CONTENTS

KEYWORDS ............................................................................................................................. 3
NOMENCLATURE ................................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 4
I- HOW BOILERS WORK .................................................................................................... 5
II- TYPES OF BOILERS ......................................................................................................... 6
II-1- Working Pressure and Temperature ............................................................................ 7
II-2- Fuel Type ..................................................................................................................... 7
II-3- Draft Methods .............................................................................................................. 8
II-4- Size and Capacity ........................................................................................................ 8
II-5- Condensing Method ..................................................................................................... 8
III- Determining Combustion Efficiency............................................................................... 9
III-1- Excess air factor ......................................................................................................... 10
III-2- The ratio of the mass ................................................................................................. 10
IV- Key Components of Boilers .......................................................................................... 11
IV-1- The combustion chamber........................................................................................... 12
IV-2- Heat exchangers ......................................................................................................... 12
IV-3- The exhaust stack or flue ........................................................................................... 12
IV-4- Boiler controls ........................................................................................................... 12
IV-5- Boiler safety controls ................................................................................................. 13
IV-6- Flame detectors .......................................................................................................... 13
V- Safety Issues ...................................................................................................................... 13
VI- What is the boiler efficiency? ........................................................................................ 13
VI-1- Purpose of the Performance Test ............................................................................... 14
VI-2- Performance Terms and Definitions .......................................................................... 14
VI-2-1- The Direct Method Testing ................................................................................ 15
VI-2-2- The Indirect Method Testing .............................................................................. 16
VII- Factors Affecting Boiler Performance .......................................................................... 20
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 20
REFERENCE ........................................................................................................................... 21

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 LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1: Firetube Boiler ............................................................................................................ 5
Figure 2: watertube boiler .......................................................................................................... 6

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KEYWORDS
Boiler efficiency;
Heat loss;
Combination tube;
Heat balance sheet;
Energy

NOMENCLATURE
C carbon
BTU British thermal unit
A ash
V volatile matter
M moisture
S sulphur
E excess air supplied
H2 hydrogen
O2 oxygen
N2 nitrogen
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
SO2 sulphur dioxide
(CO2)t theoretical CO2
(CO2)a actual CO2
M mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel
Cp specific heat of flue gas, kcal/kg C
Cps specific heat of superheated steam, kcal/kg C
Tf flue gas temperature, C
Tf ambient temperature, C
Mm kg of moisture in the fuel on 1 kg basis
Ma actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel
MCO mass of CO formation
Mf fuel consumption, kg/h
Vm wind velocity, m/s
Ts surface temperature of boiler, K
Tak ambient temperature, K
(GCV) gross calorific value

3
 TOPIC: BOILERS AND ITS
EFFICIENCY

INTRODUCTION
Boilers are pressure vessels designed to heat water or produce steam, which can then
be used to provide space heating and/or service water heating to a building. In most
commercial building heating applications, the heating source in the boiler is a natural gas fired
burner, Oil fired burners and electric resistance heaters can be used as well. Steam is preferred
over hot water in some applications, including absorption cooling, kitchens, laundries,
sterilizers, and steam driven equipment. Boilers have several strengths that have made them a
common feature of buildings. They have a long life, can achieve efficiencies up to 95% or
greater, provide an effective method of heating a building, and in the case of steam systems,
require little or no pumping energy. However, fuel costs can be considerable, regular
maintenance is required, and if maintenance is delayed, repair can be costly.
Guidance for the construction, operation, and maintenance of boilers is provided primarily by
the ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), which produces the following
resources: Rules for construction of heating boilers, and recommended rules for the care and
operation of heating boilers.

Efficiency: In the boiler industry there are four common definitions of efficiency:
Combustion efficiency: Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and
relates to its ability to completely burn the fuel. The boiler has little bearing on combustion
efficiency. A well designed burner will operate with as little as 15 to 20% excess air, while
converting all combustibles in the fuel to useful energy.
Thermal efficiency: Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a
boiler. It does not take into account boiler radiation and convection losses for example from
the boiler shell water column piping etc.
Boiler efficiency: The term boiler efficiency is often substituted for combustion or
thermal efficiency. True boiler efficiency is the measure of fuel to steam efficiency.
Fuel to steam efficiency Fuel to steam efficiency is calculated using either of the two
methods as prescribed by the ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers) power test
code, PTC 4.1. The first method is input output method. The second method is heat loss
method.

