International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015, 50, 111119 111

Original article
Application of common wheat bran for the industrial production
of high-fibre pasta

Aldona Sobota,* Zbigniew Rzedzicki, Piotr Zarzycki & Ewelina Kuzawi

nska
Engineering and Cereals Technology Department, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Skromna 8, 20-704 Lublin, Poland

(Received 9 April 2014; Accepted in revised form 16 July 2014)

Summary The study was conducted on the eect of the addition of common wheat bran on the chemical composi-
tion, physical properties, cooking quality and sensory traits of durum wheat pasta. The pasta was pro-
duced on an industrial scale, applying an addition of common wheat bran at doses ranging from 20 to
40%. The products obtained were compared to the pasta from whole-grain durum wheat our, produced
under identical conditions and with commercially available whole-grain durum wheat pasta. The increase
in the content of wheat bran in the pasta caused a signicant increase (Duncan test, P 0.05) of the con-
tent of protein, lipids, ash and total dietary bre (TDF). The application of 2530% addition of common
wheat bran allowed obtaining the products which are as rich in dietary bre as the pasta prepared at the
same technological parameters from whole-grain durum our. The pasta containing up to 30% of bran
was characterised with lower losses of dry mass and higher resistance to overcooking, in comparison with
the pasta made of whole-grain durum. Simultaneously, the products had very good sensory quality.
Keywords Cooking quality, pasta, sensory quality, wheat bran, whole durum wheat.

tibility of starch to digestion, and contribute to the

Introduction
Pasta is one of the most popular cereal foods. Due to
its relatively long shelf life, ease of storage and meal
preparation, it enjoys an increasing popularity among
consumers. An important nutritional attribute of pasta
is its low glycaemic index (GI), ranging from 32 to 65
(glucose = 100) for various pasta types (Fostell-Powell
et al., 2002; Brennan & Tudorica, 2008; Chillo et al.,
2011). This is of particular importance in these times
of a marked increase of incidence of type II diabetes
and obesity (WHO, 2003; Brennan, 2005). During the
digestion of pasta, sugars are released gradually, which
results in a low post-meal glycaemia and insulin
response (Brennan & Tudorica, 2008; Chillo et al.,
2011). Numerous researchers indicate a variety of fac-
tors determining a slow digestion of starch in pasta
and slow liberation of glucose. Emphasis is placed on
the role of the fact that the product is formed under
high pressure. In the coherent structure of pasta,
starch granules are xed in the gluten matrix, which
interferes with access by amylase to the glycoside
bonds. Asp & Bj orck (1989) indicate the possibility of
forming lipidstarch complexes that reduce the suscep-
*Correspondent: Fax: +48 81 46233 12; e-mail: aldona.sobota@up.
lublin.pl
low GI. Many authors demonstrated that enriching
pasta with dietary bre, especially with its soluble frac-
tion, causes lowering of GI of the products (Tudorica
et al., 2002; Brennan & Tudorica, 2008; Bustos et al.,
2011; Aravind et al., 2012a). In addition, dietary bre
reduces the energy density of the products, shortens
the time of passage of the gastric and intestinal con-
tent, increases its viscosity and positively aects the
metabolism of sugars and lipids (Muller-Lisner, 1988;
Chandalia et al., 2000; Theuwissen & Mensink, 2008).
Products with high-bre grain are also usually rich in
minerals, vitamins and biologically active compounds,
which have additional health benets (Esposito et al.,
2005; Aravind et al., 2012b).
Whole-grain pasta should be characterised by chemi-
cal composition analogous to that of the whole kernel
of wheat. Mariani-Costantini (1988) reports that the
content of total dietary bre (TDF) in whole-grain
pasta should be at the level of 11.313.2%. The studies
conducted by Sobota & Dobosz (2010) and by Sgrull-
etta et al. (2005) demonstrated that commercially
available whole-grain pasta is often characterised by
considerably lower levels of dietary bre. High content
of dietary bre in pasta has a negative eect on its
cooking and sensory quality (Manthey & Schorno,
2002; Brennan & Tudorica, 2008; Aravind et al.,

doi:10.1111/ijfs.12641
2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology
112 Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al.

