
defied her husband and did not submit to the
traditional role of wife and mother, instead
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Source 11
ed
were based on the Bhagavad
continue to be sung by women and men, especially
Gita and the Bhagavata Purana,
those who are poor and considered low caste in
focused on absolute surrender
Gujarat and Rajasthan. to the supreme deity, in this case
h
Vishnu. He emphasised the
pu T
need for naam kirtan, recitation
is
of the names of the lord in sat
Discuss... sanga or congregations of pious
re ER
Why do you think the traditions of Kabir, Baba devotees. He also encouraged
bl
Guru Nanak and Mirabai remain significant in the establishment of satra or
the twenty-first century? monasteries for the transmission
of spiritual knowledge, and
naam ghar or prayer halls.
be C
ed
c. 1071) is an example of this genre. It enables historians to see
how traditions outside the subcontinent influenced sufi thought
in India.
h
2. Malfuzat (literally, uttered; conversations of sufi saints)
An early text on malfuzat is the Fawaid-al-Fuad , a collection of
pu T
is
conversations of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya, compiled by Amir
Hasan Sijzi Dehlavi, a noted Persian poet. Source 9 contains an
re ER
excerpt from this text. Malfuzats were compiled by different sufi
bl
silsilas with the permission of the shaikhs ; these had obvious
didactic purposes. Several examples have been found from
different parts of the subcontinent, including the Deccan. They
were compiled over several centuries.
be C
It dealt principally with the Chishti saints. The most famous tazkira
is the Akhbar-ul-Akhyar of Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlavi
(d. 1642). The authors of the tazkiras often sought to establish
no
ed
these may have changed over time. The challenge for
historians is to undertake such investigations with
sensitivity, while at the same time recognising that
religious traditions, like other traditions, are dynamic
h
and change over time.
pu T
is
re ER
Timeline
c. 500-800 bl
Some Major Religious Teachers in the Subcontinent
c.1400-1500 Kabir, Raidas, Surdas in Uttar Pradesh; Baba Guru Nanak in the
Punjab; Vallabhacharya in Gujarat; Abdullah Shattari in Gwalior;
Muhammad Shah Alam in Gujarat; Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu
no
Note: These time frames indicate the approximate period during which these teachers lived.
168 THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II
ed
of universal ideals and local traditions?
3. What were the similarities and differences between
the be-sharia and ba-sharia sufi traditions?
h
4. Discuss the ways in which the Alvars, Nayanars and
pu T
Virashaivas expressed critiques of the caste system.
is
5. Describe the major teachings of either Kabir or
re ER
Baba Guru Nanak, and the ways in which these
bl
have been transmitted.
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Map work
ed
why you think they are important.
John Stratton Hawley. 2005.
12. Find out more about practices of pilgrimage Three Bhakti Voices
associated with the shrines mentioned in this Mirabai, Surdas and Kabir
h
chapter. Are these pilgrimages still undertaken? in their times and ours.
When are these shrines visited? Who visits these Oxford University Press,
pu T New Delhi.
is
shrines? Why do they do so? What are the activities
associated with these pilgrimages?
re ER
David N. Lorenzen (ed.). 2004.
bl
Religious Movements in
South Asia 600-1800.
Oxford University Press,
New Delhi,
be C
New Delhi.