Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
relations
J.B.L. Mayall, J. Jackson-Preece
IR2084, 2790084
2011
Undergraduate study in
Economics, Management,
Finance and the Social Sciences
This is an extract from a subject guide for an undergraduate course offered as part of the
University of London International Programmes in Economics, Management, Finance and
the Social Sciences. Materials for these programmes are developed by academics at the
London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE).
For more information, see: www.londoninternational.ac.uk
This guide was prepared for the University of London International Programmes by:
J.B.L Mayall, Emeritus Professor of International Relations, University of Cambridge
J. Jackson-Preece DPhil (Oxon), European Institute and Department of International Relations,
The London School of Economics and Political Science
This is one of a series of subject guides published by the University. We regret that due to
pressure of work the authors are unable to enter into any correspondence relating to, or
arising from, the guide. If you have any comments on this subject guide, favourable or
unfavourable, please use the form at the back of this guide.
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................. 1
Aims.............................................................................................................................. 1
Learning outcomes......................................................................................................... 2
How to use this subject guide......................................................................................... 2
Structure of the guide .................................................................................................... 3
Essential reading............................................................................................................ 3
Further reading............................................................................................................... 4
Online study resources.................................................................................................. 10
Web resources.............................................................................................................. 11
The examination........................................................................................................... 13
Examination advice...................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 1: The rise of nationalism: concepts and definitions............................... 17
Aims of the chapter...................................................................................................... 17
Learning outcomes....................................................................................................... 17
Essential reading.......................................................................................................... 17
Further reading............................................................................................................. 17
References cited........................................................................................................... 18
The doctrine of nationalism........................................................................................... 18
Rival definitions of the nation....................................................................................... 19
Contested origins, contested futures............................................................................. 26
A reminder of your learning outcomes........................................................................... 26
Sample examination questions...................................................................................... 26
Chapter 2: Nationalism and the structure of international society...................... 27
Aims of the chapter...................................................................................................... 27
Learning outcomes....................................................................................................... 27
Essential reading.......................................................................................................... 27
Further reading............................................................................................................. 27
References cited........................................................................................................... 28
A real estate model...................................................................................................... 28
The problem of legitimacy............................................................................................. 29
The use of force............................................................................................................ 30
Extension of the system................................................................................................ 32
The terms of nationalist discourse................................................................................. 32
A reminder of your learning outcomes........................................................................... 34
Sample examination questions...................................................................................... 35
Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies....................................................... 37
Aims of the chapter...................................................................................................... 37
Learning outcomes....................................................................................................... 37
Essential reading.......................................................................................................... 37
Further reading............................................................................................................. 38
References cited........................................................................................................... 38
Ideology and international relations.............................................................................. 38
An ideology for nationalists? ....................................................................................... 39
Liberalism and nationalism........................................................................................... 39
Communism................................................................................................................. 43
Fascism and National Socialism..................................................................................... 46
A reminder of your learning outcomes........................................................................... 48
Sample examination questions...................................................................................... 49
i
84 Nationalism and international relations
ii
Introduction
Introduction
Aims
The aims of this course are:
introduce you to the central concepts in the study of nationalism and
international relations
develop your comparative skills of analysis of differing international
problems and policies related to nationalism
promote critical engagement with the nationalism literature
enable you to demonstrate this engagement by developing your ability
to present, substantiate and defend complex arguments.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Learning outcomes
By the end of this course, and having completed the Essential reading and
Activities, you should be able to:
critically examine the main concepts and theories employed in the
study of nationalism
account for the similarities and differences between nationalism and
other leading ideologies (liberalism, communism, fascism, and national
socialism)
discuss the evolving role nationalism has played in international
politics and the changing policy responses directed at problems of
nationalism.
You should be able to produce lucid, coherent, analytic written papers
which demonstrate an awareness of theories of nationalism and
international society, as well as international norms and practices relevant
to ethnic diversity within states.
Activity
Since most of us start off by taking the nation state for granted, you may find it
interesting and useful to write down what you understand by nationalism now, before
you have done any reading at all, and then see how many of your initial ideas about the
subject survive to the end of the course.
2
Introduction
Essential reading
You should purchase:
Hutchinson, J. and A.D. Smith (eds) Nationalism. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1994) [ISBN 9780192892607].
Jackson Preece, J. Minority rights: between diversity and community.
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005) [ISBN 9780745623962].
Mayall, J. Nationalism and international society. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990) [ISBN 9780521389617].
