CHAPTER - I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Societies are shaped by human beings in the hunt of happiness and formed on the
basis of apparatus like business, know-how, armed forces, task force, navy and defence.
These components are required for societal development in order to enrich the quality of
life. Social development is dependent on human beings, and an individual is dependent
on education for overall development. In the course of time, it is understood that
education is the primary and preliminary source of providing skills required for
sustainment of the economy with improvements in productivity and performance.
Academics are essential to societal life, because these studies are responsible for
educating the leaders of society, as well as for conducting scientific research and
furthering knowledge (Coetzee and Rothmann, 2004).

Shortly after independence, Jawaharlal Nehru said that entire basis of Indian
education should be reformed. Much is being said since independence but little efforts
were put to bring resurgence in Indian education system. When India is compared to
China, India stands far behind. In China, every child goes through nine years of schooling
which ensures a 93% literacy rate; in India, however, it is hardly 61%. India is huge with
55% of Indians (660 million people) being below 35 years of age and aiming towards
societal improvement. With this existing trend, education has been identified as a fast
growing sector.

Education plays a major and important role if one wants to shine and is serious
about bringing change to the quality of life: there is a need to bring change to the
environment where we are placed within the globalization frame work. The most
accepted truth is that education is the key to national prosperity and welfare. No
investment is likely to yield more or greater returns than human resolution: as is rightly
said, humans are identified higher than assets. Assets have their value depreciated over a
period of time, while humans appreciate with knowledge and experience over a period of
time and investment in human beings, of which education is the most important
component as it yields greater returns. Personality and characteristics of an individual are
more dependent on the quality of education system. Education concentrates on the
development of skills, human ideals, democratic and knowledge, adding to the advantage
of modern economics positioning people rights and responsibility of freedom of
priorities. Democratic institutions existence without education is impossible; democracy
can be employed only when people are informed about it (Rusk, 1962).

Code of conduct, ethics and loyalties are not only developed through education, it
also aims for personal and societal development. Hoy and Miskel (2001) view academic
institutions as service organizations that are committed to teaching and learning.
Education of today and tomorrow must be the education preparing people of unseen
future not only in terms of skills but in terms of character, perspective, values, creativity,
innovation, simplicity gauging towards the adoption of new situations, promoting
scientific outlook and dignity of an individuals (citizens for democracy, 1978; gore,
1978). Education must define its purpose more broadly than in pure economics terms for
the modern state requires men equipped intellectually and psychologically with skills
necessary for modern living (Doob, 1971). The role of education does not end at using
individuals as instruments of production, but to develop values and desirable attitudes
deserving to the hustle of society. The educational institutions should pave the way to
continuous expansion of their capacities for achieving their success through higher
education.

1.1.1 Higher Education in India

Soon after independence, our government initiated measures to transform India

into a modern society. The transformation was possible through the development of
economical, social, personal, cultural and political development; provision for integrated
programs of education were implemented for people at all levels, possessing different
linguistic social and cultural attributes (Government of India, 1985).

Institutional knowledge is a key component in the knowledge economy (Powell

and Snellman, 2004), managing knowledge through knowledge identification,
acquisition, development, transfer and retention is, therefore, particularly important in
higher education institutions (Probst, Raub and Romhardt, 2000). Education is the
potters wheel that shapes minds and values, and education started gaining importance
only after 1976; until then, education was a state of matter. In 1976, the Constitution was
amended to include education under the national constitution. Education after 1976
became the responsibility of both state and central governments. The Central government
was involved not only in areas like co-ordination and determination of standards higher
education but was also fully involved in improving the quality of education.
 The Indian education system includes primary, secondary, higher-secondary and
tertiary education (Higher Education). Significant progress has been identified in the
education sector since independence. The expenditure on education increased from Rs
115 crores in 1950 to Rs 2,304 crores, in 1976-77 to Rs 5,186 and in 1982-83, to Rs.
9,874 crores and so on. In recent trends, the Indian Government is preparing the
universalization of Secondary Education (USE) with an aim of providing high quality
secondary education to all Indian adolescents under the age of 16 by 2015, and Senior
Secondary Education up to the age of 18 by 2020. The time is not far off when Higher
Education and all other areas of education are included under universalization.

The shared responsibility of both state and central governments, the Department of
Secondary and Higher Education comes underneath the custody of the Ministry of
Human Resource Department. The Central Government plays a major role in higher
education by framing policies in determination of standards and co-ordination. Both State
and Central Government are responsible for the establishment of state universities and
colleges and for providing grants. There is also the existence of Department of Education
in each state as the caretaker of education system in each state.

Higher educational institutions are funded by the Central Government through

UGC (University Grant Commission) one the statutory bodies. The UGC allocates,
distributes, maintains the development, and provide grants to all recognized colleges and
universities. State Universities and colleges are funded by respective states. Self-financed
colleges are found more in our country but self-financed universities are not common in
India. Technical Higher Education falls under the category of Higher Education.
1.1.2 Technical Higher Education (THE)

Technical education contributes to the development of our nation, the society and
financially viable development is part of contribution to our country. It plays an important
role in the overall education systems. All the professional educational courses from sub-
degree to post-graduate and above section are categorized under technical higher
education. Craftsmanship, diploma and research in specialized fields also fall under the
category of Technical Higher Education, considering various aspects of development in
technology and economical improvement.

Various initiative steps are being taken over years in the improvement
progress/process of THE. Important schemes implemented like appointment of the Indian
universities commission, issue of the Indian education policy resolution in 1904 and the
Governor Generals Policy statement in 1913 forced the produce of the technical higher
education prior to freedom. The Central Advisory of Education (ABE) was set up during
pre-independence period but received prominence only in the 20 th century. A strong
requirement report was prepared in 1944 and the formation of AICTE happened in 1945
(AICTE). Education in the technical field includes all polytechnics, Universities, IITs
and Regional Engineering Colleges affiliated to recognized universities; 12 autonomous
institutions are established by UGC to face the new challenges and get recognized within
globalization framework.

With the country gaining importance after Independence, major development like
setting up of major institutions like Indian Institute of Technology, Indian Institute of
Science, Indian Institute of Management are the three major institutions which are
recognized for quality in the educational sector. Apart from these established institutions,
there are several other establishments like Institute of Sugar, Textile and Leather
Technology in Kanpur, where the quality of education of these institutions has not only
grabbed young Indians but foreign students as well. These institutions have helped in the
outlook of our country to such an extent that India, earlier known for yoga and
meditation, is now getting recognized for education as well.

1.1.3 Institutes offering Technical Courses in India

The technical courses categorized in India, identified under the purview of AICTE
are degree, diploma and master degree courses in Engineering, MCA, MBA, Pharmacy,
Architecture, Applied Arts and courses in Hotel Management and Catering Technology.
Many institutes in India offer technical courses. AICTE approved institutes that offer
engineering degree courses number approximately 4, 40,000 seats. There are more than
1244 institutes that provide a diploma in engineering, diploma in Pharmacy (415
institutes), diploma in Hotel Management and Catering Technology (63 institutes), and
diploma in architecture (25 institutes). 1012 institutes are recognized for providing
Master of Computer Application courses and these institutes are approved by AICTE. As
of July 2010, there are 1,346 engineering colleges in India approved by the AICTE with a
seat capacity of 4, 40,000 and these institutes are expected to concentrate on the overall
development without compromising on quality.

To maintain the quality of technical education, a statutory body was established,

and the members held accountable for scheduling, formulation and maintenance of norms
and standards, official approval asserting quality through accreditation, subsidizing in the
precedence areas, frequent checks and assessment, sustaining uniformity in certification
and awards, guaranteeing overall development of technical education like coordination,
integration and management of technical education in the India. AICTE withheld its
recognition by granting institutes to offer courses from time to time like Architecture,
Applied Arts, M.E./M.Tech, Hotel Management and Catering Technology Courses.

1.1.4 Issues of Higher Education in India

Higher Education started gaining prominence after independence and our country
is moving ahead. Several initiative steps are being taken to improve the quality of higher
education; we still stand behind when it comes to the standards of growth in comparison
to global standards. There are several gaps or loopholes that are yet to be rectified and
covered with: poor quality of education at graduation level resulting to lack of
employable skills, only 10% of graduates and 25% of Engineers are directly employed
due to the non-maintenance of quality at technical education institutions. To be known as
the best, one should know to shift from being knowledge transformational bodies to those
that will have the capacity to possess, renew and utilize knowledge successfully.
Universities are offering a much more tapered range of course options which are not
enough to meet todays challenges. These days, education has become business-oriented
rather than being non-profit oriented. It is becoming a sellers market which is heading
towards the non-competitive skills. There is no proper appointment of faculty for
providing quality education providing an advantage to institutions for non-payment of
incentives/benefits to faculty. In decades back, individuals were more interested in the
teaching profession as there was a great amount of respect to teachers/professors, as
clearly noted in our epics as Mathru devo bhava, Pithru devo bhava and Acharya devo
bhava: teachers were respected then and it was a respectable profession as well, teachers
stand in the third position in every individuals life. Though Industry provides training in
terms of jobs, there is strong base to be built which comes from education and we cannot
expect the industry to invest in providing the base training as well not every
organization is in a position to set up training infrastructure and to add on educational
institutions are owned by politicians in most of the states like Maharashtra and South
India.

1.1.5 Challenges and Expectation of Higher Education in India

Considering the growing population in India, we need more universities to provide

quality education. According to the statistics, we need 2000 universities in existence by
2020. There is a tough challenge for the technical education system in the coming future.
Some of the bigger challenges to be faced are: stopping Indians going abroad to acquire
quality education to the educational institutions like Oxford University, Ohio State
University, Cambridge University, Harvard Business School, non-availability of seats as
Institutions providing quality education are not able to cope with the gap in terms of
number of seats available. The Indian Institute of Management receives numerous
applications but the available seats are only 170, a ratio of 1:200. There has been a
paradigm shift from traditional teaching methods to modern teaching methods. The new
way of conceptualizing the teaching and learning strategies involves not only
fundamental mind-shifts but also the ability to understand institutions as complex
systems that must continually learn in order to respond effectively to the pressures of a
fast changing and complex external environment (Senge, 1990). To bridge the gap
between industries and institutions, increase choices for parents to choose from few
degrees as choices for their child/children like Engineering, Medicine and other noted
degrees due to the scope of job opportunities.
1.1.6 Need and Importance of Higher Education

Every individual should realize the importance of education in a nation, countrys

improvement and the gaze of the country is dependent on education. Throughout the
world, education is a government-supported service and no individual nation can bring
insurgency in it provided each one is sufficiently qualified to face the uncertainties. Due
to the liberalization of trade, a large number of nations are in favor of expanding
education, expansion of education further demands exploration in the areas like Medical,
Technical and Business. Further education lends a hand for every human being to
appreciate and understand about oneself, his aims and help in achieving those goals.

To understand the concept of education, it is basically split into three categories:

social education, spiritual education and vocational education. Social education
concentrates on the societal issues, problems and understands the society in better
manner, spiritual education concentrates on developing the inner personality and helps
human being to understand self, help in knowing the reason of existence (way of
Moksham). Vocational education is concerned with the professionalism, in other words
concentrates on career building required to be best suited in the society and meet the
challenges of the globe. Vocational education also helps an individual in earning bread
and butter as well. Technical Higher Education is categorized under vocational education
initializing to deal with various categories of study like field of trade, engineering,
commerce, medicine, agriculture.

Technology development requires high caliber in terms of time, money and skilled
professionals when compared to its functioning and usage. Professional Colleges with
required infrastructure and qualified faculties can exist with the financial support of
Government to meet the global standards.

For a nation to meet the international standards, optimum utilization of available

abundant natural resources is essential and this is possible only when qualified
professionals are produced by technical institutions prioritizing the sense of self respect
and dignity along with the technical knowhow. These talented professionals not only help
in internal progress of the county but reduce the foreign exchange as well.

Every individual is dependent on higher education and it produces the sense of

self-respect and dignity; higher education enhances the economic growth of a country and
increases the quantity of an individuals life. If a country is rich with technical expertise,
percentage of foreign exchange (imports) can be reduced for a nation to enjoy wealth and
progress. The strength of our country is in raw material resources, and better and
optimum utilization of resources is possible when we have enough technical information.

Higher Education helps an individual to realize themselves, their goals, and their
responsibilities towards family and country. Every citizen should know the social
responsibility and ethical aspects required to be followed in a country. Self-realization
should be every individuals right and attainment of this right indulges not only
educational institutes even academic leaders and technical experts.
1.2 Leadership and Leader Behaviour

Great leaders are true servants of the society. They realize that leadership is not a
position but a choice Leaders through passion and dedication (Mahatma Gandhi,
Alexander the Great, Adolf Hitler, Claudius Caesar, Mao Tse-tung) inspire and have a
loyal faculty. Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of our Nation, can be quoted as the best
example for leadership in the Indian scenario: he was a man of gem concerned with
societal problems and freedom. A lot has been spoken about leaders and leadership for
decades; an ongoing debate says that leaders are born and another says that leaders are
made. A complete leader has the capacity to persuade others to accomplish goals of the
organization. The organizations success majorly depends on the leader, and the
effectiveness of a leader depends on the pattern of behaviour adopted that is suitable for
the situation and reflects the concern for tasks objectives and high concern for
relationships. Katz and Kahn (1978) views leadership as an influence attempt and this
view is strongly supported by Terrys definition where he states that leadership is an
influencing activity and willingly strive for group objectives. To influence others, you
need power; power is the ability to bring about changes in ones psychological
environment. Power and leadership go hand-in-hand leaders cannot achieve the
determined goals without influencing their faculty. Influence is the use of power to bring
desired change, and leadership is essential to influencing people to achieve mutually
compatible objectives. As said by Abelson (1997), the quality of future is dependent on
how well leaders respond to enduring realities in the larger world beyond their walls.