1.48c
0.27
5.11a
0.08
3.07b
0.16
2012b; Kaur et al., 2012). The authors emphasise that
bran particles in high-bre cereal materials inhibit the
formation of a continuous and regular gluten matrix

SDF
during the formation of pasta dough. In the course of
cooking, water penetrates the structure of pasta more
easily and the uncovered starch granules are more sus-

2.21
0.09
23.67a
0.08
8.24b
0.19
ceptible to leaching.
The most suitable raw materials for the production

c
of pasta are semolina from durum wheat and water.

IDF
Semolina is characterised by a high content of protein,
very strong gluten, good ratio of gliadin to glutenin

3.69
0.35
28.78a
0.01
11.31b
0.03
proteins, high levels of carotenoid pigments and low
activity of lipoxygenases (Troccoli et al., 2000; Baiano

c
et al., 2008). Durum wheat pasta is characterised by

TDF
low dry matter losses in the course of cooking, high
resistance to overcooking, light-yellow colour and
good post-cooking texture. However, semolina is a rel-

0.83
0.01
2.28a
0.01
1.73b
0.02
atively expensive pasta raw material, with limited
availability. In the countries where, due to unfavour-

c
Ash
able climate conditions, durum wheat is not grown,
the products of milling of common wheat are also
used for the production of pasta. While grinding com-

0.96
0.01
2.18a
0.01
1.79b
0.02
mon wheat, signicant amounts of bran are produced,

Free fat
which is an accessible and inexpensive source of die-

c
tary bre in pasta production. The addition of high-
bre products of milling common wheat to semolina
gives the pasta characterised by a high nutritional

12.89
0.13
14.53a
0.19
13.38b
0.14
value and, simultaneously, by good cooking properties
and acceptable sensory qualities.
N 3 5.7
Protein

Different letters (ac) within the same column represent significant difference (P 0.05).
The aim of the present work was to determine the
amount of common wheat bran to semolina in order
to obtain whole-grain pasta, characterised by high
(% d.m.)
extract*

content of dietary bre, good cooking and sensory

N-free

81.63
52.23
quality. 71.79
Table 1 Characteristics and chemical composition of raw materials

Materials and methods

number (s)

669
18

577b
15
401c
9
Falling

Raw material
a

The basic raw material used in the study was durum

semolina produced by Assmannm ulen GES. M.B.H.
23.87c
1.17
25.4b
0.06
31.37
0.5

(Raasdorf, Austria). The high-bre material used was

content (%)
Wet gluten

wheat bran from common wheat produced in the Mill

a

in Rez dziny (Poland) and whole-grain durum wheat

our produced by Grandi Molini Italiani S.P.A. (Ro-
vigo, Italy). The wheat bran was produced from com-
12.82
0.15
11.45b
0.19
13.83a
0.06

mon wheat (Triticum aestivum). The chemical

Moisture (%)

*N-free extract by difference.

composition and characteristics of raw materials are

presented in Table 1.
c

Chemical analysis
Whole durum
Raw material

The chemical composition of the raw materials and

Wheat bran
Semolina

pasta products was determined according to AACC-

flour

Approved Methods (2000). The determinations

included the total protein content (AACC, Method 46-

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015 2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al. 113