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 Figure 1: Firetube Boiler

I- HOW BOILERS WORK

Both gas and oil fired boilers use controlled combustion of the fuel to heat water.
The key boiler Components involved in this process are the burner, combustion chamber,
heat exchanger, and controls.

The burner mixes the fuel and oxygen together and, with the assistance of an
ignition device, provides a platform for combustion. This combustion takes place in the
combustion chamber, and the heat that it generates is transferred to the water through the
heat exchanger.

Controls regulate the ignition, burner firing rate, fuel supply, air supply, exhaust
draft, water temperature, steam pressure, and boiler pressure. Hot water produced by a boiler
is pumped through pipes and delivered to equipment throughout the building, which can
include hot water coils in air handling units, service hot water heating equipment, and
terminal units. Steam boilers produce steam that flows through pipes from areas of high
pressure to areas of low pressure, unaided by an external energy source such as a pump.
Steam utilized for heating can be directly utilized by steam using equipment or can provide
heat through a heat exchanger that supplies hot water to the equipment. The discussion of
different types of boilers, below, provides more detail on the designs of specific boiler
systems.

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II- TYPES OF BOILERS
Boilers are classified into different types based on their working pressure and
temperature, fuel type, draft method, size and capacity, and whether they condense the
water vapour in the combustion gases. Boilers are also sometimes described by their key
components, such as heat exchanger materials or tube design. These other characteristics
are discussed in the following section on Key Components of Boilers.

Two primary types of boilers include Firetube and Watertube boilers. In a Firetube
boiler, hot gases of combustion flow through a series of tubes surrounded by water.
Alternatively, in a Watertube boiler, water flows in the inside of the tubes and the hot gases
from combustion flow around the outside of the tubes. A drawing of a watertube boiler is
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: watertube boiler

Firetube boilers are more commonly available for low pressure steam or hot water
applications, and are available in sizes ranging from 500,000 to 75,000,000 BTU input.
Watertube boilers are primarily used in higher pressure steam applications and are used
extensively for comfort heating applications. They typically range in size from 500,000 to
more than 20,000,000 BTU inputs. Cast iron sectional boilers (figure 3) are another type of
boiler commonly used in commercial space heating applications. These types of boilers dont
use tubes. Instead, theyre built up from cast iron sections that have water and combustion gas
passages.

The iron castings are bolted together, similar to an old steam radiator. The sections are
sealed together by gaskets. Theyre available for producing steam or hot water, and are

6
available in sizes ranging from 35,000 to 14,000,000 BTU input. Cast iron sectional boilers
are advantageous because they can be assembled on site, allowing them to be
transported through doors and smaller openings. Their main disadvantage is that because the
sections are sealed together with gaskets, they are prone to leakage as the gaskets age and are
attacked by boiler treatment chemicals.

Now we will talk about the classification of the boiler based on their different types
amount them:

II-1- Working Pressure and Temperature

Boilers are classified as either low pressure or high pressure and are constructed to
meet ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code requirements. Low-pressure boilers are limited
to a maximum working pressure of 15 psig (pound-force per square inch gauge) for steam and
160 psig for hot water . Most boilers used in HVAC applications are low-pressure boilers.
High-pressure boilers are constructed to operate above the limits set for low-pressure boilers,
and are typically used for power generation. Operating water temperatures for hot water
boilers are limited to 250o F

II-2- Fuel Type

In commercial buildings, natural gas is the most common boiler fuel, because it is
usually readily available, burns cleanly, and is typically less expensive than oil or electricity.
Some boilers are designed to burn more than one fuel (typically natural gas and fuel oil). Dual
fuel boilers provide the operator with fuel redundancy in the event of a fuel supply
interruption. They also allow the customer to utilize the fuel oil during peak time rates for