Educational institutions are passing through a clutch of competitions by industries

and globe. Academic program leaders style helps in changing and guiding their colleges
and faculty members for effective results by adapting to change and ensure success of
their institution. Leadership and leader behaviour are the two concepts which are
deliberately researched on and leader behaviour is used more rather than leadership as
Halpin (1979) stated Leadership implies inherent characteristics of behaviour which
transfers equally well to a variety of situation. Leader behaviour is the term which can be
actually observed on. To add on, Yukl (2012) opined that either the moral or
organizational matter of leaders provokes change that is both transformative and
sustainable. Leaders help in defining the institutions role in the world beyond its wall
and they determine the internal dynamics of institution. Leaders can make or break the
institutions future as they have extraordinary power; they make the difference between
success and failure.

Success or failure mostly depends on the behavioural aspects of a leader. Leaders

can bring change; a person does not become a leader by following and possessing and
combining traits, but the characteristics of the leader and pattern of behaviour in
relationship to their characteristics, actions and intentions of their faculty members lead
to the success of academic leaders.

1.2.1 Definitions of Leadership

Throughout the decades, this term has been a hot topic of discussion and does not end at
all. The process of leading a team or a group connotes Leadership. Leaders have the ability to
inspire confidence and increase support among their faculty who are to satisfy and achieve
organizational goals (Kim and Mauborgne, 1992). Academic leaders are the pillars of the
institution; they inspire and motivate faculty to walk the path of success. Walton (2010) rightly
said that outstanding leaders go out of their way to boost the self-esteem of their personnel. If
people believe in themselves, its amazing what they accomplish. Leaders are the key drivers of
the institution; they have more than one person to lead, do not hesitate to come down to solve
their followers problems though they have powers to affect their faculty.
 Each author has researched on the term leadership and has got something new to share on
the concept of leadership. Leadership is understood and defined in different ways by different
authors. Leadership denotes images of power, dynamic individuals, atop gleaming skyscrapers,
shape the nation, exploits the brave and clever. Bennis (1959) states that however much we try
to provide with the exact definition of leadership the concept escapes or spin up in another form
to criticize us again with its vagueness and complexity and endless propagation of different
situations to deal with it has not helped sufficiently in defining the concept leadership. After a
comprehensive review on leadership literature, it was found that many definitions concentrated
on traits, behaviour, influence, interaction patterns, role relationships and profession of an
administrative position Stogdill, 1974). Several other perspectives on leadership are:

1. Hemphill and Coons (1957) focuses individual directing activities of a

group in shared goal achievement.

2. House (1971) says that successful leaders engage faculty by aligning

personal goals with that of the group.

3. Katz and Kahn (1978) articulate leadership as the influential increment

over and above mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the organization.

4. Katz (1978) articulates Leadership is a relation involving two terms and

it is impossible to study the influencing agent without also studying the people being
influenced.

5. Burns (1978) opines that leadership is experienced when leader mobilize

psychological, political and institutional resources among others that caters to the needs
of faculty.

6. Smircich and Morgan (1982) Leadership is realized in the process

whereby one or more individuals succeed in attempting to frame and define the reality of
others.
 7. Greenfield (1982) [a] willful act where one person attempts to
construct.

8. Rauch and Behing (1984) the process of influencing the activities of an

organized group toward goal achievement.

9. Richards and Engle (1986) Leadership is about articulating visions,

embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can be
accomplished.

10. Jacobs and Jaques (1990) Leadership is the process of giving purpose
(meaningful direction) to collective effort and causing willing effort to be expended to
achieve purpose.

11. Walto (2010), points out that outstanding leaders go out of their way to
boost the self-esteem of their personnel, if people believe in themselves; its amazing
what they can accomplish.

Most of the authors concentrate on defining Leadership in different ways as Leadership

is the ability to step outside the culture to start evolutionary change process that is more
adaptive (Schien, 1992). Drath and Palus (1994) state that Leadership is the process of making
sense of what people are doing together so that people will understand and be committed.
Kouzes and Posner (1995) postulated that exemplary leadership includes challenging the process,
inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way and encouraging the heart.
The ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable people to voluntarily contribute
towards the growth and development of the organization is leadership (House et al., 1999).
Zaccaro and Klimoski (2001) have put forth principles and models of leadership that are context-
based: they are social, political, economic, technologic, personnel and personal concerns in play
their operating environment when determining how to best lead the organization.
 Warrens view is that Leadership is not a solo Act. Harry Truman stated, leadership is
the ability to get men to do what they dont want to do and like it. Pauls and Horths approach
focuses on competency to lead and individual challenges and their competencies that can be
brought to bear in order for leaders to fully explore the challenge before them and to
collaboratively craft solutions. Drucker says, An effective leader is one who can make ordinary
men do extraordinary things, make common people do uncommon things. Weihrich, Cannice
and Koontz defines leadership as the art or the process of influencing people that they will
strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals. Robbins defines
leadership as the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of a vision or a set of
goals. Stoner defined leadership as the process of directing and influencing the task-related
activities of group members.

Piogors definition is that Leadership is a concept applied to the personality environment

to describe the situation when a personality is so placed in environment that his well-being and
insight direct and control others in the pursuit of a common cause. Bernard defines leadership as
the ability of a superior to influence the behaviour of subordinates and persuade them to follow
a particular course of action, whatever is done by a leader is to prove their faculty.

1.2.2 Characteristics of Leaders

Leadership must be concerned about the interactions of variables which is constant flux of
change (Stogdill, 1950). Leaders bring in change by effective use of patterns of behaviour that
are appropriate and that reflect a high concern for relations. A leader maintains co-ordination and
internal efficacy among group members by building mutual trust, and this is an ongoing process
and facilitates an adoption to external environment. Great authors have screened with their own
version of characteristics that todays leaders should possess. Each scholar has framed different
set of characteristics of a leader, after deep scrutinization, researcher has highlighted some of the
important characteristics being Self-Management, Adaptability, High Standards, Problem
Solving, Interpersonal Skills, Managing and Performance Management and in simple sense these
are pictorially represented below and are explained below.

Effective leadership is improved when leaders follow rules, procedures and stick on to
policies of the institution. Effective leaders do align their work priorities with the priorities of
institutions and goals and have an appropriate sense of self-importance. Academic leaders to be
effective they need to submit to higher authorities.

Implementation of new policy and procedures pull back individuals for whatever reasons
it may be so. Under such situations, academic leaders need to be flexible and initiate change by
breaking traditional boundaries that help leaders be innovative. Dedication plays an important
role, academic leaders need to be committed to the institution. An effective leader with their
capacity leads faculty to reach the goal, analyzes the situation and uses technical skills to ensure
goal achievement. After analyzing the literature of various authors (Barnard, 1938; LBDQ; Yukl;
Kouzes and Posner; and Covey, 2010), the researcher has summarized these elements as effective
characteristics of leadership in figure 1.1.

Commitment Expect conflict

Be proactive
Submit to the Tell truth, with
authority of passion
others
charact
Leader
eristics
charact
Leader
eristics

Love Listen
people

Check your Follow procedures

attitude Take risk
and adhere to policies

Figure .1.1: Indicating the characteristics of effective leadership

 Academic leaders need to be extra cautious and active. As Covey (1989) points out the
need for proactiveness, leaders must be ready to face situations head-on for experiencing
success. No group is free from conflicts, academic leaders should administer in an effective
manner, in the course of solving conflicts academic leaders need to tell the truth, but with
compassion. Bracey, Rosenblum, Sanford, and Trueblood (1990) found truthfulness as an
important leader characteristic and express truth in a manner that does not hurt the respect of
followers. Unless and until academic leaders become good listeners they cannot be good
achievers; communication is the critical linking pin for alignment between personal and
organizational goals. Covey (1989) opined Communication is a two-way process and effective
communication requires leaders capable of effective listening. Academic leaders need to
acknowledge the value and respect their colleagues, faculty members and people involved with
the institutions, academic leaders need to maintain their dignity and also respect the dignity of
others. A positive attitude brings the environment closer, interpersonal interactions becomes
softer and ensure achievement of success.

1.2.3 Leader Behaviour Taxonomies

After a thorough sequel, great authors have sensed the concept of leader behaviour in
different ways. There is no correct set of behaviour category derived by the scholars. Different
authors have come up with different taxonomies depending upon the situation and purpose a
leader comes through. Great authors have come up with different categories to describe effective
behaviour using factor analysis and theoretical-deductive methods (Fleishman, 1953; Stodgill,
1963; House and Mitchell, 1974; Morse and Wagner, 1978). Mahoney et al. (1963) and Page
(1985) have come up with different set of categories to describe job requirements using factor
analysis and theoretical-deductive, and Mintzberg (1973) and Luthans and Lock Wood (1984)
have come up with categories to classify observed activities using judgmental classification
method. Among all these authors, Yukl and his team members (1990) have come up with 14 sets
of behavioural categories and Yukl has continuously worked on the concept of leader behaviour
to fine tune and add weight to the concept. Adding to the work of above authors, important
contributions of other authors are mentioned below in table 1.1.
 Table 1.1: Indicating Authors and Categories of Behaviour

Categor
Authors and Year Primary Purpose Primary Method
ies
Describe Effective
Fleishman (1953) 2 Factor Analysis
Behaviour
Describe Effective
Stodgill (1963) 12 Theoretical Deductive
Behaviour
Mahoney et al Describe job Theoretical Deductive
8
(1963) requirements
Bowers and Describe Effective
4 Theoretical Deductive
Seashore (1966) Behaviour
Classify observed
Mintzberg (1973) 10 Judgmental Classification
activities
House and Describe Effective
4 Theoretical Deductive
Mitchell (1974) Behaviour
Morse and Describe Effective
6 Factor Analysis
Wagner (1978) Behaviour
Yukl and Describe Effective
13 Factor Analysis
Nemeroff (1979) Behaviour
Luthans and Classify observed
12 Judgmental Classification
Lockwood (1984) activities
Describe job
Page (1985) 10 Factor Analysis
requirements
Describe Effective
Yukl et al. (1990) 14 Factor Analysis
Behaviour
Bass and Avolio Describe Effective
7 Factor Analysis
(1990) Behaviour
Wilson et al. Describe Effective
15 Factor Analysis
(1990) Behaviour
Podsakoff et al. Describe Effective
6 Factor Analysis
(1990) Behaviour
Fleishman et al Describe Effective
13 Theoretical Deductive
(1991) Behaviour
Conger and Describe Effective
6 Factor Analysis
Kanungo (1994) Behaviour
Yukl, Gordon and Describe Effective
12 Factor Analysis
Taber (2002) Behaviour
Source: Yukl (2013)
1.2.4 Models of Behaviour

Relying on the above table, a matrix describing patterns of behaviours dependent on style
is developed and shown below in table 1.2 (DuBrin, 1995).

Table1.2: Indicating the patterns of behaviour dependent on style

Primary Decision Actions Under

Style Thinking
Motivation Process Stress
Power and Loses Self-
Directive Focused Follows Rules
Status Control
Follows
Analysis and Established
Analytic Logical Challenge
Insight Rules and
Procedures
Intuition and
Conceptual Creative Recognition Becomes Erratic
Judgment
Feeling and Attempts to
Behavioural Emotional Acceptance
Instinct Avoid Situation
Source: The Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship (Vol.6, 2001)

1.2.5 Leadership Styles

 Table1.3: Indicating the Leadership Styles

Research Group Units Leadership Styles

3 Task Oriented, Relation Oriented and

Michigan Leadership Studies
Change Oriented

Slewin, Lippitt and White, 1939 3 Autocratic, Democratic, Participative

and Clarence J Cunningham (US
army handbook, 1973)

Ohio State University Structure, 2 Initiating Structure and Consideration

1945

2 Production Centered and Employee

University of Michigan
centered

4 Exploitative Authoritative, Consultative

Rensis Likert, 1960 System, Benevolent Authoritative and
Participative System

2 Concern for Production and Concern for

Blake and Monton, 1964
people

4 Intrinsic Job Pressure, Intrinsic Job

Filley et al. (1975) Situational Satisfaction, Leaders consideration and
Leadership Style Subordinates need for information

Avolio et al (1999) 2 Transactional and Transformational

4 Directive, Analytic, Conceptual and

Rowe and Bouglardies
Behavioural

Consultative and participative group leadership

Source: Carlisle H.M. Management Essentials Concepts for productivity and innovation
(Chicago, Utah University, Science research associates, 1937).
Note: Adapted version of the researcher

1.2.5.1 Michigan Leadership Studies

 The Michigan group concentrated on the leadership and simultaneously researched on
identification of relation among leader behaviour, group processes and measures of group
performance. Two series of research was conducted on various organization to understand about
different types of leaders, first research based on the insurance company- managers (Katz,
Maccoby and Morse, 1900), and second in raid road section gang supervisors (Katz, Maccoby;
Gurin and Floor, 1951) giving rise to Likerts (1961, 1967) categorization of three types of
behaviour. This was again researched and extended by Yukl. These types of behaviour are:

a) Task-Oriented Behaviour Leaders concentrated on the task-oriented

function, as the name suggests. Leaders are only concerned on planning and scheduling,
coordinating activities of subordinates, providing with necessary resources, technical
assistance and support; leaders also try to guide their subordinates in setting high realistic
goals.

b) Relations-Oriented Behaviour The word relations clearly depicts that the

leader need to focus on managing the relationship with subordinates as well as with
surroundings. Likert proposed that leader should treat subordinates in a supportive way
that will help in building and maintaining subordinates sense of personal worth and
importance, etc.

c) Change-Oriented Behaviour Change is the essence of Life, as the

proverb goes. We need to entertain change, leaders have changed from individual
decisions to collective decision by providing space to subordinates in group meetings so
that they actively participate in decision-making and in resolving conflicts, promote co-
operation and help them in improving their communication skills, create the feeling on
one among others and motivate subordinates to walk the path of intrapreneurs (process of
business within the business). To keep up the zeal of subordinates, announcements and
celebrations of events is the progress of change.