08), free fat content (AACC, Method 30-26; hexane (ZBPP, Bydgoszcz, Poland) using sieves of 410, 315,
solvent used) and ash content (AACC, Method 08-01). 250, 160, 125, 80 lm. The equivalent diameter was
In the bre determinations with the enzymatic method, determined according to Kasprzak & Rzedzicki (2012).
Megazyme enzymes and methodological procedures
were employed. Total dietary bre, insoluble bre frac-
Pasta processing
tion (IDF) and soluble bre fraction (SDF) were deter-
mined according to the following methods AACC 32- The pasta was produced into a short-cut form (penne)
05, AACC 32-21, AOAC 991.43, AACC 32-21, AOAC with a continuous industrial scale line, type C300 (La
985.29 (AOAC, 1990; AACC, 2000). The correctness Parmigiana S.R.L, Parma, Italy). The line allowed the
of dietary bre determinations was veried with the dosage of two dierent raw materials. The construc-
help of the Megazyme TDF control kit. Water con- tion of the dosage system does not allow adding of the
tent was measured by means of the oven-dry method ingredients at the amount lower than 15%. The line
(AACC, 44-15A). Wet gluten in the raw materials by output was 200 kg/h1. Semolina, with addition of
hand washing method was analysed (Method 38-10, common wheat bran and whole-grain durum wheat
AACC, 2000). Determinations of falling number were our, was hydrated to 29% moisture, mixed in a vac-
conducted in accordance with standard method 56-21 uum mixer (0.08 MPa) and extruded at low tempera-
(AACC, 1995). ture. Conditions for pasta extrusion were: cylinder
temperature 35 C, die temperature 40 C, pressure
9.5 MPa. For pasta production, Teon dies were used.
Fractional composition of raw materials
The process parameters used in the study are given in
The degree of fragmentation of the raw materials Table 3. The extruded pasta was dried in trabatto-pre-
(Table 2) was estimated by means of sieve analysis. dryer in temperature 75 C for 5 min. The drying pro-
100 g sample was sieved for 10 min with a sieve shaker cess was carried out in a pasta static dryers producing
ESS type 4C (La Parmigiana S.R.L). The pasta was
Table 2 Sieve analysis of raw materials dried with the use of a low prole temperature. The
temperature decreased linearly from 55 to 35 C dur-
Whole-grain ing a 7-h drying cycle. Concurrently, relative air
Semolina Wheat durum humidity was lowered linearly from 75% to 55%.
Fraction (lm) (%) bran flour The control sample was a commercially available,
>410 4 2 4
whole-grain pasta (penne). According to the manufac-
315410 18 5 23 turer, the product was prepared from whole-grain
250315 24 7 26 durum our (WDF), using the process parameters
160250 37 34 21 given in Table 3.
125160 8 45 9
80125 5 7 9
<80 3 1 8 Cooking properties of pasta
Sum of fractions < 160 lm
Mean diameter (lm)
16
244.2
53
187.9
26
244.7
Optimum cooking time of pasta was determined by
the disappearance of white central core of the pasta

Table 3 Model of experiment

Component Production parameters

Barrel
Semolina Wheat Whole-grain Pressure Moisture temperature
Pasta samples (%) bran durum flour (MPa) (%) (C)

WB20 80 20
WB25 75 25
WB30 70 30
WB35 65 35 9.5 29 35
WB40 60 40
WDF 100
COM (control 100 13.0 32 36
sample)

WB, Wheat bran; WDF, whole-grain durum flour; COM, commercial available pasta.