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Further reading
Please note that as long as you read the Essential reading you are then free
to read around the subject area in any text, paper or online resource. You
will need to support your learning by reading as widely as possible and by
thinking about how these principles apply in the real world. To help you
read extensively, you have free access to the VLE and University of London
Online Library (see below).
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84 Nationalism and international relations
6
Introduction
Articles
Allen, S. and J. Castellino Reinforcing territorial regimes: uti posseditis
and the right to self-determination in modern international law, Amicus
curiae 48 (July/August) 2003, http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/dspace/
bitstream/10065/203/1/AllenSteveAndCastellinoJoshuaIssue048.pdf
Avineri, S. Marxism and nationalism, Journal of contemporary history 26(34)
1991, pp.63757, available on JSTOR.
Beran, H. A liberal theory of secession, Political studies 32(1) 1984, pp.2131,
available on Epnet.
Berman, S. Islamism, revolution and civil society, Perspectives on politics 1(2)
2003, pp.25772, available on JSTOR.
Bernal, V. Eritrea goes global: reflections on nationalism in a transnational age,
Cultural anthropology 19(1) 2004, pp.324, available on LSE article finder.
Buchanan, A. Theories of secession, Philosophy and public affairs 26(1) 1997,
pp.3161, available on JSTOR.
Charney, E. Identity and liberal nationalism, American political science review
97(2) 2003, pp.295310, available on JSTOR.
Cliffe, L. Forging a nation: the Eritrean experience, Third world quarterly 11(4)
1989, pp.13147, available on JSTOR.
Cram, L. Identity and European integration: diversity as a source of
integration, Nations and nationalism 15(1) 2009, pp.10928.
Dekmejian, R. The anatomy of Islamic revival, Middle East journal 34(1) 1980,
pp.112, available on JSTOR.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
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84 Nationalism and international relations
The VLE
The VLE, which complements this subject guide, has been designed to
enhance your learning experience, providing additional support and a
sense of community. It forms an important part of your study experience
with the University of London and you should access it regularly.
The VLE provides a range of resources for EMFSS courses:
Self-testing activities: Doing these allows you to test your own
understanding of subject material.
Electronic study materials: The printed materials that you receive from
the University of London are available to download, including updated
reading lists and references.
Past examination papers and Examiners commentaries: These provide
advice on how each examination question might best be answered.
A student discussion forum: This is an open space for you to discuss
interests and experiences, seek support from your peers, work
collaboratively to solve problems and discuss subject material.
Videos: There are recorded academic introductions to the subject,
interviews and debates and, for some courses, audio-visual tutorials
and conclusions.
10
Introduction
Web resources
Unless otherwise stated, all websites in this subject guide were accessed in
April 2011. We cannot guarantee, however, that they will stay current and
you may need to perform an internet search to find the relevant pages.
Nationalism
H-net Nationalism, www.h-net.org/~national: a forum for dialogue
across academic and national frontiers open to all those with an
interest in nationalism wherever and whenever it exists. H-Nationalism
encompasses matters involving theory, methodology, history, and case
studies of nationalism, nation formation, national identity, and related
topics.
The Nationalism Project, www.nationalismproject.org/index.htm: one
of the most widely used nationalism studies resources on the internet.
It provides users with a plethora of scholarly nationalism information,
including leading definitions of nationalism, book reviews, web links,
subject bibliographies, a bibliography of more than 2,000 journal
articles, and much more.
Ernest Gellner Resource Site, www.lse.ac.uk/collections/gellner/index.
htm: a resource page for all those interested in the thoughts, ideas
and works of the late Ernest Gellner, who was and remains one of the
foremost scholars on nationalism.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
International organisations
United Nations
www.un.org is the homepage
www.icty.org is the site of the International Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia
www.unictr.org is the site of the International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda
www.unhcr.org is the site of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees
www.unosek.org is the site of the United Nations Office of the Special
Envoy for Kosovo (UNOSOK)
www.un.org/NewLinks/eebcarbitration is the site of the UN Eritrea-
Ethiopia Boundary Commission
www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/GuideMinoritiesDeclarationen.