1.2.5.2 Slewin, Lippit and White Leadership Styles, 1938

 Slewin, Lippitt and White, 1939 and Clarence J Cunningham (US army handbook, 1973)
distinguished leader behaviour under three categories:

a. Democratic Leader Behaviour (Most commonly recognized as

participative leadership). Lets work together is the kind of behaviour that can be
observed in this style of leadership. Leaders decentralize authority and provide space for
subordinates to think and act freely on a particular task. Leaders are more interested in
group participation (participation is the mental and emotional involvement of persons in
group situations that encourage them to contribute to group goals and share
responsibility).

b. Autocratic Leader Behaviour Known as authoritarian leader behaviour.

I want both of you to work on the task. There is no task too small for them to oversee,
they delegate and double check with activities, leaders are self-proclaimed and many
times discourage creativity and innovation. This style of leadership commands and
demands subordinates on a particular task or activity. Leaders take decisions without the
consent of their subordinates; leaders make and implement ideas among the choices
based on their own ideas and judgments Most of the time subordinates advices are
rejected.

c. Laissez-faire Leader Behaviour This kind of leadership is recognized as

delegate leadership, You two take care of the problem while I go, here the leader assign
the task and delegates authority and freedom in performing a particular task. Allows
subordinates to handle the day-to-day operations and allows supervisors to run their areas
of responsibility with little interference. Under this kind of leadership style, leader avoids
both power and responsibility, not only organization goals but leaders problems are also
taken care by the group. This style of leadership does not suit all kinds of situations and
can only be adopted depending upon the effectiveness of the group, where a leader can
leave choice entirely to the group.

1.2.5.3 Ohio State University Structure

 Ohio State University updated the study on leadership, scholars at the university
concluded that two key factors account for most of the variance in leadership behaviour;
Initiating Structure and Consideration.

a. Initiating Structure under this factor, leader specifies and concentrates on

describing specific tasks and procedures, who does what and how it has to be performed
by the group, plans ahead and establishes new ways of getting things done and
implements the same and pushes for production.

b. Consideration as the meaning of the word depicts, a leaders behaviour

includes mutual trust, respect and tries to maintain a warmth and good rapport with the
subordinates. A deeper concern for subordinates shows the responsibility of the leaders
and it definitely depicts subordinate/s participation in decision making and encouraging
more of two way communications.

1.2.5.4 Filley et al., 1975 Situational Leadership Style

Filley and fellow group came out with a different set of factors to freeze in the
effectiveness of a particular leadership style. There are four situational factors influencing the
suitable leadership style.

a. Intrinsic Job Pressure Under this kind of leadership style, subordinates

do not have any kind of a choice rather than acceptance of structure, under this kind of
situation, leaders are forced to borne the job pressure.

b. Intrinsic Job Satisfaction Under this kind of situation, subordinates are

satisfied with their jobs, leading to less impact of leader consideration. Group need not
rely on their leaders for any kind of problem-solving as the group is satisfied with their
jobs.
 c. Leader Consideration Under this kind of situations, rules, regulations,
policies are finely tuned and organized in such a way that leaders job structure does not
cause dissatisfaction.

d. Subordinates need for information personality and ambiguity lead to

tolerance of structure.

1.2.5.5 Rowe and Bouglardies Leadership Styles

The term leadership style has been defined based on the pattern of behaviour by Du Brin
that characterizes a leader. Leadership style, whichever it may be, it directly reflects on the
decision-making and decision-making style model encompasses of four basic styles envisioned
by Rowe and Bouglardies.

a. Directive Low tolerance for ambiguity and low cognitive complexity.

This kind of leadership is similar to autocratic style of leadership. Leaders tend to operate
with high controls; leaders adopt this style due to a strong urge for power. Although they
are efficient, they strongly depend and have a need for high security and status. They tend
to be focused and are aggressive in nature and concentrate on the results. Subordinates
are not satisfied with this style of leadership as leaders use minuscule information and
consider a small number of choices, speed and satisfactory levels are typical under this
leadership style.

b. Analytic High tolerance for ambiguity than to that of directive style of

leadership. Under this style, leaders are more cognitive and possess complex personality
that leads to the aspiration of more information for the selection of best alternatives. As
under the autocratic style of leadership, these leaders prefer position and there is strong
need for control (autocratic bent). They analyze situations is a structural manner to reach
top positions very often and quickly and no wonder if they start up their own
 institution/company/organization. They are not particularly very fast in decision-making
but they prefer and concentrate on written reports for their success.

c. Conceptual This type of leadership is near to the delegate style of

leadership, leaders are highly complex and are people oriented than task oriented.
Leaders respect values and are idealistic emphasizing on ethics. There is belief and
transparency in relationship and share their aims with subordinates to achieve the results,
they rely on data from various sources and choose best among alternatives, they are
highly committed and are achievement oriented and prominate values, recognitions and
independence.

d. Behavioural Low on cognitive complexity and similar to conceptual

style of behaviour. Leaders have deep concern for the organizational goals and
subordinates. They concentrate on the subordinates overall development having high
concern for the group. Under this style, leaders play the role of mentor/counselor, and
make provision for comfort zone to the surrounding environment, are empathetic, they
comprise and enjoy loose control.

1.2.5.7 Avolio et al., 1999 Leadership Styles.

Avolio et al. approached the literature with two new and latest styles of leadership being
transactional and transformational leadership styles each being explained in detail

a. Transactional Leadership Style when we try to understand the basic

meaning of transaction, it states that an act of buying or selling. This style of leadership
concentrates basically on give and take policy, transactional leaders view leader-
follower relationship as a process of exchange. Bass (1985) postulates transactional
leadership as reasonably satisfying and effective based on material and economic
exchange. Leaders get recognized by offering rewards for performance and compliance
or by indulging in threatening punishment and non-compliance. Under this kind of
leadership style, leaders tend to be more realistic with the faculty; there is no wonder to
know that both leaders and faculty are satisfied with this style as there is a mode of
exchange between leaders and faculty. Not at all the situations this style can be adopted,
only at limited situations this is applicable. When it comes to the threatening punishment,
faculty members do not whole heartedly agree to the leaders but forcibly they do. This
style of leadership is not so effective when compared to transformational leadership style.

b. Transformational Leadership Style As discussed above, this kind of

leadership took its birth to overcome the problems faced by both leaders and faculty
under transactional leadership style. This style is an upgradation to the transactional style
and is more effective as well. Under this style, leaders concentrate more on social
exchange than materialistic exchange (economy exchange) (Bass, 1985). Leaders
emphasize on intrinsic rewards (self-efficacy and self-expression). Under transactional
scale, only the performance of the subordinates is rated and performance and employee
satisfaction is predicted beyond what can be accounted for; by transactional scale.
Transactional leadership style is the most upcoming style strongly accepted by both
leaders and faculty. This style consists of four components:

i. Charisma This type of leadership is rare, they understand how to utilize their
system, know how to work a room and understand the value of inspiration. This type of
leadership is based on the personal understanding of both leaders and faculty respect each
other and leaders play inspirational role by inspiring subordinates, formal rules and
organizational regulations are given less prominence under this style of leadership.
Charismatic leaders have great referent power and influence (Bass, 1985). Charismatic
leaders expect high performance, exhibit confidence, take risks and emphasize collective
identity (Shamir, 1991; Ehrhart and Klein; Jacobsen and House). These leaders serve as a
beacon to subordinates, provide clarity, and motivate change by articulating a strategic
vision and resolve shortcoming (Conger and Kanungo, 1988; Ehrhart and Klein, 2001;
Jacobsen and House, 2001).

ii. Inspirational motivation both leaders and faculty strongly try to walk with the
organizational rule and regulations. Both leaders and faculty try to concentrate on the
 organizational goals and vision. Leaders provoke faculty to strongly edge on the
organizational goals and recognition.

a. Intellectual stimulation change is the essence of life, leaders

encourage faculty on creativity and change by motivating for the acceptance of
tomorrows organizational change.

b. Individual consideration personal attention and touch works beyond

economy and materialistic exchange. Leaders are supportive and helpful and act
according to needs of subordinates, leaders aspire, recognize followers capabilities and
motivate them further, this helps in building a sense of confidence in the minds of faculty.
Faculty members are motivated to think differently so that new style of approaching the
problem arises and retunes their regular schedule of activities (Bass, 1985).

Transformational leaders foster appreciation of group accomplishments by building

collective efficacy. Through social exchange, leaders motivate faculty to subordinate their self-
interest for work group interest. As a result, a faculty thinks independently and is fully involved
in their duties which help in increasing their commitment and work engagement. Difference
between transactional and transformational leader behaviour is represented in the format of table
for better understanding of the concepts.

Table 1.4: Indicating the difference between Transactional and Transformational Leader
Behaviour

Transformational Behaviours Transactional Behaviours

Idealized influence Contingent reward
Individualized consideration Active MBE (Management By Exception)
Inspirational motivation Passive MBE (Management By Exception)
Intellectual stimulation
Source: Yukl., G. (2011) Leadership in organization, Pearson publication.
1.2.6 Servant Leadership

Servant Leader epitomize a lifestyle of serving people. This kind of leader tries to walk
towards the goals for others to follow. Servant leadership can be considered as upgrading
concept of transformational leadership. Servant leader is always there to support their
subordinates when they are in need, provide guidance, stand beside you when you need support
and stand behind you to encouraging to move ahead.

1.2.7 Tyrant the fear model

The above models of Leadership focus on the polite aspects of leader behaviour. The
above models are not effective and suitable for the entire situation a person comes across, under
this style of leadership, leaders who possesses ultimate power is sometimes tempted to use their
power for their personal gains. Leaders following this kind of strategy always rule with fear,
always try to create a culture where the target or subordinates alike second guess every decision
they wish to make and create an environment the emperor has no clothes mentality. This kind
of leadership does not support the organization and place people into positions of authority based
more upon loyalty than on their expertise. These kinds of leaders are less and less responsible to
the complex changes faced by the society (Sharing leadership, p1). Leaders accept all the
accolades when things go well and publicly blame others when they fail. This style of
management is ineffective as (White Sterg Leadership Development Group)
organizations/institutions/sectors can never grow until this kind of leaders depart from their jobs
as we need leaders who protects and provide selfless service, not about gaining power and
control over people (Antonioni, 2010).
 Leaders must be concerned in terms of the interactions of variables which are in constant
flux of change (Stodgill, 1950). Effective leaders use pattern of behaviour that is appropriate and
reflects a high concern for relations. They maintain co-ordination and internal efficacy among
group members by building mutual trust. They are on an ongoing process and implement
modified objectives and work progress and facilitate adoption to external environment.

1.2.8 Academic Leaders

All those individuals who are responsible for leading the institution whether be it in
schools, colleges or universities and who have the power and actively participate in decision-
making, possess authority and responsibility towards the smooth institutions functioning and
these include Dean, Director, Principal, Vice-principal, Program-Coordinator and Head of
Department. In educational institution, the best example for academic leader can be taken as
Principal.

Through decades, scholars have tried to identify the different roles of Principal; in the
early years, we called him as Guru, then Head Master, to Administrator, to Principal, now from
Principal to Manager in recent times. Orthodox educationists preferred to address Principal as an
administrator at one stage and managers at the other, though debate is ongoing whether he should
be called as administrator or principal. However, administrator and manager are used as
synonyms (Hallak, 1990; Davies, Ellison and Hopkins, 1987; 1992, Lotto, Mccarth, 1980; Holly,
1990; Brain, 1990; Edwin, 1992; Janet, 1993; Hargreeves and Hopkins, 1993; Kerry and
Murdoch, 1993). Many research studies depict and suggest the managerial effectiveness is
required for school effectiveness, as Principal should be familiar with technical skills of
managing finance, transport, maintenance of infrastructure and function without a word of
autocracy, as perception and expectations change from time to time; in the order of effectiveness,
principal became the focal point of expectations, principal creates an environment conducive for
maximum growth and development of students by using full co-operative energies and talents of
his/her subordinates.

The Principal is the source of mobilizing faculty and students in the process of change
(Sackney, 1995). The Principal is like the developer of clear vision through the use of power and
motivation, he/she is the focus of authority in the school and provides the necessary conditions
for establishing the crucial link between the outside world, i.e., management and the school, this
definition propagates the importance of a leader (Hallak, 1992). Principal has got the authority to
retune the policies and reframe the policies for the welfare of the institution, therefore, the
quality of education depends more on the leadership provided by principal. The quality and
standard aspect of education requires effective management and effective leaders more than
anything else, Principal using his ability directs, manages and controls the institution to achieve
the goals of the institution. Effective leadership helps is smooth transition of change in
educational reforms (Chapman, 1987; Mellor and Chapman, 1984).

Principal is the one who must see the institution in larger picture and keep the whole
machine greased and in working condition (Rallis, 1988). It is the principals insight,
imagination, tactfulness, healthy relations, consideration for his colleagues, belief in democratic
values and resourcefulness that ultimately generates a welcome atmosphere for goal achievement
effectively and efficiently at the hands of such teachers who are satisfied, happy and interested
(Peter and Austin, 1986). He is the person in implementing and supporting empowerment.