2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015
114 Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al.
samples, which were squeezed between two plates of
glass. The determinations were made in three rounds.
A 50 g of samples was cooked for the estimated
cooking time in 500 mL of boiling distilled water to
investigate cooking properties.
Weight increase index was calculated by dividing the
weight of the pasta after cooking by the weight on
uncooked pasta (Obuchowski, 1997).
Cooking loss was determined by assaying the content
of dry matter in the water after the cooking. The
method applied was the oven-dry 44-15A method
(AACC, 2000).
Weight increase index and cooking loss were analysed
for optimum cooking time of pasta and for the time
longer by 50% than the optimum cooking time (over-
cooked pasta).
Water solubility index (WSI) was determined with the
centrifuge method, according to an AACC, Method
56-20, as modied by Rzedzicki et al. (2004). Two
gram of uncooked pasta and 4 g cooked pasta were
weighted. The samples were placed in centrifuge
tubes, 30 mL of distilled water was added, then the
tube were stopped and shook vigorously. The suspen-
sion was left to rest for 5 min, then it was centrifuged
for 15 min at 2200 g. 10 mL of the supernatant was
dried to the solid mass.
Weight of dried supernatant  30 mL=10 mL
WSI %
Dry weight of sample
Water absorption index (WAI). After downloaded
10 mL of the supernatant to determine the WSI, the
remaining supernatant was carefully decanted. The
wet samples were weighed, and WAI was calculated.
Weight of wet sample - Weight of dry sample
WAI %
Dry weight of sample
The colour of pasta and raw materials
The colour analyses of the pasta and raw materials
were made with the use of the whiteness meter made
by Sadkiewicz Instruments (Bydgoszcz, Poland). The
assay consisted in measuring the density of light
reected from a sample of the material tested, illumi-
nated with a light beam with the wavelength of
565 nm. The density of the reected light beam was
expressed in %, relative to the density of the incident
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015
beam. It was assumed that the density of the incident
beam was 100%. The calibration of the device was
made with the use of a whiteness standard for which
the density of reected light was 97.7%. The diameter
of the measuring head was 48 mm. For the measure-
ment of pasta or our whiteness, the samples were
placed in a glass beaker with a volume of 3 dm3 so
that the layer of the material had a thickness of 5 cm.
The probe of the whiteness meter was positioned on
the sample surface at various points, and four mea-
surements of whiteness were taken. The procedure was
repeated three times for each sample. The nal result
was the mean from twelve determinations.
Sensory analysis
Sensory analysis were made according to Sozer et al.
(2007). Pasta samples were cooked in distilled water to
the optimum cooking time. The sensory test panel con-
sisted of ve panellists (four female, one male, 23
45 years old). The members of the sensory assessment
panel were selected from a group of 15 persons on the
basis of earlier tests of sensory sensitivity and repeat-
ability of sensory assessments of pasta. The persons
were trained in the area of estimation and denition of
parameters of pasta texture. The sensory assessment
included the following parameters: appearance, colour,
taste, hardness, adhesiveness, chewiness and spring-
ness. Hardness was the resistance of cooked pasta to
 100%:
compression by the teeth. Adhesiveness was evaluated
by placing the pasta in the mouth, pressing it against
the palate and determining the force required to
remove it with the tongue. Chewiness was measured as
 100%:
the number of chews to masticate a known amount of
sample at a constant rate of force application to
reduce it to a consistency ready for swallowing. The
sample that required the largest amount of chewing
was given the score of 10 points (in the scale from 0 to
10). Springness was measured as the degree to which
the product returns to its original shape after partial
compression between the tongue and palate. Each of
the studied parameters was evaluated on a scale rang-
2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al. 115

Table 4 Chemical composition of pasta

N-free
Pasta extract* Protein
samples Moisture (%) (% d.m.) N 3 5.7 Free fat Ash TDF IDF SDF

WB20 9.70 d

0.06 76.54 13.38 cd

0.01 0.44e

0.01 1.11 f

0.01 8.53 d

0.31 5.23 c

0.06 3.30b
0.03
WB25 10.16c
0.14 74.03 13.41cb
0.01 0.50d
0.01 1.18e
0.03 10.88c
0.12 7.42b
0.13 3.46b
0.07
WB30 9.45e
0.09 73.59 13.42ba
0.03 0.52dc
0.02 1.24d
0.01 11.23c
0.24 7.63b
0.11 3.60b
0.09
WB35 10.7b
0.34 72.75 13.42ab
0.02 0.53c
0.01 1.28c
0.01 12.02b
0.32 7.75b
0.1 4.27a
0.04
WB40 10.78b
0.14 71.17 13.44a
0.05 0.69b
0.01 1.39b
0.02 13.31a
0.22 9.00a
0.26 4.32a
0.04
WDF 10.88b
0.09 73.32 13.41cb
0.04 0.78a
0.02 1.76a
0.02 10.73c
0.32 7.49b
0.34 3.24b
0.01
COM 11.13a
0.17 76.47 13.37d
0.01 0.41f
0.01 1.27c
0.01 8.48d
0.25 5.22c
0.14 3.25b
0.05

WB, Wheat bran; WDF, whole-grain durum flour; COM, commercial available pasta; TDF, total dietary fibre.
*N-free extract by difference. Different letters (af) within the same column represent significant difference (P 0.05).