7
natural gas. In times when the rates for natural gas are greater than the alternate fuel, this can
reduce fuel costs by using the cheaper alternate fuel and limiting natural gas use to occur only
during off peak times. Electric boilers are used in facilities with requirements for a small
amount of steam or where natural gas is not available. Electric boilers are known for being
clean, quiet, and easy to install, and compact. The lack of combustion results in reduced
complexity in design and operation and less maintenance. Heating elements are easily
replaced if they fail. These types of boilers can be used to produce low or high pressure steam
or water, and may be good alternatives for customers who are restricted by emissions
regulations. Sizes range from 30,000 to 11,000,000 BTU input with overall efficiency
generally in the range of 92% to 96%.

II-3- Draft Methods

The pressure difference between the boiler combustion chamber and the flue (also
called the exhaust stack) produces a draft which carries the combustion products through the
boiler and up the flue. Natural draft boilers rely on the natural buoyancy of hot gasses to
exhaust combustion products up the boiler flue and draw fresh air into the combustion
chamber. Mechanical draft boilers include: Forced Draft, where air is forced into the
combustion chamber by a fan or blower to maintain a positive pressure; and Induced Draft,
where air is drawn through the combustion chamber by a fan or blower to maintain a negative
pressure

II-4- Size and Capacity

Modular Boilers are small in size and capacity and are often intended to replace a
large single boiler with several small boilers. These modular boilers can easily fit through a
standard doorway, and be transported in elevators and stairways. The units can be arranged in
a variety of configurations to utilize limited space or to accommodate new equipment.
Modular boilers can be staged to efficiently meet the demand of the heating load.

II-5- Condensing Method

Traditional hot water boilers operate without condensing out water vapour from the
flue gas. This is critical to prevent corrosion of the boiler components. Condensing Boilers
operate at a lower return water temperature than traditional boilers, which causes water
vapour to condense out of the exhaust gasses. This allows the condensing boiler to extract
additional heat from the phase change from water vapour to liquid and increases boiler

8
efficiency. Some carbon dioxide dissolves in the condensate and forms carbonic acid. While
some condensing boilers are made to handle the corrosive condensation, others require some
means of neutralizing the condensate. Traditional non-condensing boilers typically operate in
the range of 75% 86% combustion efficiency, while condensing boilers generally operate in
the range of 88% to 95% combustion efficiency.

III- Determining Combustion Efficiency

We define combustion efficiency as the ratio of heat transferred to boiler
water/steam to the total fuel energy supplied. The following is a method for calculating
combustion efficiency. For combustion two component is needed:
Combustible element or material
Oxygen
But for feeding oxygen, generally ambient air is used except for some missile, military
and welding techniques.
Composition of air: Oxygen O221% [V/V, mol/mol]
Nitrogen N278% [V/V, mol/mol]
Others (CO2, rare gas, etc.)1% [V/V, mol/mol]
The minimum amount of air required for complete combustion is called the
stoichiometric air. Combustion is an oxidation process, which is an exothermic chemical
reaction:
Exotherm- heat is produced by reaction;
Endotherm- heat is needed for keeping up reaction
Authoterm- neutral from heat viewpoint, (reaction do not need or produce any
heat).
Base equations of combustion:
C + O2 = CO2 + heat
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + heat
S + O2 = SO2 + heat
As an example, the equation for the stoichiometric combustion of natural gas
(comprised mostly of methane, CH4) with atmospheric air is:

CH4 + 2 (O2 + 3.76 N2) CO2 + 2 H2O +7.52 N2 (1)

9
 III-1- Excess air factor
The quantity of air supplied in excess of stoichiometric air is called excess air. A
stoichiometric mixture of air and fuel is one that contains just sufficient oxygen for the
complete combustion of the fuel:

A mixture which has an excess of air is termed a weak mixture,

And one which has a deficiency of air is termed a rich mixture.
Normally it is going to be burnt fuel totally in order to utilize all the possibility for
energy generation, which needs at least theoretical air quantity or generally a bit more.