pdf takes you to the UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to
National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities
www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/religion/index.htm is the site of the
United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief
www.er.undp.org contains information on the United Nations Development
Programme in Eritrea
www.ks.undp.org contains information on the United Nations
Development Programme in Kosovo
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
www.nato.int is the homepage
www.nato.int/kfor is the site of the Kosovo Force
Council of Europe
www.coe.int is the homepage
www1.umn.edu/humanrts/euro/ets157.html is a link to the European
Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
www.osce.org is the homepage
www.osce.org/hcnm is the site of the High Commissioner on National
Minorities
www.osce.org/kosovo is the site of the OSCE Mission in Kosovo
African Union
www.african-union.org
European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX)
www.eulex-kosovo.eu
Non-governmental organisations
Demarcation Watch (NGO focusing on Eritrea-Ethiopia
Boundary Dispute)
www.dehai.org/demarcation-watch
Human Rights Watch
www.hrw.org
Minority Rights Group International
www.minorityrights.org
12
Introduction
The examination
Important: the information and advice given here are based on the
examination structure used at the time this guide was written. Please
note that subject guides may be used for several years. Because of this
we strongly advise you to always check both the current Regulations for
relevant information about the examination, and the VLE where you
should be advised of any forthcoming changes. You should also carefully
check the rubric/instructions on the paper you actually sit and follow
those instructions.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
The examination paper for this course is three hours in duration and you
are expected to answer three questions from a choice of 12. The Examiner
will attempt to ensure that all of the topics covered in the syllabus and
subject guide are examined. Some questions may cover more than one
topic from the syllabus, since the different topics are not self-contained.
A Sample examination paper appears as an appendix to this guide, along
with a sample Examiners commentary. Examiners commentaries contain
valuable advice on approaching the examination, and you are strongly
advised to read them carefully. Past examination papers and the associated
commentaries are valuable resources when preparing for the examination.
You should ensure that you answer all three questions, allowing an
approximately equal amount of time for each question, and attempting all
parts or aspects of a question.
Remember, it is important to check the VLE for:
up-to-date information on examination and assessment arrangements
for this course
where available, past examination papers and Examiners
commentaries for the course which give advice on how each question
might best be answered.
Examination advice
Answer the question asked
Your answer needs to address the question asked and not another that you
have seen on a past exam paper or that you would prefer to answer. To
avoid this mistake, it is useful to identify clearly the precise question you
are answering from the outset. Similarly, you should also define the key
terms relating to that question. It will be helpful to the examiner if, in the
first paragraph, you briefly indicate what your answer to the question will
be, the main points you will put forward in support of this position, and
the order in which these will be discussed (this is often called signposting;
for more on this tactic see Structure below).
14
Introduction
Structure
For the examiner, the structure and coherence of your argument are just
as important as your knowledge and understanding of the syllabus. In
order to organise your thoughts quickly, it is always sensible to start with
an essay plan before you begin the actual writing. That way you will know
in advance what you are going to say and in what order, which will make
the writing easier. Your answers should always include an introduction
which identifies the question, defines key terms or concepts, and provides
signposts so that the examiner can follow your argument in the main
body; a main body which develops your answer by discussing the key
points on which it is based and supporting these with examples; and a
conclusion which recaps your answer and offers final reflections (why the
question is important, further implications of your answer, etc.).
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Notes
16
Chapter 1: The rise of nationalism: concepts and definitions
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings
and activities, you should be able to:
explain the distinction between the political doctrine of nationalism
(i.e. what it claims) and the reality or otherwise of the nation
discuss the two main interpretations of the nation: the civic and the
ethnic
identify the main features of the modernist explanation of the rise of
nationalism
identify the main features of the primordialist explanation of the rise of
nationalism.
Essential reading
Hutchinson and Smith, Nationalism, Introduction, Chapter 1 (Renan), Chapter
2 (Stalin), Chapter 3 (Weber), Chapter 4 (Connor), Chapter 8 (Kedourie),
Chapter 9 (Gellner), Chapter 10 (Gellner), Chapter 14 (Anderson), Chapter
19 (Seton Watson), Chapter 22 (Smith), Chapter 23 (Connor).
Jackson Preece, Minority rights, Chapter 5.
Kohn, H. The nature of nationalism, American political science review 33(6)
1939, pp.100121, available on JSTOR.
Nationalism Project What is nationalism?, www.nationalismproject.org/what.
htm
Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy Nationalism, http://plato.stanford.edu/
entries/nationalism
Ernest Gellner Resource Site Warwick debates on nationalism (Ernest Gellner
vs. Anthony Smith), www.lse.ac.uk/collections/gellner/Warwick0.html
Further reading
Books
Anderson, B. Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of
nationalism. (London: Verso; New York: Routledge, 1991) second edition,
Chapters 2 and 3.
Connor, W. Ethnonationalism: the quest for understanding. (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1994).
Gelber, H.G. Nations out of empires: European nationalism and the
transformation of Asia. (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001).
Gellner, E. Nations and nationalism. (Oxford: Blackwell; Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1983) Chapters 14.