Table 5 Physical properties of pasta and raw materials

Colour (% whiteness) WSI (%) WAI (%)

Pasta samples Uncooked pasta Cooked pasta Uncooked pasta Cooked pasta Uncooked pasta Cooked pasta

WB20 11.73f
0.34 37.92c
0.74 10.61c
0.11 2.87ab
0.49 115.47e
2.65 322.46c
7.48
WB25 10.89 g
0.10 35.09d
0.61 11.93b
0.18 2.57b
0.37 117.27e
3.59 365.51b
4.98
WB30 10.44 h
0.25 32.59e
0.66 12.15b
0.77 3.29a
0.13 124.85d
1.35 389.94a
9.65
WB35 9.32i
0.10 31.54f
0.21 13.58a
0.14 2.9ab
0.23 125.97d
2.53 353.47b
7.1
WB40 9.09i
0.34 29.29 g
0.61 13.89a
0.43 2.99ab
0.09 126.48d
1.25 355.19b
7.39
WDF 14.15d
0.33 39.48b
0.37 10.42c
0.12 3.23a
0.35 144.54c
3.13 329c
7.99
COM 12.82e
0.34 40.34a
0.55 11.40b
0.06 3.26a
0.29 193.04b
1.11 344.4b
7.19
Raw materials
Semolina 74.3a
0.07 5.82d
0.23 107.14f
7.01
Wheat bran 59.72c
0.61 11.9b
0.76 246.32a
5.85
Whole durum flour 62.28b
0.18 5.81d
0.15 138.69c
8.82

WB, Wheat bran; WDF, whole-grain durum flour; COM, commercial available pasta.
Different letters (ai) within the same column represent significant difference (P 0.05).

ing from 0 to 10, where 10 was the maximum value of The high-bre raw materials (common wheat bran
the study parameters. and WDF) were characterised by a lower content of
gluten, lower falling number (Table 1) and darker col-
our compared with semolina (Table 5). At the same
Statistical analysis
time, they were richer in dietary bre, proteins, lipids
Chemical analyses and cooking properties were tripli- and minerals (Table 1).
cated. WSI and WAI analyses were carried out with With increase of wheat bran in the pasta, an
ve replicates. The obtained measurement data were increase in the content of protein, lipids, ash and TDF
used to calculate mean values and standard deviations. was observed (Table 4). At the same time, there was
The signicance of dierences among the results was an increase in both the content of insoluble fraction
determined using the Duncan test (P 0.05). The sta- (IDF) as well as soluble fraction (SDF) of dietary
tistical analysis of the results was performed with the bre.
use of SAS 9.1.3 software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, As a result of the application of 25% and 30%
NC, USA). addition of bran (samples: WB25 and WB30), the
products were obtained with the TDF content that is
comparable to bre levels in the products from WDF.
Results and discussion
The content of TDF in the products was higher com-
The pasta extrusion parameters were determined on pared with TDF levels in whole-grain pasta that is
the basis of a preliminary pilot test. The applied commercially available in the Polish market (8.48%
parameters permitted a stable process and obtaining TDF) (COM) and in the high-bre pasta available in
products with satisfactory quality features. the Italian market (Sgrulletta et al., 2005). According