Throughout the literature review, the Principal alone is considered as academic leader, the
notion of academic leader to principal is to be changed as every individual involved and works
hard in framing policies, rules and regulations, actively involved in protection of healthy
environment and is responsible for smooth and successful functioning of institution to be
considered as academic leader. So it need not be just the Principal alone, they can be Dean,
Director, and Coordinator for programs or even Department heads. Scarce literature is found to
show Dean, Director, coordinator for programs or department heads as academic leaders.

Universities and Colleges are undergoing a tough challenge and it is time of change.
Academicians are feeling this tidal wave of change in ways that have left many educators
consciously or otherwise confused, exhausted and disillusioned (Deal, 1990). Educational
institutions are presently facing several challenges such as access, equity, quality, privatization,
internationalism and relevance. Talent retention is becoming more essential as an organizations
human capital increasingly becomes the key source of competitive advantage (Halawi et al.,
2005; Pfeffer, 2005).

Continuous importance by the government is not fully associated in the improvement of

quality education; there still lies a gap between the requirement of industries and supply of
suitable candidate through quality education. To provide quality education, academic leaders are
very much essential; they lead not only the institution also the faculty through their leadership
style ensuring success of their educational institution. Academic leaders can make lot of
difference to the overall management of the institution; the leaders existence impacts decisions,
engagement and commitment of faculty. Academic leader is referred to as principal of
educational organizations (Hallak, 1990). As goes the principal, so goes the educational
institution (Blumberg and Greenfield, 1980), but in this particular study, we consider all the
higher authority (Principal, Dean, Director, Coordinator and Head of the Department) of the
institution as academic leaders responsible for the success or failure of the institution.

1.3 Influence Tactics

Over decades, Goffman (1995) depicted that human beings manage their expressions and
impressions they convey others in interpersonal interactions. Human beings for the attainment of
personal gains exert efforts to establish a recognizable identity in the society. Individual
perception changes according to the situations they come across and adopt suitable strategy for
effective outcomes. Goffmans dramaturgical perspective strongly influenced the theory of
interpersonal behaviour based on research on politics in organization, tactics adapted to
influence, impression management and self-presentation. Later interpersonal influence theory
included understanding employee behaviour in the organizational context. Employees use
influence for obtaining promotions, favorable responses and performance ratings. An employee
decides the favorable and situational tactics depending upon the situation.

1.3.1 Definitions of Influence Tactics

Thorough investigation in the literature, two important definitions were found.

1. Yukl (2014), explains influence tactics as the type of behaviour used

intentionally to influence the attitudes and behaviour of another person.

2. Rost (1993) defines influence tactics as an interactive process in which

people attempt to convince other people to believe and/or act in certain ways.

1.3.2 Power and Influence Tactics

In any kind of sector/institution/organization, all employees be it engineers, social

workers, salespersons, union members, managers, supervisors or laborers try to influence
others unintentionally and it is possible to be influenced without being conscious of having been
influenced. For the implementations of the ideas managers need to exercise influence in
appropriate manner, not only for selling their ideas also for gaining the acceptance of
subordinates as well. No organization can function without social influence, be it public or
private sector. Agents (higher authority) use power to influence target (subordinates) and
effectiveness of managers can be determined in the process of influencing subordinates. Power is
the potential capacity to influence behaviour to modify course of proceedings, to conquer
resistance and to get individuals perform activities requested or required.

Power and influence go hand-in-hand; they are closely knitted but they are by no means
synonyms. Management becomes handicap if influence has got no role to play in the
organization and success becomes the dependent on fate or luck rather than hard and smart work.
Power is an inescapable part of management (Torrington, Weightman and Johns, 1985). Power
is derived from the old Latin root Potere meaning - to be able. Power can be portrayed as a
resource a sort of reservoir of force that can be used by an agent to change the behaviour of
another. The actual application of force is meant as influence.

1.3.3 Categories of Power

Influence attempts can be successful depending on the efficacy of agents capability to

apply one or more power bases. French and Ravens (1959) original framework consisted of five
categories under power bases reward, coercive, legitimate, referent and expert power bases.

Reward power - subordinates perceptions depicts that superiors reward subordinates for
the desired outcomes. Coercive power is the power base where influence is adopted based on the
expectation of punishment for failure by subordinates. Under Legitimate power, subordinates
perceive that superiors have the right to describe and control their behaviour. Referent power is
where subordinates try to build a positive relationship with superiors due to person liking
towards their superiors. Expert power involves subordinates believing that superiors possess
expert knowledge related to their work environment. Coercive power is likely to produce
confrontation and non-cooperation, legitimate and reward powers are likely to produce
conformity with the wishes of leader, referent and expert power are likely to create accurate
commitment and interest for the leader schedule. Managers use one of the power base or a
combination of influence tactics to suit the working consequences of the organization.

To understand and enhance dedication of subordinates, leaders motivate them to exert

extra efforts. They use influence tactics as this helps in better understanding of subordinates
(Bass, 1985), how decisions are taken in organization (Pferrer,1981), whether strategies and
politics are implemented successfully (Bass, 1985; Conger, 1989), how managers obtain co-
operation and support from their lateral peers over whom they have no authority (Cohen and
Bradford, 1989 and Kotter, 1982), how managers influence superiors for necessary support by
providing required resources (Gaberro, 1979) and why organizations adopt some innovations and
reject others (Kanter, 1983). There is scant empirical research on the influence behaviour of
academic leaders.

Several studies have tested the different influence tactics used by managers and intention
for their influence attempts (Yukl and Falbe, 1990; Erez, Rim and Keider, 1986; Kipnis, Schmidt
and Wilkinson, 1980). However, only few studies have examined on how influence tactics affects
attitudes and behaviour (Keys, Case, Miller, Curran and Jones, 1987; Cases, Dosier, Mulkinson
and Keys, 1988; Dosier, Case and Keys, 1988; Kipnis and Schmidt, 1988; Mowday, 1978). The
success of a manager can be determined by the way how effectively they influence their
subordinates, peers and superiors (Bass, 1990 and Yukl, 1989).

1.3.4 Influential Hierarchy

Over decades, researchers have tried to identify and place employees at a higher phase so
that employees are recognized as active participants and realized that employees are treated as
assets, but the recent image is that the employees are something more than assets and they reflect
the success, image and brand of an organization and employees are involved in the process of
altering their work environment to better the life of organizations and themselves.

All the employees in the organization try to influence others whether it is Top Level
(upward influence A particular set of behaviours that agent uses to impact their work
environment directed towards individuals at higher levels in the organization, among the pressure
tactics adopted upward appeals was the most frequently used, these upward appeals sometimes
give the impression of involvement by the agent in structuring combination with high ranking
authorities) or Low Level (downward influence a particular set of behaviour used to impact
their subordinates of low level employees), downward influence is smoother than upward
influence. Leaders (Managers) try to adopt appropriate tactics to influence their superiors over
whom they do not have control in a desirable manner in order to get their ideas, policies and
motivate them in implementing decisions (Yukl, 1998; Cohen and Bradford, 1991). Influence is
the essence of leader and a leader needs power to influence others to get the desired outcome.

Researchers over the years have mapped that employees tend to be more proactive and
engaged in changing the components of their work environment for enhanced productivity
(Lowing and Craig, 1968) and subsequent research works have concentrated on knowing what
behaviours of employees would affect the organization specifically about the target employees
(Hollander and Offerman, 1990; Leisenmeier, 1977). When such is the situation from decades,
one can understand how tuff is the task of academic leaders in influencing their faculty members.
Though we know that influencing affects people in a particular direction, academic leaders have
to work on getting their requests carried by their faculty members, make sure that subordinates
support their proposals and implement leaders decision.

There are almost 370 types of tactics an individual can use in influence process. Kipnis,
Schmidt and Wilkinson (1980) have compressed these tactics into a smaller category being
rational, exchange, coalition, upward appeal, assertiveness and blocking; to bring in clarity in the
concept further philosophers have continued to work on influence concept and they have added
two more tactics to Kipnis list being inspirational appeal and consultation (Blicandkle, 2000;
and Schreinsheim, 1990).

In continuation to the research by Jones and Pittman in the year 1982 found tactics
relevant to interpersonal behaviour in organizational settings. Jones and Pittman were the first to
differentiate the tactic of self-promotion from ingratiation, though five tactics were identified by
Jones and Pittman only two tactics being self-promotion and ingratiation have gained
importance. The agent who uses ingratiation as an influence tactic praises and uses flattery
during the influence attempt or before the influence attempt, like self-promotion (talking about
ones achievements/qualification).

Academic leaders today are forced to master the influencing skills to stand in the
competition list, having clout with boss gains respect from subordinates and peers; being
influential with colleagues lets you deliver what your boss wants and your subordinates needs
and high performing subordinates increase your power sideways and upwards because your can
deliver on your obligations and promises (Bradford and Cohen, 1984). Considering Principal,
Dean, Director, co-coordinator and HOD as the academic leaders, all of them have got either of
the roles in boosting up the quality of education at their respective institutions.

1.3.5 Types of Influence Tactics

Different authors have categorised influence tactics into different types; depending upon
the primary purpose, influence tactics have been categorized into three main types.

a. Impression management tactics from the words we understand that one

tries to create a strong effect on another, this tactic is used to produce a strong feeling in
the minds of individual. This tactic can be used by both leaders (agents) and subordinates
(targets); leaders use this tactics to influence subordinates for the desired outcomes and
vice versa. Self-promotion and ingratiation can be quoted as best examples for
impression management tactics.

b. Political tactics this is an artful tactic use to influence mainly in

organizational decisions. This tactic is identified as an important tactic useful, beneficial
and very suited for industry/organization (Fairholm, 1993; Kacmar and Baron, 1999;
Pfeffer, 1992; Porter, Allen and Angle, 1981). This tactic can be used to influence the
agenda of meeting to include your issues, selection of decision maker who will promote
your decisions for the welfare of agent/s or subordinates or organization. This tactic is not
only used for favoritism but also to defend against opponents and used in silent critics.
This tactic involves deception (trickery), manipulation (exploitation) and abuse of power
(Zanzi and ONeil, 2001).

c. Proactive influence tactics initiation plays a prominent role under this

type of influence tactic. One does not wait for things to happen, leaders use this tactic
with legitimate power (simple request) to get subordinates carry out a new task, change
procedures of performing a task, ask for assistance on project/s. If a leader is aware of
smartness and capability, it is easier to handle the situation, if subordinate/s resists the
important work to be performed, then to change the decision of subordinate/s, rational
persuasion may be incorporated by the leader. Yukl (2012) explains the proactive
influence tactics. There are eleven types, the effective use of influence skills is more
likely to result in commitment.

1. Rational Persuasion Logic and facts used by the agent to prove that a
proposal/request is workable for achievement of important tasks.

2. Aspiring The target persons career can get a boost when he/she
implements the request of the agent.

3. Inspirational appeal Agent appeals to values or the emotions of the target

for commitment towards a request/proposal.
 4. Consultation The target is encouraged to suggest changes in
proposal/help plan an activity.

5. Collaboration When the target expresses confidence to carry out a

difficult request the agent is willing to provide resources and assistance.

6. Ingratiation Praise and flattery behaviours are used by the agent before
or during an influence attempt. Agents get you in a good mood before asking you for
something or expressing confidence in the targets ability to carry out a difficult request.
This tactic may be considered to be special case of exchange. Subordinates frequently use
this tactic to create positive impression on their supervisors to receive desirable rewards
in the future (Bohra and Pandey, 1984; Jones, Gergen, and Jones, 1963; Kipnis, Schmidt,
and Wilkinson, 1980; Tedesch and Melburg, 1984). Supervisors casual attributions may
also get affected by subordinates using ingratiation method of influence tactics. In
numerous lab experiments, ingratiation tactics increased the targets liking for or affect
toward the ingratiatory. Kipnis and Vanderveer (1971) found that performance ratings
were benefited by those who adopted ingratiation tactics and they received highly
positive performance ratings that were at a level similar to the high performers. In
contrast Fodor, (1974) found that an ingratiator did not receive higher performance
ratings than a non-ingratiator. However, the ingratiating message used was were made
ingratiating to a rather blatant degree and thus may not have favorably affected
supervisors categorization of employees (Wayne and Gerald field and lab experiment
article). This tactic is considered to be a special case of exchange.

7. Exchange Quid pro Quo.

8. Personal Appeal Based on feeling of loyalty and friendship the agent

request the target to carry out or support a proposal.

9. Coalition The agent uses someone else to persuade the target to comply.

10. Legitimating Authority is used to get the target to carry out a request.

11. Pressure Threats and other similar techniques are used by the agent for
the target to comply.
1.3.6 Grouped Categories of Influence Tactics

Among the above proactive tactics, scholars have categorized tactics accordingly:

1. Schmidt, 1985; Lamude, 1994; Falbe and Yukl suggested that influence
tactics can be divided as hard and soft tactics.

a. Hard Tactics: uses authority and position to influence targets. These are
impersonal and manipulative and these are pressure, legitimating and coalition.
These tactics are more effective and successful when used in combination and hard
tactics can be useful of eliciting compliance. Combinations are more successful
than single tactic. Two hard tactics are no better than single soft tactic.

b. Soft Tactics: soft spoken tactics and these include Ingratiation,

Consultation, Inspirational, Exchange and Personal appeals.

2. Wayne and Ferris have categories influence tactics into supervisor

focused and job focused equalized to ingratiation and self-promotion respectively. This
topic is been concentrated by several other authors including Ferris et al. (1994) and
Wayne and Liden (1995).