Hastings, A. The construction of nationhood: ethnicity, religion, and nationalism.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
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84 Nationalism and international relations
References cited
Anderson, B. Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of
nationalism. (London: Verso; New York: Routledge, 1991) second edition,
Chapters 2 and 3.
Connor, W. The timelessness of nations, Nations and nationalism 10(12)
2004, pp.3547.
Gellner, E. Nations and nationalism. (Oxford: Blackwell; Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1983).
Hastings, A. The construction of nationhood: ethnicity, religion, and nationalism.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
Hinsley, F. Sovereignty. (London: Watts and Co, 1966).
Jackson Preece, J. National minorities and the European nation-states system.
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998).
Jackson, R.H. The global covenant. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
Kedourie, E. Nationalism. (London: Hutchinson University Library, 1960).
Mayall, J. Nationalism and international society. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990).
Mayall, J. Nationalism in Danchev, A. (ed.) Fin de Sicle: The meaning of the
twentieth century. (London: IB Tauris, 1995),
Polanyi, K. The great transformation: the political and economic origins of our
times. (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1957).
Smith, A.D. National identity. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991).
Smith, A.D. Nations and their pasts, Warwick Debate on Nationalism, 1995,
www.lse.ac.uk/collections/gellner/Warwick.html
Smith, A.D. Nationalism and modernism. (Oxford: Routledge, 1998).
Smith, A.D. Antiquity of nations. (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004).
Stoel, M. Keynote address at the opening of the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe Minorities seminar in Warsaw, 19 January 1994,
www.osce.org/search/apachesolr_search/stoel%20speech%201994%20
warsaw
(NB: If you search Stoel speech 1994 a list of speeches appears and Warsaw
link opens a pdf.)
Not everyone, not even all nationalists, would accept all parts of this
definition, and in particular the claim that nations are natural. But,
since many do make this claim it is worth asking yourself at the outset,
before you get too deeply involved in the subject, what it might mean to
say that nations are natural. Clearly they are not natural in the way that,
for example, a flower is natural or human beings can be described by
their possession of natural attributes such as a nose, two arms and legs,
or the fact that they walk upright. But although some nationalists might
accept that nations are social and historical constructs rather than natural
phenomena, few would quarrel with the rest of Kedouries description.
They all accept that, as a matter of fact, the world is divided among a
number of national communities, and that it is these that should form
sovereign states.
Note that the doctrine seems to rule out the legitimacy of empire, at least
if imperialism is understood as rule of one people by another. Logically
this is correct. Unfortunately the reality is not so straightforward. It is
certainly true that many nationalist movements have arisen in opposition
to foreign rule and/or perceived imperial exploitation. But few nationalists
are entirely consistent: they are often prepared to deny to others the
independence they claim as a right for themselves. In doing so they
use whatever arguments best suit their case, for example that there are
natural frontiers (e.g. mountains, deserts, rivers and lakes) which in
certain circumstances may justify expansion: or that some historical site,
such as Kosovo for the Serbs or Jerusalem for the Israelis, is the spiritual
and symbolic heart of the nation and must be retained regardless of
the ethnic or national identity of its present population; or that their
power and civilisation entitle them to control countries beyond their
own frontiers. It was versions of this last argument that were used by
the European nation states, particularly Britain and France, to justify the
expansion of their power around the world in the nineteenth century.
We shall consider some of the consequences of nationalists denying
to others what they claim for themselves in later sections of this
guide. The point you should note here is that nationalism
is not invariably a doctrine that appeals to the poor and
dispossessed. It can also appeal to the strong, powerful or
arrogant. The reason why nationalism can have this double appeal is
that it claims only that existing nations should have their own state; it says
nothing about who or what constitutes a nation.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Activity
If, like most of us, you have loyalties to your country (perhaps to its football team if not
necessarily to its government), ask yourself why you have them. Is it simply a question of
where you live and work? Or because you have certain legal rights and obligations there?
Or because you feel at home with those who speak the same language as you or share
the same religious and cultural practices?
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84 Nationalism and international relations
22
Chapter 1: The rise of nationalism: concepts and definitions
23
84 Nationalism and international relations
Activity
An obvious question that arises from a consideration of these rival definitions is whether
they may both be right. In making up your own mind on this question you may find it
useful to examine the Warwick debates on nationalism (Ernest Gellner vs. Anthony
Smith), Ernest Gellner Resource Site, www.lse.ac.uk/collections/gellner/Warwick0.
html. Why does Anthony Smith believe that modern nations can only be understood by
reference to their ethnic past? Why does Ernest Gellner reject Smiths claim? Is one view
to be preferred (and if so, on what basis)? Or do they each provide useful insights into
different aspects of nationalism (if so, can you cite an example or two in support of this
conclusion)?