III-2- The ratio of the mass

The ratio of the mass of air required to completely combust a given mass of fuel is
called the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, AFs. For natural gas, AFs is about 17.2 lbm-air/lbm-
ng. The quantity of air supplied in excess of stoichiometric air is called excess air, EA. Excess
air can be written in terms of the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, the combustion air mass flow
rate, ma, and fuel mass flow rate, mf.

EA = [(ma / mf) / AFs] 1 (2)

Large quantities of excess air dilute combustion gas and lower its temperature,
resulting in decreased efficiency.
The energy input, Qin, to a combustion chamber is the product of fuel mass flow rate
and higher heating value, HHV (about 23,900 Btu/lbm for natural gas). With 1lbm=0.

Qin = mf HHV (3)

The combustion gas mass flow rate, mg, is the sum of the fuel mass flow rate and
combustion air mass flow rate. mg = mf + ma (4)

The combustion temperature, Tc, can be calculated from an energy balance on the
combustion chamber (Figure 1), where the chemical energy released during combustion is
converted into sensible energy gain of the gasses.

10
 mf Tc
Ta ma mg

The energy balance reduces to the terms of inlet combustion air temperature, Ta, fuel
lower heating value, LHV (about 21,500 Btu/lbm for natural gas), excess air, stoichiometric
air fuel ratio, and combustion gas specific heat, Cpg (about 0.26 Btu/lbm-F) (Carpenter and
Kissock 2005). Equation 5 calculates combustion temperature in terms of these easily
measured values. Tc = Ta + LHV / [{1 + (1 + EA) AFs} Cpg] (5)
Combustion efficiency, , is the ratio of energy transferred to boiler steam/water to the
total fuel energy supplied. The energy transferred to steam/water is the energy loss of
combustion gas as it travels through the boiler. On a per unit basis, its equation can be written
as an enthalpy difference in terms of combustion temperature and exhaust temperature, T ex.
The total fuel energy supplied on a per unit basis is the fuels higher heating value. Equation 6
calculates combustion efficiency in terms of easily measured values. = [{1 + (1 + EA) AFs}
Cpg (Tc Tex)] / HHV (6) The variables in Equations 5 and 6 that determine combustion
efficiency are combustion air temperature, excess air, and exhaust temperature. Exhaust
temperature and excess air can be measured using a combustion analyser. Combustion air
temperature is typically the boiler room air temperature, and exhaust temperature depends
largely on boiler steam pressure. The variable most subject to variance is excess air. The
degree of excess air control is often the determining factor of a boilers efficiency. The
optimal quantity of excess air to guarantee complete combustion in most burners is about
10%. This yields combustion gasses with about 1.7% O2 content .The useful heat output, Qout,
from a boiler is the heat input to the burner multiplied by combustion efficiency.
Qout = Qin

IV- Key Components of Boilers

The key elements of a boiler include the burner, combustion chamber, heat
exchanger, exhaust stack, and controls. Boiler accessories including the flue gas
economizer are also commonly used as an effective method to recover heat from a boiler and
will be discussed briefly in the section Best Practices for Efficient Operation. Natural gas
boilers employ one of two types of burners, atmospheric burners, also called natural draft
burners and forced draft burners, also called power burners. Due to more stringent federal

11
and state air quality regulations, low burners and pre-mix burners are becoming more
commonly used and even required in some areas.

IV-1- The combustion chamber

Usually made of cast iron or steel, houses the burners and combustion process.
Temperatures inside the combustion chamber can reach several hundred degrees very quickly.
IV-2- Heat exchangers
May be made from cast iron, steel tube bundles, or, in the case of some smaller
boilers, copper or copper-clad steel.
IV-3- The exhaust stack or flue
Is the piping that conveys the hot combustion gasses away from the boiler to the
outside. Typically this piping is made of steel, but in the case of condensing boilers it needs to
be constructed of stainless steel to handle the corrosive condensate. Another consideration is
whether the exhaust stack will be under a positive or negative pressure. This can determine
how the joints of the exhaust stack must be sealed.
IV-4- Boiler controls
Help produce hot water or steam in a regulated, efficient, and safe manner.
Combustion and operating controls regulate the rate of fuel use to meet the demand. The main
operating control monitors hot water temperature or steam pressure and sends a signal to
control the firing rate, the rate at which fuel and air enters the burner. Common burner firing
sequences include on/off, high/low/off and modulating.