3. Reactive influence tactics these tactics are used to resist an unwanted

influence attempt or to modify the agents request or proposal to be more acceptable to
the target person. From the perspective of an observer, the agent and target have switched
roles when reactive tactics are being used. The use of influence tactics by both parties
reflects the actual reciprocal influence processes involved in many influence attempts.
1.3.7 Effective usage of Influence Tactics

a) Exchange appeals tactic would be considered as a hard tactic when

adopted in a distant and manipulative way. These tactics are moderately effective when
compared to hard tactics.

b) Ingratiation and Exchange tactics are adopted where the power between
individuals in a relationship is balanced (Mallalieu, 1998). Power imbalance between
individual is often linked to the effectiveness of ingratiation tactic. Ingratiation tactic
helps in increasing the clarity about power imbalances between target and agent and it is
a levering factor that makes other tactics effective (James, 1963). Ingratiation and
Exchange are moderately effective when influencing peers and subordinates and
ineffective with superiors (not good with week power bases).

c) Under certain situations, agents with low and unbalanced power try to
adopt coalition tactics. This tactic is more useful when influencing a group of strangers.

d) Rationality tactics is frequently adopted when the agents with high power
try to influence weaker targets. This tactic is the best predictor of effectiveness ratings
made by the higher authorities and this tactic is suited for all the directions be it higher,
lower or lateral influence. Management perception states that rational persuasion is the
most powerful tactic that influences the target.

e) Upward appeal tactics involves only one extra person and it is likely used
in balanced situations.

f) Consultation, Inspirational Appeal, Rational Persuasion create favorable

follower attitude.

g) Coercion and Manipulation, Pressure, Legitimating, some coalition

building result in compliance without changing attitude.

h) Tactics that most likely influence task commitment are Consultation,

Inspirational appeal.
 i) Pressure, Coalition and Legitimate are usually in effect when resistance is
anticipated.

j) Consultation, inspirational appeal and rational persuasion tactics create a

favorable attitude. Agents (leader/s) always try to use different tactics on different
situation, when a leader wants a favorable response from their target (subordinate/s).
Inspirational appeal and Rational Persuasion are of great help, by these two tactics
subordinate/s get motivated and committed towards the accomplishment of goals.
They take up the task with lots of enthusiasm rather than being apathetic towards
relinquishment of the request/proposal. However, when resistance is anticipated,
agent (leader/s take the help of coalition, pressure and legitimate, these tactics are
used only in particular situations when it is essential for the task accomplishment.

k) Pressure, coalition and legitimate tactics are useful when resistance is

anticipated.

l) Coercion and Manipulation tactics if adopted results in compliance

without changing attitude of the target.

m) Consultation, Inspirational Appeal and Rational Persuasion are

moderately effective regardless of the direction (peers, higher authority or
subordinates) influencing task commitment.

n) Ingratiation and Exchange are ineffective if used to influence superiors

and cannot be used with weak power bases.

o) There exists a positive effect of ingratiation on promotion. (Orpen, 1996)

for the same relationship negative effect was found. (Thacker and Wayne, 1995).

p) Positive relationship was found between self-promotion and performance

assessments (Kristof, 1995) but negative relationship was found between self-
promotion and performance assessments (Ferris, Judge, Rowland and Fitzgibbons,
1994).
 q) Self-promotion is included as tactic of ingratiation, Gordons (1996)
whereas self-promotion and ingratiation as seen as distinct influence tactics and
treated so (Godfrey, Jones and Lord, 1986).

r) Reason and coalition tactics are considered as non-threatening upward

influence tactics.

s) Leader attributions may also get affected by subordinates when

ingratiation method of influence tactics is used.

t) An inspirational appeal is considered as the most effective influence

tactics (Yukl and Tracey, 1992).

1.3.8 Summary of findings for Proactive Influence Tactics

Agents tend to use socially acceptable tactics that are workable and in alignment with
their status when compared to the target.

Table 1.5 Indicating the Summary of Influence Tactics

Influence Directional Use Sequencing Use Alone or in General

Tactics of Tactic Results Combination Effectiveness
Rational Widely used in Used more for Used frequently
High
Persuasion all directions initial request both ways
Inspirational More down than Used most with
No difference High
appeal up or lateral other tactics
More down and Used most with
Consultation No difference High
lateral than up other tactics
More down and Used most with
Collaboration Not studied High
lateral than up other tactics
More down than Used most with
Aspiring Not studied Moderate
up or lateral other tactics
More down and Used more for Used most with
Ingratiation Moderate
lateral than up initial request other tactics
Exchange More down and Used most for Used both ways Moderate
 immediate follow-
lateral than up equally often
up
Personal More lateral than Used more for Used both ways
Moderate
Appeal up or down initial request equally often
More lateral and Used most for Used both ways Low/
Coalition
up than down delayed follow-up equally often Moderate
Used most for
More down and Used most with
Legitimating immediate follow- Low
lateral than up other tactics
up
More down and Used most for Used both ways
Pressure Low
lateral than up delayed follow-up equally often
Source: Yukl., G. (2011) Leadership in organization, Pearson publication.

1.3.9 Outcomes of Influence Tactics

The results of the usage of tactic/s results in success or failure, and whether a favorable
outcome is achieved or not, can be determined from three outcomes of influence tactics:

1. Commitment under this outcome, agent/leader gets a favorable answer

from target. Target/subordinate/s join hands by agreeing with a decision or request from
the agent. Target puts in full effort to accomplish the request from the agent be it for a
complex task or difficult task, commitment is usually more successful outcome agents
perspective makes an influence attempt.

2. Compliance considering the power of leader/agent, subordinate/s would

accept the request or proposal in an apathetic manner rather than in an enthusiastic
manner. Subordinate/s puts in minimal effort in the accomplishment of a task. Usually,
the normal tendency of employees is resistance to change but when a request is put forth
subordinate/s may not be convinced with the decision of leader/agent for a complex or
difficult task, compliance is less successful outcome when compared to commitment.
Compliance effect is less for the routine requests by leader/agent when compared to
 difficult task; leader only can influence the behaviour and not the attitude of
subordinate/s.

3. Resistance the term describes an outcome where the target/subordinate/s

opposes or rejects the proposal or request. Subordinate/s not only behave in a different
manner but tries to avoid carrying out the request by refusing, making excuses,
persuading the agent to withdraw, over ruling delaying, and sabotaging the task.

Target reaction to the agents request is not only the basis for evaluating success even the
efforts put forth by leader/agent to motivate and enable the other end to contribute towards the
effectiveness of the goal also gets counted. There are other factors like interpersonal
relationships, the way agent/leader is been perceived (ethical, supportive, likes and dislikes,
competent, trustworthy and strong personality factors (Machiavellianism) also seems important
(Grams and Rogers, 1990). Though there is usage of power in influencing subordinates,
sometimes there may be improvement in the relationship or make it less friendly and co-
operative, use of influence tactic co varies with the path (upward, downward or lateral) chosen to
influence (Deluga and Perry, 1991; Kipnis et al., 1980; Yukl and Falbe, 1990; Yukl and Tracey,
1990). During the influencing process, agents need to understand that organizational culture,
situations, objectives, status, self-esteem and leadership styles some of the related factors of
influence tactics.

1.4 Organizational Commitment

Interest of researchers in understanding the concept of organization commitment does not

end at all. Review of extant studies reveal that organization commitment is an interesting concept
and has gained lot of attraction from all the sides of environment. The concept can be determined
in relation to its link with desirable work outcomes and employee (overall quality of work life).
Further, Batemen and Strasser (1984) state that employee behaviours, employee responsibility,
employee performance effectiveness, job tenure, job satisfaction (attitudinal, affective and
cognitive constructs) are some the reasons for studying organizational commitment, theorists
have tried to emphasize the concept relevant to Participation or Production (March and Simon,
1958; 83). Organization commitment is well understood when it is related to performance
effectiveness, number of critical in-role behaviour towards organization (Mathieu and Zajac,
1990; Meyer Stanley, Hersovitch and Topolnytsky 2002; Hislop 2002). Mettaz (1988) tried to
articulate from the view point of organization exchange perspective organizational members
provide certain inputs to their work organization (skills and efforts) and expect in return to
achieve their personal goals.

Literature reviews of organizational commitment convey that there exists relationship

between commitment and turnover, employees with strong commitment stretch their thought for
detachment with the organization and are ranked highest, and employees those who are likely
leave the organization are ranked the least. Apart from this similarity, psychological state also
reflects commitment and the antecedent conditions and behaviour are expected to result from
commitment. When mathematically explained about the concept it states that, commitment =
(rewards - costs) + (investment alternatives).

1.4.1 Definitions of Organizational Commitment

Few definitions mentioned below give clear explanation about organizational

commitment.

1. Hall, Schneider and Nygren (1970) focusing on the shared values, defined
commitment as the process by which the goals of the organization and those of the
individual become increasingly integrated or congruent.

2. Sheldon (1971) defines commitment as positive evaluation of the

organization and its goals.
 3. Hrebiniak and Alutto (1972), adopting the exchange notion, define
commitment as a result of individual organizational transactions, and alterations inside
bets or investment over time.

4. According to Buchanan (1974), most scholars define commitment as being

a bond between an individual (the employee) and the organization (the employer),
through his own definition of commitment.

5. According to Porter, Steers, Mowday and Boulian (1974), commitment is

the relative strength of an individuals identification and involvement in a particular
organization. They described commitment by three psychological factors 1. A strong
belief in and acceptance of the organizations goals and values. 2. Willingness to exert
considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and 3. A strong desire to maintain
membership in the organization.

6. Porter et al. (1974) explained employee commitment as a factor beyond

mere loyalty, involved an active relationship to such an extent that employees are willing
to give something of themselves by way to contribution to the well-being of the
organization.

From the above definitions, commitment is explained from various viewpoints. To

summarize, commitment is found when there exists a strong relationship between an employee
and employer and moreover commitment is seen as being stronger than job satisfaction over a
period of time. Considering attitude, commitment distinctly varies from job satisfaction.
Commitment reflects a common affective response to the organization as a whole, while job
satisfaction reflects appraisal process of ones job or job experience where employee exhibits
pleasurable or positive emotional state (Locke, 1976).

Commitment attitudes are developed slowly over time whereas job satisfaction attitudes
are viewed as instant response to specific and tangible portion of the work environment such as
Work, Pay, Promotion, Supervision and Co-workers (Smith et al., 1969 and Porter et al., 1974).
Everyday activities within the work place might have an effect on job satisfaction but such
events do not affect the bonding between the employee and the organization.

1.4.2 Types of Commitment

Various authors vetted the organizational commitment and few are compiled below

1.4.2.1 Etzioni (1961)

Etzioni categorized commitment into three types of organizational/employee

commitment:

a. Calculative Commitment based on the opinion of exchange.

b. Moral Commitment represents a positive and heightened orientation towards an

organization, based on the internalization of the organizations norms and values. It is expected
to be relatively independent of stimulus levels (Lelman, 1951).

c. Alienative Commitment arises due to coercive control and /or entrapment

resulting in continued membership in the organization.

1.4.2.2 Steven, Beyer and Trice (1978)

Steven, Beyer and Trice categorized employee commitment into two categories:

a. Exchange Approaches these are the resultants of inducement or

contribution transaction between the organization and the employee.
 b. Psychological Approaches these attach to the identity of the employee to
the organization in contrast to exchange approaches.

1.4.2.3 Weiner (1982)

Weiner identified commitment in the form of Motivation Model, this model is the
outcome of combination of exchange and psychological approaches.

1.4.2.4 Rusbult and Farrell (1983)

Rusbult and Farrell expressed that commitment as an investment model; commitment is

the function of job rewards, job cost, and investment size and job alternatives. Commitment = f
(job rewards, job cost, investment size and job alternatives).

1.4.2.5 Buchanan (1974)

Buchanan viewed commitment as a three-component orientation:

a. Identification with the objectives and values of the organization

b. High involvement in work activities

c. Loyal attachment to the organization

1.4.2.6 Meyer and Allen (1991) and Dunham et al. (1994)

Meyer and Allen (1991) and Dunham et al. (1994) identified three types of commitment;
affective, continuance, and normative commitment. Normative commitment is relatively a new
facet of organizational commitment (Bolon, 1993).

a. Affective commitment is defined as the emotional attachment,

identification, and involvement that an employee has with its organization and goals
(Mowday et al., 1997; Meyer and Allen, 1993; OReily and Chatman). Commitment is
described as more active and positive orientation towards the organization. Similarities to
the affective commitment were found in Kanters (1968) work cohesion commitment -
attachment of an individuals fund of affectivity and emotion to the group. To add on one
more feather to the commitment Sheldon (1971) states that an employee exhibits or
attaches his identity to the organization. Porter et al. (1974), Porter et al. (1976) and
Mowday et al. (1979) further characterize affective commitment by three factors which
are similar to Buchanans (1974) views of identification, involvement and being loyal to
the organization and its goals and objectives. One difference found between these
researchers (Buchanan and Porter et al.,) is organizational membership. Porter and the
group realized that without the official membership, no subordinate could involve fully in
their jobs. Mowday et al. (1979) further state that affective commitment is exhibited by
employee who builds his recognition with particular organization and maintains
membership to successfully attain the organizational goals. Meyer and Allen (1997)
continue to say that employees retain membership out of choice and this being termed as
their organizational commitment.

b. Continuance commitment is the keenness to long stay with the

organization as the employees maintain the strong relationship with the organization and
therefore called as nontransferable investments include retirement, relationships
maintained within in the organization, or special things that help in identification of
organization like brand image are termed as nontransferable investments and other factors
like employee service (number of years of employment) and unique benefits that an
 employee enjoys that are unique to the organization are considered in continuance
commitment (Reichers, 1985). Employees with continuance commitment feel hard to
detach from their employer and find it difficult while moving out of the organization
(Meyer and Allen, 1997).

c. Normative commitment is the commitment stating employee feeling of the

responsibility towards their organization (Bolon, 1993). Meyer and Allen (1991)
supported this type of commitment prior to Bolons definition, as a feeling of
obligation towards the organization but Weiner (1982) viewed normative commitment in
a different way where generalized value of loyalty and duty were prominated. Normative
commitment is exhibited due to the environment in which an individual is brought up and
always argued that normative commitment is natural behaviour similar to observed
feelings towards marriage, family, religion, beliefs and values of the society, therefore
commitment is replication of environment in which they are brought and the same
commitment is seen at the work place and always feel the moral obligation that they
perceive towards the organization (Wiener, 1982).