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84 Nationalism and international relations
26
Chapter 2: Nationalism and the structure of international society
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings
and activities, you should be able to:
explain why international society is regarded as a real estate model
define a principle of legitimacy and explain how it operates within
international society
explain the distinction between dynastic sovereignty and popular
sovereignty
compare and contrast the civic and ethnic nationalist positions with
respect to the use of force between states
identify how nationalism extended international society both
horizontally as well as vertically
define national self-determination, national minority, plebiscite,
secession and irredentism.
Essential reading
Hutchinson and Smith, Nationalism, Chapter 38 (Cobban), Chapter 40
(Howard), Chapter 42 (Horowitz), Chapter 43 (Mayall).
Mayall, Nationalism and international society, Chapters 2 and 3.
Mill, J.S. Utilitarianism; Liberty; Representative Government. (London: JM Dent,
1993) Chapter 16.
Further reading
Books
Buchheit, L.C. Secession: the legitimacy of self-determination. (New Haven, Ct:
Yale University Press, 1978).
Bull, H. The anarchical society. (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977).
Bull, H. and A. Watson (eds.) The expansion of international society. (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1984) Chapters 1416.
Chazan, N. (ed.) Irredentism and international politics. (London: Adamantine
Press; Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1992).
Cobban, A. The nation state and national self-determination. (London: Collins,
1971).
Jackson, R.H. The global covenant. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
Wight, M. Power politics. (Leicester: Leicester University Press for RIIA, 1977,
1995) Chapter 10.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Journals
Beran, H. A liberal theory of secession, Political studies 32(1) 1984, pp.2131,
available on Epnet.
Buchanan, A. Theories of secession, Philosophy and public affairs 26(1) 1997,
pp.3161, available on JSTOR.
Emerson, R. Self-determination, American journal of international law 65(3)
1971, pp.45975, available on JSTOR.
Kohn, H. The United Nations and national self-determination, Review of politics
20(4) 1958, pp.52645, available on JSTOR.
Mayall, J. Sovereignty, nationalism, and self-determination, Political studies
47(3) 1999, pp.474502, available on Epnet.
Saidman, S., B. Dougherty and E. Jenne Dilemmas of divorce: how secessionist
identities cut both ways, Security studies 14(4) 2005, pp.60736, available
at ceu.hu
Smith, A.D. Culture, community and territory: the politics of ethnicity and
nationalism, International affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs
1944) 72(3) 1996, pp.44558, available on JSTOR.
Weller, M. The self-determination trap, Ethnopolitics 4(1), 2005,pp.328,
available at: http://pdfserce.informaworld.com/106998_713735031.pdf
Yack, B. Popular sovereignty and nationalism, Political theory 29(4) 2001,
pp.51736, available on JSTOR.
References cited
Bull, H. The anarchical society. (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977).
Hinsley, F. Sovereignty. (London: Watts and Co, 1966).
Jennings, I. The approach to self-government. (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1956).
Mayall, J. Nationalism and international society. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1990).
Wight, M. Systems of states. (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1977).
Activity
If you have not already done so, now would be a good time to read Chapters 1 and 2 of
the Mayall essential text. Then, reflect on the following:
1. What is the nature of the legal settlement on which the international system is
based?
2. What is the nature of the political dispensation on which the international system is
based?
3. What is the relationship between the legal settlement and the political
dispensation?
people in whom sovereignty resides? The people are the nation and the
state exists as an expression of the national will. As the 1789 Declaration
of the Rights of Man and the Citizen so eloquently phrases it: the principle
of all sovereignty rests essentially in the nation. No body and no individual
may exercise authority which does not eminate from the nation expressly.
Activity
You can read a copy of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen at
www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html
Does the Declaration itself provide any criteria for determining a nation? Is the view
expressed here best understood in terms of civic or ethnic nationalism? What, if any,
implications does this Declaration have for relations between states?
30
Chapter 2: Nationalism and the structure of international society
Activity
Stephen Van Evera has written extensively on the relationship between nationalism and
war. You can find his article Hypotheses on nationalism and war, International Security
18(4) 1994 at www.jstor.org/stable/2539176
Why does Van Evera believe nationalism will pose little risk to peace in Western Europe
but large risks in Eastern Europe? Is Van Everas distinction between Western Europe and
Eastern Europe consistent with Mayalls distinction between civic and ethnic nationalist
approaches to the legitimate use of force as outlined in Chapter 2 of the Mayall essential
text? Van Everas article was first published in 1994. Do events since this time support
Van Everas conclusions? Why or why not?