12
 IV-5- Boiler safety controls
Boiler safety controls include high pressure and temperature, high and low gas/oil
pressure, and high and low water level and flame safeguard controls. These controls are
considered safeties or limits that break the electrical circuit to prevent firing of the boiler. For
example, in the event pressure in the boiler exceeds the pressure limit setting, the fuel valve is
closed to prevent an unsafe, high pressure condition. The safety circuit of a flame safeguard
control system typically includes switch contacts for low water cut-off, high limits, air
proving switches, redundant safety and operating controls, and flame detectors.

IV-6- Flame detectors

Flame detectors often consist of flame rods, and ultraviolet or infrared scanners to
monitor the flame condition and deactivate the burner in the event of a non-ignition or other
unsafe condition. Flame safeguard controls are programmed to operate the burner and cycle it
through the stages of operation.

V- Safety Issues
All combustion equipment must be operated properly to prevent dangerous conditions
or disasters from occurring, causing personal injury and property loss. The basic cause of
boiler explosions is ignition of a combustible gas that has accumulated within the boiler. This
situation could arise in a number of ways, for example fuel, air, or ignition is interrupted for
some reason, the flame extinguishes, and combustible gas accumulates and is reignited.
Another example is when a number of unsuccessful attempts at ignition occur without the
appropriate purging of accumulated combustible gas. Boiler safety is a key objective of the
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors. This organization reports and tracks
boiler safety and the number of incidents related to boilers and pressure vessels each year.

VI- What is the boiler efficiency?

Definition of Boiler Efficiency is The percentage of the total absorption heating value
of outlet steam in the total supply heating value. In other word, it is a rate how the boiler runs
efficiently. The actual calculation for the boiler efficiency is the followings;

h2The ratio enthalpy of feed water kcal/kg

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h1The ratio enthalpy of steam kcal/kg

The initial value of boiler efficiency for Z Boiler is depending on the boiler type, but it
is normally 8088. In short, 8088 in the generated heating value after the fuel is burnt
by the burner regenerates into the steam heating value, the remain of 1220 is loss.

VI-1- Purpose of the Performance Test

To find out the efficiency of the boiler;
To find out the Evaporation ratio

The purpose of the performance test is to determine actual performance and efficiency
of the boiler and compare it with design values or norms. It is an indicator for tracking dayto-
day and season-to-season variations in boiler efficiency and energy efficiency
improvements.

VI-2- Performance Terms and Definitions

The procedure describes routine test for both oil fired and solid fuel fired boilers using
coal, agro residues etc. Only those observations and measurements need to be made
which can be readily applied and is necessary to attain the purpose of the test. This consists
of:
Part One: Direct method (also called as Input -output method);
Part Two: Indirect method (also called as Heat loss method).

14
 VI-2-1- The Direct Method Testing
VI-2-1-1) Description.
This is also known as input-output method due to the fact that it needs only the
useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This
efficiency can be evaluated using the formula:

VI-2-1-2) Merits and Demerits of Direct Method

(i) Merits
Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers;
Requires few parameters for computation;
Needs few instruments for monitoring.
(ii) Demerits
Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower;
Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels;
Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly wet due to
water carryover.

15
 VI-2-2- The Indirect Method Testing
VI-2-2-1) Description
The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the
boilers using the principles to be described. The disadvantages of the direct method can be
overcome by this method, which calculates the various heat losses associated with boiler.
The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100. An
important advantage of this method is that the errors in measurement do not make
significant change in efficiency. The various heat losses occurring in the boiler are:

The following losses are applicable to liquid, gas and solid fired boiler:

L1- Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat);

L2- Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2);
L3- Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O);
L4- Loss due to moisture in air (H2O);
L5- Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO);
L6- Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted;
L7- Unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon);
L8- Unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon).