Though there are several typologies, Meyer, Allen, and Smith (1993) state that all the
three types of commitment are dependent on the psychological state of the employee where the
employees relationship with the organization is characterized or the organizations impact on the
willingness to stay or leave the organization. Whatever has been defined with commitment can
be categorized under any one of the following three typologies: affective attachment, perceived
cost and obligation (Meyer and Allen, 1887). These two researchers (Meyer and Allen) worked
on these variables further and identified three types of commitment: Affective Commitment,
Continuance Commitment and Normative Commitment.

All the three types of commitment commonly concentrate on the psychological state that
either characterizes the employees relationship with the organization or has the implications to
affect whether the employee will continue with the organization. Meyer and his team mates
(1993) continue to state that still there exists difference between these three types of
commitment: employees who want to stay with organization are with strong affective
commitment, employees have to stay with the organization whatever be the reasons of their stay
and such employees show a strong continuance commitment and employees with normative
commitment stick on with the organizations as they feel and believe it as the normal behaviour
and tendency.

Meyer and Allen (1997) further elaborated and clarified with the meaning of committed
employees, and define employees as someone who stays with an organization, attends work
regularly, puts in a full day and more, protects corporate assets, and believes in the organizational
goals. Because of their commitment, they cheerfully contribute towards their organization
requirement and goals.

1.4.3 Perspectives on Commitment

Authors have understood and tried to explain and equalize the concept of commitment to
different theories and areas, for instance:

Rusbult and Farrell (1980) initially tried to conceptualize in mathematical terms as

Perceived cost when acerbically described the meaning of commitment

Commitment = (rewards - cost) (investment Alternatives) eventually

explaining that increase in job rewards, decrease in job cost and increase in investment
size, decrease in alternatives leads to commitment.

Commitment = f (job rewards, job cost, investment size and job alternatives)

Rewards = high pay, autonomy + job variety, due recognition and praise

Cost = unexpected variations in work load, frequent deadlines, inadequate

resources and unfair promotion practices
 Investment = (Intrinsic to job) = years of service and training opportunities

(Extrinsic to job) = transport facilities and friends at work place

Alternatives = availability of job opportunities

The perceived cost of commitment is measured by the scale developed by Ritzer and
Trice (1969) and upgraded by Hrebiniak and Alutto (1972). The modified scale requires
respondents to express their likelihood of leaving the organization, if an alternative job is
provided with better pay, status, freedom and promotion opportunities. Rusbult and Farrell
(1983) identified that employee commitment can be expected only when the employees
requirements are taken care of, like rewards, and the burden of variations lessened with proper
intrinsic and extrinsic facilities by the organization.

Gould (1979) expressed that Equity theory can be incorporated to the concept of
commitment, inducing the exchange theory of side-bet, inducement contribution and
calculative commitment. Side-bet theory is the importance a person places towards increasing
investments such as money, time and effort that decrease the chances and cost of quitting the
organization. Side-bet theory (March and Simno, 1958) and exchange theory (Becker, 1960)
were the referral points to many of the researchers. Adding some more meaning to the concept,
Kanter (1968) expressed the possibility of cognitive continuance commitment in relation to profit
and cost incurred by organization, cognitive commitment occurs when profit is linked with
continuous participation and cost related with leaving. Stebin (1970) explained exchange
commitment as the awareness of the impossibility of choosing a different social identity
because of the intense penalties in making a switch.

Farell (1988) viewed commitment as a exchange and accrual phenomena dependent on

employees perception of ratio of inducements to investments and the accumulation of side-bet or
investment in employment, whatever be the scales used for measuring the employee
commitment, overall if employees are satisfied with intrinsic and extrinsic facilities provided by
the organization, employees career and growth are visualized and recognized for the best part of
the work, chances and possibilities of detaching from the organization is an dipping walk in the
employee chart of the organization, attrition can never be expected under such circumstances.
The stronger the commitment, stronger is the individuals predisposition, committed employees
like to exhibit their belongingness and behaviour, not because of the personal benefits but they
genuinely believe that it is right, ethical and moral to do so. Fishbeins (1967) in behavioural
intentions model, the meaning of behaviour is best explained, behaviour is the function of
intention to display that behaviour. If mathematically explained, individuals behaviour = f
(intention). Behavioural intention can be determined by two factors: individuals attitude to
perform an act (concerns and consequences of the act, individuals values and belief to do so)
and individuals subjective norm (bothering about what important referents to be considered and
weighed by motivation to consider).

Related behaviours such as attendance and effort are also considered in the normative
commitment of the same type of organization. Though patterns of behaviour differ, the
internalized normative pressures required and to be satisfied by employee are personal sacrifice,
persistence in spite of punishment and reinforcements, personal pre-occupation with the
organization (Weiner and Gechman, 1977). Personal norms being an important contributor to
behaviour have been validated by many scholars (Prestholdt et al., Schwaltz and Tressler, 1972).
All through the literature review, the only scale to measure internalized commitment was
developed by Wiener and Vardi (1980, 86). Three-item scale requesting the respondents to
express their view on the extent to which a person should be loyal to the organization, sacrifices
to be made on behalf of the organization the extent to which the organization should not be
criticized.
1.4.4 Antecedents of Commitment

For the past 30 years, a range of antecedents and outcomes have been acknowledged (Hill
(1977), Angle and Perry (1981), and Mowday et al. (1979)). Two popular approaches have been
recognized as commitment related attitude and commitment related behaviour. Reasons for
employee commitment are many; all of them have been summed up into three main antecedents
Personal characteristics, Job characteristics and work experiences (Steer, 1377), fourth
antecedent being identified as structural characteristics has gained prominence as well (Morris
and Steers, 1980).

Personal Characteristics Age, Sex, and Education are the components of personal
characteristics. When personal characteristics are considered women are stronger and are more
committed (Gould, 1975; Grusky, 1966; Hrebinaik and Alutto, 1972). Womens struggle in
recognition is a tug of war in the organization and they face a lot of problems to sustain, attain
recognition and position in the organization, hence they are more committed.

a. Education education is found to be inversely related to commitment

(Angle and Perry, 1981; Morris and Steerman, 1980, 1981, Steers, 1977). A highly
educated employee understands the requirement of the organization strongly and in the
same proportion expects rewards. There is an inverse relationship between education and
organization and this is attributed to the problems of equalizing their monetary exchange.
Highly educated employees are clear with their requirements and about their long range
interests, probability in departing from organization and looking for high and better
prospects. They are more committed with profession than the organization, research on
the effects of education on commitment, demographic variables such as sex, marital
status, family income, and work experience included shows that the effect of education is
positive, but when work values such as task involvement, task autonomy, task
significance, co-worker assistance, supervisory assistance, working conditions, salary and
 promotions are included in the analysis then the effect of education is negative (Mottaz,
1988), concluding that when intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are provided, positive effect
can be expected, if rewards are kept constant then negative effect can be expected.

b. Age and Organizational tenure are directly related to each other and these
two factors show an increasing position in the organization, diminishing the opportunities
for alternative employment; higher the tenure, higher is the attachment but need not be
higher commitment or highly committed, negative commitment can also be expected at
this stage (Alutto et al.; Sheldon, 1971; Ahmed, 1987 and Farrell and Rusbult, 1981).

Positive relationship exists between employees age, time and their commitment
level in the organization. Few studies reveal that employees characteristics such as
leadership qualities, communication styles affect the organizational commitment
(Buchanan, 1974; Allen and Meyer, 1993). The argument as to whether there exists no
connection between ones personal characteristics and commitment towards the
organization, but it has not gained much importance as many scholars state that there
exits relationship between commitment and personal characteristics and non-
demographic variables (Decottis and Summers, 1987).

Job characteristics employees involvement depends on the type of job he is involved in

and characteristics is considered from broad measure of job scope or motivating potential
(Bateman and Strasser, 1984; Buchanan, 1974; Fukami and Larson, 1984; Hall et. al., 1970), to
specifically measure task identity, role clarity, task challenge, feedback, responsibility and
autonomy (Bartol, 1979; Bhagat and Chassie, 1981; Fried and Ferris, 1987, Kochi and Steers,
1978; Spector 1985; Steer, 1977). Under the continuance commitment, antecedents are time,
money and effort and these are in public sector employees then private sector employees (Perry,
1997; Meyer and Allen, 1997), public sector employees are more committed than private sector
employees though they are facing todays problems and challenges and strong reason for their
commitment being job security and the job security and ethics have helped in differentiating
public sector employees from other sector employees (Perry, 1997).
 Work experience not all employees are eager in job hops and not all the job hops are
remembered by the employees, the quality of work, group attitudes towards organization, work
environment, relationship between superiors and subordinates, leadership and supervisory skills,
all these variables help in having an positive attitude on the job (Batemann and Stasser, 1984;
Larson, 1984; Howell and Dorfman, 1981; Jermies and Berker, 1979; Morris and Steers, 1980;
Nathan et al., 1991; Padaki and Ghandi, 1981; Parasuraman and Alutto, 1984; Store and Porter,
1975; Steers and Spencer, 1977; Welsch and Lavan, 1981); fair organizational practices
(Gaertner and Nollen, 1989); perceived pay equity (Rhodes and Steers, 1981); and social
involvement (Buchanan, 1974 and Rotondi, 1975) have greater impact on commitment.

Structural characteristics Not only demographic variables make difference even non-
demographic variables such as need for achievement (Steers, 1977), sense of competition
(Morris and Sherman, 1981), protestant work ethic (Blau, 1987; Buchanan, 1974; Kidron, 1978);
and professionalism (Bartoi, 1979); have effect on commitment and decentralization,
centralization (Bateman and Strasser, 1984); formalization, functional dependence (one
employee being dependent on the work of other employee/s) and organizational size (Steven et
al., 1978); are recognized as structural characteristics having impact on commitment.

1.4.5 Outcomes of Commitment

All types of sectors, be it Public, Private or Non-profit oriented sectors consider

antecedents and outcomes as highly important and believe that the antecedents and outcomes
provide desired information to managers to take effective decisions for the welfare of the
organization. What kind of result can be expected from committed employees and the possible
outcomes are job performance, attendance, employee retention and organizational citizenship are
some of the outcomes researched through decades.
 1. Retention various works on the concept of outcomes of commitment
found that there exists an association between turnover and commitment (Porter et al.,
1974; Meyer and Allen, 1997). Low committed employees tend to leave their
organization quickly (Porter et al., 1974), retaining such employees is a big challenge,
when retention is spoken about, it is clear that continuance commitment is expected by
the employees but Meyer and Allen (1997) argued that the results of commitment
depends on the type of commitment and different outcomes are exhibited, so continuance
commitment need not always be related to employee performance , the authors tried to
strengthen the above statement and tried to bring out reasons to state between the kind of
relationship that may exist between performance and commitment and sometimes it may
not be related also. To highlight this statement, Allen and Meyer (1997) identified some
of the factors like seriousness in appraisal process valued by supervisors, job
performance valued by organization and employees committed to the organization and
profession revealed the reasons for high level of performance (Baugh and Robert, 1994).

2. Employee Attendance higher the commitment, lower is the absenteeism,

through the disaster review of literature, it is found that employee with affective
commitment will view their job as routine assignment and always try to avoid the
absenteeism showing that attendance is positively related to the affective commitment. To
add on, examining the group of nurses with the low level of commitment had high level
of absenteeism (Somers, 1995), research was continued on insurance company and result
revealed that high level of commitment is negatively correlated with absenteeism (high
level) and turnover of employees (Blau and Boal, 1987). Employee commitment is
related to the attendance of workers (Steers, 1997), and continuance commitment shows
that employees frequently are not absent if the ratio of attendance towards absenteeism is
observed (Gellatly, 1995).

To extend the understanding of the meaning of the concept of Organizational

Commitment, there is outburst citizen behaviour or extra-role behaviour identified by different
researchers and there is lot of literature (1000 Empirical Works) available on organization citizen
behaviour (OCB). OCB contributes to the maintenance of social system and this contribution
indirectly strengthens the relationship among employees (Organ,1997). Many constructs have
overlapped the meaning of the OCB, some of them being Pro-social Organizational Behaviour
(Brief and Motowildo, 1986); Organizational Spontaneity (George and Brief, 1992); Extra-role
Behaviour (Vandyne, Cummings and Parks, 1995); and Contextual Performance (Motowidlo,
2000).

To avoid the confusion to the meaning of Organization Citizenship Behaviour, Organ

(1998) states that the employee behaviour is discretionary and not recognized by any kind of
official reward and this kind of behaviour is exhibited to favor of organizations success and
well-being, overall OCB to be altruism (behaviour directly intended to help a specific person in
face-to-face situation), conscientiousness (impersonal behaviour such as compliance with norms
defining good behaviour of worker), sportsmanship (not complaining about trivial matters)
courtesy (consulting others before action) and civic virtue (keeping up with matters that affect
the organization. These five dimensions are used as measurement scale by various researches in
their study (Podsakoff, Mac, Kenzie, Paine and Bachrach, 2000; Le Pine et al., 2002).