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Activity
Now would be a good time to read Chapters 3 and 4 of the Mayall essential text. Then,
reflect on the following questions:
1. Should the concept of national sovereignty be included in a list of essentially
contested political concepts alongside liberty, justice and democracy?
2. Why does Mayall refer to state sovereignty as a prescriptive principle and national
self-determination as a popular principle?
3. What is the basis of the presumed pragmatic reconciliation between the prescriptive
and popular principles at the international level?
4. Do you agree with the suggestion that the world has been made safe for
nationalism? Why or why not?
32
Chapter 2: Nationalism and the structure of international society
National self-determination
This principle is derived from the liberal principle of individual self-
determination. It is held to follow from the observation that human
beings are social not solitary. To quote John Stuart Mill, one of the leading
nineteenth century political thinkers to have advocated the principle:
[O]ne hardly knows what any division of the human race should
be free to do if not to determine with which of the various
collective bodies of human beings they choose to associate
themselves. (Mill, 1993, Chapter 16)
After the First World War, the principle was advanced by the US President
Woodrow Wilson as a right of all peoples and the basis for creating states
from the dismembered dynastic empires. The right of all peoples to self-
determination is also included in the United Nations Charter (Articles
1, 2 and 55). It has thus become the legal principle underpinning the
legitimacy of the nation state.
National minority
The attempt to redraw the political map by applying the principle of
self-determination ran into difficulties in Europe because the different
linguistic and ethnic groups were both widely dispersed and mixed up.
Consequently, wherever the boundaries were drawn, there would be
trapped minorities. Under the League of Nations, attempts were made to
guarantee their rights by treaty. These mostly failed and were abandoned
by the United Nations, which concentrated instead on guaranteeing the
sovereignty and territorial integrity of the state on the one hand and
protecting the human rights of the individual on the other. Since the end
of the Cold War, as it has become clear that democratisation alone will not
necessarily end ethnic conflict, and may indeed exacerbate it, interest in
minority rights has seen a resurgence.
There remains an important dispute among international lawyers over
how these rights should best be protected. Most lawyers and human rights
experts in North America and Britain argue that among the rights that
all individuals enjoy is the right to associate with any minority group to
which they may belong, for such purposes as religious worship, education,
the use and protection of their language, and so on. In their view these
rights, although exercised within a minority community, are still attached
to individuals. The alternative view, which is more common in continental
Europe, is that both the definition of a national minority and membership
of it should be established by objective criteria, such as numbers and
length of residence in the country. Once this has been accomplished, the
minority should have its rights guaranteed by law and as a group it should
then have a claim on state resources (e.g. for the building of churches or
schools). These different approaches broadly reflect the different historical
experiences of countries whose nationalism is of the civic and ethnic kind
respectively.
Plebiscite
Formally, a plebiscite is a direct vote by all members of a community on
an important question. Its importance in nationalist discourse is that it is
often advanced as a method of deciding a contentious issue (e.g. where
an international boundary should be drawn in order to create a new
state). The problem that is encountered when plebiscites are used in this
way is the assumption that there is no dispute about the community to
be polled. This is seldom the case. For example, if a plebiscite were to be
held in Northern Ireland on the question of Irish unification, the majority
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84 Nationalism and international relations
would almost certainly vote for retaining the status quo that is, that the
province should remain part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. If, on the other hand, all inhabitants of the island, north
and south, were asked the same question, the majority might be in favour
of unification. As a result of this kind of difficulty, the use of plebiscites
and referenda to settle questions of state creation has been marginalised,
although it is still used to settle some intra-state national conflicts. (For
example, a referendum was held in Quebec in 1995 to decide whether
the province should secede from Canada the separatists were narrowly
defeated.)
Irredentism
This word is derived from the Italian irredenta, meaning unredeemed
or unrecovered. The first irredentists were members of a political party
which advocated the return of all Italian speaking areas which remained
under foreign rule after Italian Unification in 1861. Since then the term
has been generalised to describe the policy of any government or political
movement which advocates the enlargement of the state to include
territory which it has lost through conquest, or to whose population it
is linked by cultural and/or linguistic ties. There are many irredentist
claims outstanding, including the Spanish claim for the return of Gibraltar,
Argentinas for the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, Moroccos for the former
Spanish Sahara, and Somalias for the Ogaden region of Ethiopia and the
north-eastern province of Kenya although with regard to the latter these
claims were dropped following the countrys military defeat by Ethiopia in
1978, and they are now academic since the state itself has collapsed.