Boiler Efficiency by indirect method = 100 (L1+L2+L3+L4+L5+L6+L7+L8).

The various losses associated with the operation of a boiler are discussed below with
required formula.

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 VI-2-2-2) Heat loss due to dry flue gas
This is the greatest boiler loss and can be calculated with the following formula:

VI-2-2-3) Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel (%)
The combustion of hydrogen causes a heat loss because the product of combustion is
water. This water is converted to steam and this carries away heat in the form of its
latent heat.

VI-2-2-4) Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel

Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a superheated vapour. This
moisture loss is made up of the sensible heat to bring the moisture to boiling point, the latent
heat of evaporation of the moisture, and the superheat required to bring this steam to the
temperature of the exhaust gas. This loss can be calculated with the following formula

17
 VI-2-2-5) Heat loss due to moisture present in air
Vapour in the form of humidity in the incoming air, is superheated as it passes through
the boiler. Since this heat passes up the stack, it must be included as a boiler loss.
To relate this loss to the mass of coal burned, the moisture content of the combustion air and
the amount of air supplied per unit mass of coal burned must be known.

The mass of vapour that air contains can be obtained from psychrometric charts and
typical values are included below:

VI-2-2-6) Heat loss due to incomplete combustion:

Products formed by incomplete combustion could be mixed with oxygen and burned
again with a further release of energy. Such products include CO, H2, and various
hydrocarbons and are generally found in the flue gas of the boilers. Carbon monoxide is the
only gas whose concentration can be determined conveniently in a boiler plant test.

18
 VI-2-2-7) Heat loss due to radiation and convection:
The other heat losses from a boiler consist of the loss of heat by radiation and
convection from the boiler casting into the surrounding boiler house.

Normally surface loss and other unaccounted losses is assumed based on the type
and size of the boiler as given below:

For industrial fire tube / packaged boiler = 1.5 to 2.5%

For industrial watertube boiler = 2 to 3%
For power station boiler = 0.4 to 1%

However it can be calculated if the surface area of boiler and its surface temperature
are known as given below:

VI-2-2-8) Heat loss due to unburned carbon in fly ash and bottom ash:
Small amounts of carbon will be left in the ash and this constitutes a loss of potential
heat in the fuel. To assess these heat losses, samples of ash must be analyzed for carbon
content. The quantity of ash produced per unit of fuel must also be known.

VI-2-2-9) Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash (%).

8. Heat loss due to unburnt in bottom ash (%)

19
VII- Factors Affecting Boiler Performance
The various factors affecting the boiler performance are listed below:

Periodical cleaning of boilers;

Periodical soot blowing;
Proper water treatment programme and blow down control;
Draft control;
Excess air control;
Percentage loading of boiler;
Steam generation pressure and temperature;
Boiler insulation;
Quality of fuel

CONCLUSION
All these factors individually/combined, contribute to the performance of the boiler
and reflected either in boiler efficiency or evaporation ratio. The test can be repeated after
modification or rectification of the problems and compared with standard norms. Energy
auditor should carry out this test as a routine manner once in six months and report to the
management for necessary action. Performance of the boiler, like efficiency and evaporation
ratio reduces with time, due to poor combustion, heat transfer fouling and poor operation and
maintenance. Deterioration of fuel quality and water quality also leads to poor performance of
boiler. Efficiency testing helps us to find out how far the boiler efficiency drifts away from
the best efficiency. Any observed abnormal deviations could therefore be investigated to
pinpoint the problem area for necessary corrective action. Hence it is necessary to find out the
current level of efficiency for performance evaluation, which is a pre requisite for energy
conservation action in industry.

20
REFERENCE.
1. Energy audit Reports of National Productivity Council
2. Energy Hand book, Second edition, Von Nostrand Reinhold Company - Robert
L.Loftness
3. Industrial boilers, Longman Scientific Technical 1999
www.boiler.com
www.eng-tips.com
www.worldenergy.org

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