1.5 Work Engagement

The meaning of the verb to engage has several meanings starting from straight forward
and transactional (to hire someone to perform job), to exciting and mysterious (to fascinate and
charm). Merrian-Webster dictionary provides a different meaning to the word engagement as
involvement of commitment and as the state of being in gear, in addition to the meaning of
Webster dictionary engagement refers to zeal, eagerness, assimilation, focused attempts and
strength of an individual. The understanding and the prominence differs from one organization to
another, depending upon the interest of the organization may be to hire, to employ busily and
purposefully, to contract or promise, to pledge and to induce or attract. Engagement is otherwise
also referred to as modernized version of job satisfaction (Cohen, 1999).

Figure 1.2: Indicating what work engagement meant to different Organizations

Researchers have viewed work engagement differently. It can be conceptualized as the

exact opposite of workplace burnout (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004), considering involvement,
efficacy and energy as important aspect of work engagement, there emerged various definitions
of work engagement.

1.5.1 Definitions of Work Engagement

1. Rotter (1990) articulates engagement in a cognitive manner as a lead to

common understanding ... is illustrated with many behavioural examples stated in such a
way that the operations for its measurement are clear and widely accepted as logical and
reasonable.

2. Kahn (1990) describes it as a psychological state where the leveraging of

employees selves to their work roles and they use and exhibit themselves overtly,
covertly and affectively at work.

3. Hallberg and Schaufeli (2006) Employees being aroused with energy

and fully dedicated to ones work.

4. Macey and Schneider (2008) Voluntary effort or behaviour outside their

actual role that encompasses trait, state and behavioural engagement.
 5. The Institute for Employment Studies (IES) Engagement is a positive
attitude held by the employee towards the organization and its values. An engaged
employee is aware of business context, and works with colleagues to improve
performance within the job for the benefit of the organization. The organization must
work to nurture, maintain and grow engagement, which requires a two-way relationship
between employer and employee.

The greatest battle for organizations in the coming 10 years will be the ability to engage
employees and getting them to align to the business. Johnson (2004), The New Rules of
Engagement. The most important definition of Work engagement is fulfilling positive work-
related mental state characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli and Salanova,
in press; Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzalez-Roma, and Bakker, 2002).

1.5.2 Characteristics of Engaged Employees

Engaged employees inherent characteristics add value to the organization image with
which results are effective and reach the goal/s within the stipulated period of time. Engagement
is highlighted in fig 1.3.
 Looks for, and is given, opportunity
to improve organizational
performance
Keeps up-to-date with Is positive about
developments in his the job and the
or her field organization

Identifies with An Believes in

An
the engage the
engage
organization d organization
d
employ
employ
ee
ee Works actively to
Sees the bigger
picture, even at make things
personal cost better

Can be relied upon,

and goes beyond Treats others with
the requirements respect, and helps
of the job colleagues to perform
more effectively

Figure 1.3: Indicating the characteristics of engaged employees

Source Institute for Employment Studies Engagement Survey, 2005

1.5.3 Engagement Drivers

What drives employees towards their job, each organization prioritize and rank the drivers
differently and engagement does not have common definition. It differs from one organization to
another, making benchmarking difficult. Bench marks are given preference by any organization,
sometimes they sacrifice the standards which are relevant and select which are irrelevant and
does not best suit the organizational settings. A customized measure which suits in every aspect
except for comparison are shown be below in the drivers of engagement

Drivers of the engagement may not only differ from one organization to another but it
also differs from one employee to another. Though it is possible to identify key drivers of
engagement to each organization, variability exist in ranking the drivers by organization and
employees. Employees honor their relationship with their immediate managers and career
development do not necessarily emerge as engagement drivers in their own way. This does not
mean that organizations can ignore them, as they may not be direct drivers but are very important
to be considered as they are sub drivers. Job satisfaction and feeling involved are mainstreamed
by employees in any organization.

Feeling valued
and involved Equality of
Job opportunity

satisfaction

Length of
Ethnicity Engageme service
nt

Health and
Safety
Co-operation Communication

Figure 1.4: Indicating drivers of engaged employees

Source Institute for Employment Studies Engagement Survey, 2005

Engagement is yet to gain importance in public domain as there is little evidence to

demonstrate that engagement fetches enhanced performance by both the organization and
employees. Despite gaining importance in the corporate world, there is fairly little academic
research on work engagement. Measurement and analysis of engagement still remains an activity
that is carried out by consultancies and survey providers on behalf of the organization.

1.5.4 Work Engagement and other Constructs

The concept work engagement has overlaps with various other constructs, though scholars
and authors have first defined the concept engagement, engagement is a two-way construct,
organization must work to engage employees and in turn the employee has no choice about the
level of engagement to offer the employer. The effectiveness of the organization depends on the
effective contribution of the employees to get best output from employees; employers need to
work on engaging both physical body and the mental state of employees. Employee and
employer are free to decide whether to stay on bonding in future for a particular course of time
depending upon the progress they foresee in the organization, employer too has a choice whether
to retain or discard the employee but engaging the employee within the organization has been
greatest battles (Johnson, 2004). Today, there is increased awareness about the concept
engagement\engaged employees and has been realized that good working environment is
because of engaged employees, where they are productive, principled and responsible
(Lewinson, 2000). The engaged employees create positive vibrations in the organization and are
considered as key to organizations success.

Employees dedication differs from one person to another in job intensity and attention
they put forth in work, employer needs to realize the different between satisfied employee and
best employee. Satisfied employee may not provide best in terms of loyalty and productivity but
best employee are known for their loyalty and productivity, they go an extra mile beyond their
duties and responsibilities, the best employee is an engaged employee who mentally and
affectively bonds. Even today, pages of popular magazines, management press and other industry
related magazines talk about the concept of engagement and how to improve it, it still lies as an
important concept to be concentrated as all are aware that success not only depends on the
leaders but also the faculty, as essential to motivate and follow the path of success.

Enormous research depicts that most of the employees are not fully engaged in all types
of organization across the world (Gallup Surveys; Avolio and Luthans, 2006). The synonym to
work engagement are constructs like OCB, Workaholism, Personal engagement, Work passion
and Organization Commitment, whereas there exists difference between work engagement and
other constructs.

1.5.4.1 Organization Citizen Behaviour (OCB) and Work Engagement

The term OCB was introduced in the 1980s to describe the employees passion towards
the organization which is discretionary and is not considered for the official reward system and
employee is the one who works in addition to his job profile to build the image of the
organization, support the organizational views and lead other employees towards the effective
attainment of organization goals (Organ, 1988), he (Organ, 1997) further extended the research
to show that employees indirectly involve in the organizations social system to support task
performance. He further proposed taxonomy of OCB consisting altruism, conscientiousness
sportsmanship, courtesy and civic virtue. These five dimensions have gained lot of importance
and have vast empirical research (Lepine et al., 2002), and has served as basis of OCB
measurement in various studies (Podsakoff, Mackensie, Paine and Bachrach, 2000).

OCB shows that employees are more involved and interested in supporting activities and
OCB comprises of behaviours which range from helping colleagues to conveying a positive
impression of the organization to others, OCB are voluntary and harder to discuss. Behaviour are
discretionary and not part of reward system, absence of such behaviour is therefore not
punishable, OCB is considered as an extending extra hand when exhibited by employees leading
towards the effective functioning adding to the competitive advantage but work engagement is
not to talk about the behaviour alone of the employees but the amount of energy and dedication
an employee contribute towards their job (Kahn, 1990).

1.5.4.2 Workaholism and Work Engagement

It is not difficult to distinguish between workaholism and work engagement, Oates in the
year 1971 described Workaholism as compulsive, uncontrollable need to work unceasingly, the
two highlights of workaholism are working excessively and compulsive inner drive (cf.
McMillian, ODriscoll, and Burke, 2003). When further researched Workaholism proved to be
bad since workaholics typically and impulsively work hard and get addicted to work that is as
extreme and relentless behaviour with harmful consequences but engaged employees believe
work as fun and there is no space for the concept called addiction as these employees work
harder because they enjoyed working and did not feel the pressure. In the qualitative study of 15
engaged workers, the study portrayed not to distinguish between good and bad forms of
workaholism but rather tried to distinguish workaholism as being intrinsically bad and work
engagement being intrinsically good and this is agreed phenomena and accepted according to
Porters (1996) view that back to the pavilion and viewed as the starting point for future research.

1.5.4.3 Personal Engagement and Work Engagement

Personal engagement is harnessing of organization member selves to their work roles

(Kahn, 1990) whereas engaged employees enthusiastically apply full energy in reserve for
something else and accept that todays work deserves their full energy for the day.
1.5.4.4 Employee Engagement and Work Engagement

These two concepts work engagement and employee engagement is often interchangeably
used but there is enormous difference between the two concepts. The word employee
engagement states the involvement of employee within the organization, it can be with work
related activities or organizational related activities, but work engagement is considered as
optimistically satisfying the emotional and motivational state of work related to wellness that is
seen as the opposite of the job. Work engagement is more specific when compared to employee
engagement. Employee engagement is viewed as an employees involvement with commitment
to and satisfaction with work, it can be fusionally described as an combination of job satisfaction
and organization commitment, work engagement refers to employees involvement with the job
and extends an extra-role performance whereas employee engagement may/may not consider the
relationship with the organization.

1.5.4.5 Work Passion and Work Engagement

Passion for work by employees is defined as an employees persistent, emotional,

positive, meaning-based state of well-being stemming from continuous, recurring cognitive and
affective appraisals of various jobs and organizational situations which results in consistent
constructive work intentions and behaviour (Hallberg, Schaufeli and Johansson, 2007). Passion
for work increases only when there is an appraisal and recognition and accordingly working
intentions also increase. In work engagement, however, energy is inherent in employees that
force employees to put in their potential to the job and this energetic focus enhances the quality
of their core job responsibilities.
1.5.4.6 Organizational Commitment and Work Engagement

Organizational commitment is the way in which the employee is attached with the
employer. Employer and employee are strongly bonded, committed and work towards their
goals along with the organization goals, values and procedures whereas in work engagement,
employee is mostly concerned and interested in his/her job and rest all comes next.

1.5.5 Theoretical Approaches of Work Engagement

Schaufeli and Bakkers (2004) researched and illustrated the importance and relationship
and connection between work engagement and performance by concentrating on theoretical
approaches.
Job Demands
Job Resources Work pressure

Autonomy Emotional demands Performance

Performance feedback Mental demands In-role
Social support performance
Physical demands

Supervisory coaching Work engagement Extra-role

Etc performance
Personal Vigor
Etc
resources/psychological creativity
capital dedication
financial
Optimism absorption turnover

Self-efficacy Etc

resilience
Job Demands
Hope
Job Resources Work pressure
Fig 1.5:
Etc Indicating Job Demand Resource (JD-R) Model
Autonomy Emotional demands Performance
Source: JD-R model of work engagement
Performance(based
feedbackon Bakker and Demerouti, 2007, 2008)
Mental demands In-role
Social support performance
Physical demands

Supervisory coaching Work engagement Extra-role

Etc performance
Personal Vigor
Etc
resources/psychological creativity
capital dedication
financial
Optimism absorption turnover

Self-efficacy Etc

resilience
 Etc

In the JD-R model, two important elements are highlighted and these elements (job
demand and job resources) regardless of the occupation an individual holds. Further research on
the concept of JD-R model shows that job resources help in engagements and these are identified
as triggers of engagement (Harter, Schmidt and Hayes, 2002), and strongly believe that energy
and identification dimensions are included in engagement (Bakker, Schaufeli, Leiter and Taris,
2008). Most of the authors have tried to show what results strong engagement but few authors
have identified engagement as the opposite of burnout and this burnout results when there is loss
of ones resources or when the available resources are insufficient to satisfy the requirements of
job demands (Maslach and Leiter; 1997, 2008). Burnout is explained in detail below.

Job resources refers to the resources that are directly or indirectly linked
with task completion. Some of the elements may be required to reach the target and for
smooth functioning some need to be eliminated like associated psychological cost and
obstructions which reduces job demands. Overall involvement like physical,
psychological, colleagues and supervisors social support, performance feedback, skill
variety and continuous learning and independence are considered as strong elements of
work engagement (Bakker and Demerouti, 2008; Schaufeli and Salanova, 2007), not only
these elements are considered under job resources even elements which help in goal
attainment, motivates personal growth involvement and development are considered.

Job demands refer to the efforts required by the job profile, it includes
sustained physical, psychological, social, mental, cognitive efforts and therefore
associated with psychological and physiological cost (Demerouti et al., 2001). Under
certain situations employees may feel stressed due to the job demands and in the study
among Finnish health care personnel, results reveal that job resources are better in
predicting work engagement than job demands.

Personal resources Along with job resources and job demands, personal
resources add to the effectiveness of job, this model concentrates on personnel resources
as well, effectiveness of job is dependent on employees flexibility, positive self-
evaluations, ability to overcome the obstruction, control and impact upon their
 environment successfully (Hobfoll, Johnson, Ennis and Jackson, 2003). Personal
resources are also proved as strong predictors of work engagement (Halbelesben).