Secession
Literally, this word means self-cession, implying a decision by a national
community to break away from an existing state to form one of its own.
Because secession requires popular support, it generally follows a revolt.
Thus the 13 colonies seceded from Great Britain to form the United States
of America in 1776, the former Spanish colonies in South America seceded
from Spain in 1810, Brazil from Portugal in 1822, Greece from Turkey
in 1830, Cuba from Spain in 1898, and Panama from Columbia in 1903.
The belief that they have had their right of self-determination denied has
led many groups to fight for independence since 1945. Only two have
successfully fought their way to international recognition as sovereign
states: Bangladesh in 1971/2 and Eritrea in 1992. The end of the Cold
War was followed by the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the
Yugoslav Federation, which was precipitated by the secession of Slovenia
and Croatia, and by the peaceful separation of Czechoslovakia into its two
constituent parts: the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Notes
36
Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, and having completed the Essential readings
and activities, you should be able to:
give an account of the reasons why nationalists are simultaneously
repelled and attracted by other ideologies
identify the main points of divergence and convergence between liberal
and nationalist thought
explain why, despite Marxs intellectual hostility towards nationalism,
the Soviet constitution and political system and Soviet foreign policy
ensured its long-term survival
set out the arguments for and against interpreting fascism as the logical
culmination of nationalist ideas.
Essential reading
Avineri, S. Marxism and nationalism, Journal of contemporary history 26(34)
1991, pp.63757, available on JSTOR.
Charney, E. Identity and liberal nationalism, American political science review
97(2) 2003, pp.295310, available on JSTOR.
Dzur, A.W. Nationalism, liberalism and democracy, Political research quarterly
55(1) 2002, pp.291311, available on JSTOR.
Gentile, E. Fascism as political religion, Journal of contemporary history 25(23)
1990, pp.22951, available on JSTOR.
Martin, N.A. Marxism, nationalism and Russia, Journal of the history of ideas
29(2) 1968, pp.23152, available on JSTOR.
Mill, J.S. Utilitarianism; On liberty; Considerations on Representative government.
(London: J.M. Dent, 1993) third edition [ISBN 9780460873468].
Mosse, G.L. The genesis of fascism, Journal of contemporary history 1(1) 1966,
pp.1426, available on JSTOR.
Mosse, G.L. Fascism and the French Revolution, Journal of contemporary
history 24(1) 1989, pp.526, available on JSTOR.
Seton Watson, H. Facism, right and left, Journal of contemporary history 1(1)
1966, pp.18397, available on JSTOR.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Further reading
Benner, E. Really existing nationalisms: a post-communist view from Marx and
Engels. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
Bosworth, R.J.B. The Oxford handbook of fascism. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2010).
Bremmer, I. and R. Taras (eds) Nations and politics in the Soviet successor states.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
Connor, W. The national question in Marxist-Leninist theory and strategy.
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984).
Eatwell, R. Fascism: a history. (London: Chatto, 1995).
Gellner, E. Nations and nationalism. (Oxford: Blackwell; Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1983) Chapters 14.
Griffin, R. Modernism and fascism: the sense of a beginning under Mussolini and
Hitler. (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
Griffin, R. (ed.) Fascism (Oxford Readers) (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1995).
Hobsbawm, E. Nations and nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
Hutchinson, J. and A.D. Smith (eds) Nationalism (Oxford Readers) (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1994).
List, F. The national system of political economy. S.S. Lloyd trans. (London:
Longman Green & Co, 1904 [1840]).
Mann, M. The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing. (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2005).
Nimni, E. Marxism and nationalism: theoretical origins of a political crisis.
(London: Pluto, 1994).
Seton Watson, H. Nations and states: an enquiry into the origins of nations and
the politics of nationalism. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1977).
Smith, A.D. Nationalism in the twentieth century. (New York: New York
University Press, 1979) Chapters 3 and 4.
References cited
Benner, E. Really existing nationalisms: a post-communist view from Marx and
Engels. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995).
Oxford English dictionary (OED) Ideology (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2010), www.oxforddictionaries.com
Ryan, A. Fascism in the plural, London review of books, 21 September 1995,
35.
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Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies
intended to provide exactly this more detailed vision of the form and
content that popular sovereignty ought to assume within the state. In so
doing, of course, these same ideologies have important consequences for
relations between states for the simple reason that ideology determines
foreign as much as domestic policy.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Activity
Read the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) at www2.ohchr.org/
english/law/ccpr.htm and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (ICESC) at www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cescr.htm
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Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies
4. The belief that human beings must be free to pursue their own ends
implies that there exists a plurality of human ends and values.