2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015
116 Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al.
to Sgrulletta et al. (2005), the content of dietary bre
in pasta depends on the kind of raw materials used in
their production, and it varies from 6.80% to 9.40%.
As a result an increase in the content of wheat bran
in the pasta from 20 to 40%, an increase was noted in
the content of insoluble dietary bre fraction (IDF) by
72% and of the soluble fraction (SDF) by 31%.
The increase in the content of bran from 20 to 40%
caused an increase in the content of free lipids
(extracted with a non-polar solvent) from 0.44 to
0.69%. It should be noted that the content of free lip-
ids in the pasta was lower, compared with the expected
values resulting from the raw material composition.
The highest percentage decrease in the content of free
lipids (amounting to 63%) was noted in the case of
pasta with the lowest, 20%, content of bran. With
increase in the content of this high-bre component to
40%, the degree of lipids complexation decreased to
52%. Numerous authors argue that as a result of the
process of extrusion (also low-temperature extrusion),
lipids become complexed by starch and proteins
(Barnes et al., 1981; Guzman et al.,1992; Ho & Izzo,
1992). The degree of the complexation depends on
both the process parameters, on the kind of raw mate-
rial and on the content of starch in the processed
material in particular. The increase in the share of the
high-bre material, with simultaneous decrease in the
content of starch, caused a reduction of the degree of
complexation of lipids (Wang et al., 1993). Guzman
et al. (1992) observed that as a result of extrusion of
corn meal, conducted at temperature of 5060, 2/3 of
free lipids undergo complexation. Asp & Bj orck (1989)
emphasise that amyloselipid complexes formed as a
result of extrusion are characterised by low susceptibil-
ity to hydrolysis with the participation of amylase
under in vitro conditions. In experiments conducted in
vivo, it was demonstrated that amylose occurring in a
form associated with lipids causes a notably lower
glycaemic eect, compared with free amylose. There-
fore, lipids complexation by amylose may additionally
reduce the GI of pasta.
Increase in the content of wheat bran in the pasta
caused a darker colouring of the products. The density
of light reected from the surface of the uncooked
pasta varied within the range from 11.73% to 9.09%,
respectively, for products with 20 and 40% content of
the high-bre component (Table 5). Considerably
lighter colouring was characteristic for the pasta pro-
duced from WDF. The density of light reected from
the surface of that pasta was 14.15%, and it was
higher compared with the control sample (COM), for
which that value was 12.82%. It should be emphasised
that on the surface of pasta produced from WDF,
there were visible our particles less hydrated in the
process of dough mixing, what could have an eect on
higher brightness recorded instrumentally. Non-uni-
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015
form hydration of WDF was caused by low-uniformity
granulation of that material. Three fractions were
dominant in that our, with particle size of 160
250 lm (21%), 250315 lm (26%) and 315410 lm,
the share of the latter one being as high as 23%. The
non-uniform granulation, in conjunction with the
character of WDF (presence of large bran-type parti-
cles), inhibited the uniform hydration of that material
during mixing. In this case, it would be advisable to
extend the time of mixing the dough components, but
that could result in a decreased productivity of the line
and consequently an increase of production costs.
After cooking, the colouring of the pasta became
lighter. In the case of the cooked products, the density
values of reected light were over threefold higher,
compared with those for the uncooked products. An
increase in the content of wheat bran from 20 to 40%
caused a decrease in the value of the reected light
from 37.92 to 29.29% (Table 5). The brightest colour
among the cooked products was characteristic of the
control sample (COM). The value of density of light
reected from the surface of the pasta was at the level
of 40.34%, and it was higher than that for the whole-
grain durum pasta (WDF). It should be noted that this
product was characterised at the same time by the low-
est content of dietary bre. Similar correlations were
noted by Chillo et al. (2008). The authors found that
the addition of high-bre material to spaghetti caused
a signicant lowering of brightness and yellow colour-
ing. The pasta with addition of wheat bran and buck-
wheat was characterised by decidedly darker and more
reddish colouring, compared with the pasta from sem-
olina. However, the authors emphasised that in the
case of products of that type, dark colouring is a posi-
tive trait as consumers identify it with high-bre prod-
ucts. Likewise, Vetrimani et al. (2005) report that an
increase of wheat our extract from 66% to 100%
leads to a change in the colouring of vermicelli from
whitish to light brown.
An increase in the content of wheat bran in the
pasta caused an increase of the WSI value of the prod-
ucts. The values of WSI varied from 10.61% for the
pasta with 20% content of wheat bran to 13.89% in
case of the pasta with 40% wheat bran content
(Table 5). The observed results are due to higher WSI
in the bran compared with semolina. The trend con-
cerned, however, only the uncooked pasta. In the case
of the cooked products, the values of WSI were nota-
bly lower (2.873.29%) and did not dier signicantly
(Duncan test, P 0.05) between the products contain-
ing 20 and 40% of wheat bran (Table 5). Most proba-
bly, the low values of WSI were due to the fact that in
the course of cooking only short-chain and easily solu-
ble mono- and oligosaccharides migrated to the solu-
tion. According to Sobota & Dobosz (2010) and
Sobota & Skwira (2009), pasta, similarly to other low
2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology
 Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al. 117