1.5.5.1 Relationship between Job Performance and Job Satisfaction

Researchers over years debate on the casual order between job satisfaction and
performance whether a non-trivial association exists between these two variables. Brayfield and
Crocketts (1955) review paper reveals that satisfaction need not imply a strong motivation
to outstanding performance. (p. 421), correlation was modest between +.15. Later in 1964,
Vroom reported median job satisfaction/performance relationship of +.14. No identical results
were seen when meta analytic techniques were used. McGhee and Calender (1984) showed
corrected association p=+.31 whereas Faldano and Mchinskys (1985) findings were less
encouraging, p= +0.17. Organ (1988) altered the Petty et al. findings might have inflated due to
their flexible definition of performance where Petty et al. have included measures of citizenship
behaviours which was the cause to show stronger relationship to satisfaction than actual job
performance.

1.5.5.2 Conservation of Resources Theory (CoR)

The preservation of resources is very essential for any kind of institution or organization,
this particular theory helps us understand the theoretical framework of work stress (Hobfoll,
1988). According to this COR model, all the factors that are essential in satisfying the objectives
of the organization are considered as resources, power that is respected, energies that are valued
and personal characteristics are important elements of this theory (Hobfoll, 1989). In addition to
this definition, meaning of resources is enlarged by adding some work elements like support,
involvement in decision-making and autonomy, and these variables help employees to manage
the demands that they come across during their work including daily hassles and role stress. To
avoid burnout situation (resource depletion), employees seek to acquire, protect and stockpile
resources for their future need (Halbesleben, 2006).

1.5.5.3 Happy Productive Theses

When employees are happy and are prone to experience positive affect and while tending
not to experience negative effect. Happy employees productive level is high when compared to
others. Happiness is been defined in different ways by different authors, different dimensions
include subjective well-being (Diener, Suh, Lucas and Smith, 1999), emotional well-being
(Diener and Larson, 1993), and psychological well-being (Cropanzano and wright, 2001, 2004,
2007; Wright, 2005; Wright and Cropanzano, 2007). Wright and other scholars argued that well-
being should be consistently related to job performance.

1.5.5.4 Broaden-Build Theory

Broaden-build theory is an extension to the Happy Productive Worker theory by

Fredricksons (2001, 2003). Scholars have researched further to understand the existence of
relationship and were less concerned with establishing why it occurred occasionally between
production and work. So, the answer to the above question of WHY is broaden-build theory, this
theory tried to answer why there is a relationship between work and production. According to
this theory, positive energy of employees like happiness, pleasure and satisfaction share the
capacity to broaden employee thought of action and helps in broadening the range of thoughts
that comes to mind. Literature review shows that studies on behavioural disposition tend to show
negative emotion such as rage, disgust, shame and so on. This theory found that positive
emotions create an urge in the minds of the worker to be creative, explore, get updated with latest
news, experience the newness and strengthen the growth.
1.5.5.5 Fredricksons View (2003)

Fredrickson suggests that positive emotions help in attainment of new skills and
strengthen interpersonal relationship. It also fosters reasonable levels of risk taking and
constructive responses to negative feedback (Wright, 2005; Wright and Cropanzano, 2007). It is
believed that the emotions with use of co-operative tactics reduces workplace conflicts (Barsade,
Ward, Turnover, Sonnenfeld, 2000; Fredrickson and Losada, 2005) showed that when the
managers negative emotions are over and above to their positive emotions, they tend to be more
reluctant and ask more questions during business meeting and they fall between advocacy and
questioning is broader (implying better performance), it showed that impact of emotions tends to
accrue over time, personal growth creates positive emotions, this wave of good feelings in turn
produces still more efforts at individual development leading towards beneficial upward spiral
with cumulative efforts over time (Fredrickson and Branigan, 2005; Fredrickson and Joinen,
2002).

1.5.6 Burnout Negative Antipode of Work Engagement

When CoR model highlights about preservation of resources to avoid the hasstle
situations, bursting out resources, is nothing but burnout being negative antipode of work
engagement. CoR model helps us in understating the meaning of burnout. Burnout results when
there is loss or threat on loss of ones resources, when there is no sufficient resource to meet the
requirements of job demands, employee faces burnout. Burnout is a symbol used to describe
fatigue or mental tiredness and lack of energy to engage, burnout is considered to be a three
dimensional construct consisting depletion or draining of mental resources (exhaustion),
indifferent or a distant attitude towards ones job (Cynicism) and the tendency to evaluate ones
work performance negatively, resulting in feelings of insufficiency and poor job-related self-
esteem (lack of professionally efficacy) (Maslach, 1993).

Wright and Bonnett (1997a) used CoR model to understand the relationship between
burnout and performance by measuring Maslach and Jacksons (1986) three components of
burnout: depersonalization, emotional exhaustion and diminished personal accomplishment. Data
was collected, two years later, results showed that passage of time did not affect the correlation
between emotional exhaustion and performance (r= -.31). Depersonalization and diminished
personal accomplishment were not significant predictors. Wright and Cropanzano (1988)
examined the value of emotional exhaustion, results showed that exhaustion was significantly
related to performance (r = -.27) and job satisfaction was not significant as well. (r= -.11).

1.5.7 Darker Side of Engagement

When engaged employees work is not identified and recognized, we can call it as the
darker side of engagement, some of the examples to understand the darker side are probable
pessimism which damages both employee willingness and organization by promoting unsuitable
diligence (Armor and Taylor, 1998), overconfidence may hinder subsequent performance
(Vancouver, Thompson and Williams, 2001), creativity leads to frustration if not recognized and
this may diminish productivity (Ford and Sullivan, 2004), and sky-scraping admiration can
escort to an under estimation of time that is unnecessary (Buehler, Griffin and Ross, 1994). To
add on, there are studies to reveal that engaged employees are sometimes carry their work to
home though they are not workaholics, over engagement add to negative consequences that leads
to health problems (Geurts and Demerouti, 2003), and employees immersed in their work forget
to rest and maintain their personal relationships.
 Though there are several theories and literature to show that there are certain
disadvantages, arguments depicts that Work engagement captures both CAN DO and WILL DO
dimensions, it tends to have stronger effects on job performance than other constructs.

1.6 Need and Rationale for the Present Study

After detailed analysis of literature review it was found that majority of the researchers
have concentrated on industry area and seldom works are found in the area of academics and in
particular technical education, studies on leadership tactics adopted by academicians who have
less power and authority to create change within the institution is not new, creating change is not
a easy task and higher education authorities have described the difficulty they faced in creation
of change.

Considering the growing population in India, we need more universities to provide quality
education. According to the statistics, we need 2000 universities in existence by 2020. There is
tough challenge for the Educational Institution system in the approaching future. Some of the
bigger challenges for today and tomorrow are: avoiding abroad studies, bridging the gap between
industry requirements and educational institutions quality education institutions to cope up the
gap in terms of number of seats available and faculty members excellence, getting recognized in
Asian countries and globe, improvement in the percentage of research, sustaining quality faculty.

According to QS World University ranking 2014, there is no Indian institution ranked

among top 200 universities globally. First Citizen of India, Pranab Mukherjee, President of India,
during his visit to three colleges (Central University of Kerala, Platinum jubilee College of
Engineering, Trivandrum; and golden jubilee of the National Institute of Technology,
Tiruchirappalli) in Kerala addressed three issues emphasizing worrying policy-makers and
institution heads. The problems he opined were the scarcity of good teachers, the absence of
Indian Institutions among the worlds top 200 universities and the need to stress on research.
 According to Knowledge Commission Report, by the year 2020, we need 2,000
universities for revolutionizing higher education in India; our neighboring countries are creating
a revolution in higher education. Singapore for instance, is making a hub for a higher education
in Asia; it has invited 14 international universities to set their base in Singapore. If India were to
reach this magnitude of development, we need at least 2,000 universities by the year 2020.
Possibilities of job hops by faculty members will increase giving room for scarcity of talented
and dedicated faculty members, known to be the pillars of the institution.

National Knowledge Commission is also looking forward to make necessary changes to

the higher education system strongly to meet the global challenges, some of the issues under
consideration of National Knowledge Commission are: strengthening the current institutional
structure, alternative delivery structures in order to expand capacity, including public private
partnerships, computer based training, distance learning and a decentralized model that takes into
account local needs and aptitudes, meeting the increasing demand for skilled workers and
provide training to workers in the informal and unorganized sectors, regulatory and accreditation
framework and national re-branding exercise to address the negative association of vocational
education with manual labour. Our honorable Prime Minister in his speech on 15 th of August,
2014 during the 68th year of Independence emphasized the demand for skilled workers with a
large work force; there is a need for imparting vocational education that is flexible, sustainable,
inclusive and creative.

The Twelfth Five-Year Plan (20122017) states that challenges faced by higher education
system faces are Expansion, Excellence and Equity. Indias GER (Gross Enrolment Ratio) of
16% is much below the world average of 27%, as well as that of other emerging countries such
as China (26%) and Brazil (36%) in 2010. The report further states that there exists faculty
members shortage and prevails to 40% overall and in particular there exists 35% of shortage in
state and central universities, respectively, 62% of university institutions are accredited and in
the year 2010, 90% of the colleges were considered are average or below average on the basis of
their NAAC accreditation and Low citation impact. From the statistics it is seen that India is one
of the largest higher education system with 25.9 million students enrolled in more than 45,000
degree courses. It has witnessed high growth during last decade, and this reveals the urge of
education in the students stressing for the improvement in the area of education.

The above facts and evidences indicate the present state of Indian Higher Education. The
vision as articulated by our country leaders for Indian Higher Education to be recognized
internationally required Higher educational institutions to revamp their structures, processes,
culture and technology for higher output, greater commitment and voluntary work engagement
of faculty members. This study is an attempt to contribute to the field of behavioural sciences
with special reference to leader behaviours and their tactics adopted to get their work done in
educational institutions. It is also an earnest attempt to bridge the gap between leader and faculty
members behaviour by highlighting faculty members commitment and work engagement.
Understanding of leader behaviour, organizational commitment, work engagement and influence
tactics and their linkages will aid educational institution management and faculty to increase
effectiveness. This study indicates strategies for retaining the effective, eminent and dedicated
faculty members, and hopes that it will initiate a series of serious and productive discussions on
the subject.

The present study is expected to play an instrumental role in the achievement of these
outcomes through the creation of knowledge networks, research and innovation centers,
corporate-backed institutions, and support for faculty members development.

Scholars have tried to work on the variables: Leadership, Influence Tactics,

Organizational Commitment and Work Engagement in various areas and studied in different
combination/s (need for achievement and leader reward behaviour, perceived leader behaviour
and organizational commitment, charismatic leader behaviour, organizational citizenship
behaviour and work engagement, evolution of leaders in organizational culture, changes in
leadership arena, Influence tactics and perceptions of organizational politics, Perceived
Effectiveness of Influence Tactics, Influence Tactics and Performance Evaluation Outcomes,
Upward Influence Tactics, Tactics in Perceptions of Performance Evaluations Fairness,
Influence Tactics its affect and Exchange of Quality, Work Motivation of Teachers with
Organizational Commitment, Organizational Support, Satisfaction with Rewards and Employee
Job Involvement and Organizational Commitment, affective commitment, affective commitment
and motivation, organizational citizenship behaviour, job satisfaction, performance and
productivity, commitment and performance appraisals by superiors affective commitment and
organizational citizenship behaviour and job satisfaction, Workaholism, Burnout, and Work
Engagement, Organizational Resources and Work Engagement and Customer Loyalty, between
charismatic leadership, work engagement and organizational citizenship behaviours) but only
few works concentrated on the education system and in this study, researcher has tried to
understand and see whether leadership behaviour and influence tactics impact organizational
commitment and work engagement of faculty members at higher educational institutions.

1.7 Objectives of the Study

Primary Objectives

I. To find the Leader behaviour of educational leaders in higher educational institutions.

II. To find the relationship between leader behaviour and influence tactics of Educational
leaders in higher educational institutions and to find out the most frequently perceived influence
tactics by educational leaders and faculty in higher educational institutions.

III. To find if there are differences in influence tactics adopted by educational leaders in
higher educational institutions across demographics (gender, marital status, age, qualification,
designation, number of educational institution worked for, number of corporate companies
worked for, corporate experience, academic experience and total experience and experience in
the present institution).

IV. To find out the level of organizational commitment by faculty members in higher
educational institutions.

V. To find out the level of work engagement by faculty members in higher educational
institutions.

VI. To find if there are differences in the most frequently perceived Influence Tactics
adopted by faculty in higher educational institutions across demographics

Secondary Objectives

i. To understand the intention to stay/leave of educational leaders and faculty members.

ii. To find if there are differences in leader behaviour of educational leaders in higher
educational institutions across demographics.

iii. To find if there are differences in organizational commitment dimensions of faculty

members in higher educational institutions across demographics.

iv. To find if there are differences in work engagement dimensions of faculty members in
higher educational institutions across demographics.

v. To find out the influence of influence tactics on organizational dimensions of faculty

members in higher educational institutions.

vi. To compare and contrast influence tactics adopted and perceived between educational
leaders and faculty members.

vii. To compare and contrast intention to stay/leave between educational leaders and faculty
members.
1.8 Chapterisation

Chapter One deals with introducing the importance of education continuing with the
emergence of Technical Higher Education and its relevance, introducing the variable of the study
and importance of each of the variables.

Chapter Two concentrates on supporting the research topic by literature review on

leadership behaviour, influence tactics, organizational commitment and work engagement.

Chapter Three details the methodology used, statement of problem, objectives of the
study, hypothetical statements, operational definitions and tools relevant to the research work.

Chapter Four details the analysis of data and research findings.

Chapter Five highlights the summary of the research work, with major findings,
implications, limitations, conclusion and suggestions of the study so that these findings and
suggestions can help in strengthening the technical higher education system.