It also implies that conflicts between these competing values cannot
be settled by legislation. On the contrary, the function of law in liberal
societies is to ensure that one individual pursuing his or her interests does
not prevent another individual doing the same. Hence liberals tend to be
more interested in legal due process than in substance.
5. It follows from the four other ingredients that liberal society must be
self-governing and that this objective can only be achieved through the
establishment of free democratic institutions.
Activity
If you accept this brief sketch of the core liberal doctrine, you should next ask yourself
why liberals are likely to have difficulty with nationalist theories as described in Chapter 2,
and why nonetheless they have been driven to accommodate them. In seeking answers
to these questions you should read the short chapter (Chapter 16) by John Stuart Mill
entitled On nationality in his Representative government.
Although it was written as long ago as the 1860s, against the background of the
nationalist struggle in Italy and agitation in much of the rest of Europe, in which pressure
for democratic reform and national independence went hand in hand, it is still one of
the most powerful liberal analyses of the national question. Moreover, as we shall see in
Chapters 4, 5 and 6, many of the problems that have arisen since the end of the Cold War
are essentially the same as those identified by Mill.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
42
Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies
Activity
When you come to make up your own mind on this question (is nationalism the enemy
of democracy or an essential precondition for it?), consider the position not of the victors
but of the losing side in any democratic election. What is it that persuades them to accept
the verdict of the polls? One plausible answer is what they share in common, even with
their political opponents (i.e. their national loyalties).
Communism
Marxists, no less than classical liberals, had theoretical problems with
nationalism, but like them, once they achieved power, they discovered
that political survival depended on reaching an accommodation with it.
Unlike liberals, however, Marxists could never take the nation for granted:
for theorists the nation remained a problem that had to be explained,
indeed explained away, while socialist governments claimed legitimacy by
professing to base their policies on the writings of Marx, Engels and Lenin.
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Activity
The Manifesto is a brilliant political polemic and you should certainly read it for yourself
in order to understand the force of Marxs attack on what he saw as the contradictions
of bourgeois nationalism. It is available online at www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/
manifesto.html
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Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies
You may also wish to consult Benners excellent recent study (1995), which shows very
convincingly that Marx and Engels had a much subtler understanding of the power of
nationalism, and its capacity to advance or retard the prospect of revolution, than is
generally acknowledged. The conventional view is that, as a political activist as distinct
from a social philosopher, Marx was a crude realist, prepared to support nationalist
movements when he judged that there was a short-term political advantage and to
oppose them for similar opportunist reasons.
Activity
At this stage you will probably find it useful to read the articles by Avineri and Martin.
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Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies
With the collapse of communism and the end of the Cold War, it seemed at
first that the ideological struggle had been won by liberal democracy and
the market economy. Within a short time, however, there was a revival of
ultra-nationalisms, primarily, but not solely, in Eastern Europe and parts of
the former Soviet Union.
In these circumstances there has been much speculation about a possible
revival of fascism. Admittedly the term remained in use throughout the
Cold War period, frequently being employed loosely by those on the left
to describe almost any authoritarian regime. But among most serious
students of the subject, fascism and National Socialism (Nazism) were
regarded as a specific and, therefore, not to be repeated episode in modern
European history.
Activity
Now that judgment that Fascism was a specific and not be be repeated episode in
modern European history has to be reconsidered. A good place to start is the articles by
Moss and Seton Watson. You may also find it useful to consult the short introduction to
the Oxford Reader, Nationalism, which locates fascism in the context of the historical
development of nationalism and sets out the arguments in summary form.
Activity
Another Oxford Reader, Fascism, edited by Roger Griffin, provides ample illustration of
this point. You can select from the extracts almost at random and you will find that the
representatives of fascist movements and advocates of fascist policies almost invariably
speak of national decay and the need for national regeneration.
Pathological nationalism?
Should fascism be viewed as a phenomenon separate from nationalism or
as its pathological form? Two of the leading authorities on nationalism
A.D. Smith and Eric Hobsbawm provide powerful arguments in favour
of the first of these alternatives. They admit that fascists and Nazis drew
on the resources of the nation and nationalist doctrine, but also trace the
ancestry of fascism to other traditions in European society and intellectual
history (e.g. the social Darwinian theory of the survival of the fittest and
authoritarian militarism, itself a hangover from a pre-industrial and pre-
democratic age).
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Chapter 3: Nationalism and other ideologies
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84 Nationalism and international relations
Notes
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