Table 6 Cooking quality of pasta

Cooking losses (% d.m.) Weight increase (%)

Pasta Optimum cooking Overcooked Overcooked

samples time (min) Cooked pasta pasta Cooked pasta pasta

WB20 12.25a
0.35 2.47d
0.17 5.40b
0.18 2.06a
0.04 2.40c
0.01
WB25 11.25b
0.35 3.50c
0.42 5.86b
0.06 2.06a
0.01 2.41bc
0.01
WB30 11.5b
0.0 3.58c
0.28 5.84b
0.03 2.08a
0.06 2.42b
0.01
WB35 10.5c
0.0 5.48a
0.43 6.91a
0.04 2.11a
0.04 2.45a
0.01
WB40 9.5d
0.0 5.76a
0.20 7.09a
0.59 2.08a
0.01 2.44a
0.01
WDF 9.75d
0.35 5.61a
0.39 6.81a
0.36 2.06a
0.01 2.33e
0.01
COM 10.0dc
0.0 5.10b
0.13 6.63a
0.19 2.10a
0.03 2.37d
0.02

WB, Wheat bran; WDF, whole-grain durum flour; COM, commercial available pasta.
Different letters (ae) within the same column represent significant difference (P 0.05).

Table 7 Sensory properties of cooked pasta

Pasta samples Appearance Colour Taste Hardness Chewiness Springness Adhesiveness

WB20 9.4a

0.55 9.4a

0.55 9.6 a

0.55 8.0bc

0.71 8.87b

0.27 9.1a

0.45 6.8c
0.41
WB25 9.2a
0.45 7.8c
0.45 8.8ab
0.84 8.4b
0.55 9.0b
0.33 8.0b
0.71 7.0c
0.45
WB30 8.2b
0.45 7.4c
0.89 7.9b
0.83 9.6a
0.45 9.25ab
0.45 7.6b
0.55 8.6b
0.54
WB35 6.8c
0.45 5.6d
0.45 7.0c
0.71 9.4a
0.55 9.87a
0.25 5.2c
0.45 9.83a
0.41
WB40 6.5c
0.55 5.67d
0.81 6.0d
0.63 9.83a
0.41 10.0a
0.23 4.83c
0.98 9.8a
0.45
WDF 8.3b
0.41 8.3b
0.25 9.3a
0.45 7.2c
0.55 7.0c
0.71 9.0a
0.45 7.2c
0.71
COM 9.8a
0.45 10a
0.0 9.2a
0.83 7.4c
0.89 6.75c
0.39 9.6a
0.55 6.6c
0.54

WB, wheat bran; WDF, whole-grain durum flour; COM, commercial available pasta.
Different letters (ad) within the same column represent significant difference (P 0.05).

processed cereal products, is characterised by very low
solubility of dry matter. It is very important from a
nutritional point of view. Brennan et al. (2012) argue
that the products characterised by low values of WSI
undergo slow digestion. Gradually liberated glucose
determines the low GI and low post-meal glycaemia
after their consumption.
The value of WAI of uncooked pasta with addition
of wheat bran was at the level from 115.47 to
126.48% (Table 5). An increase in the content of
wheat bran was conductive to greater water absorption
in the uncooked products. This was due to more than
twice higher water absorption of bran compared with
semolina. Similarly, Vetrimani et al. (2005) claim that
an increase in the share of wheat bran in our is
related to an increase in water absorption. Sobota &
Dobosz (2010) proved a positive correlation between
the content of dietary bre in uncooked pasta and
WAI. After cooking, a ca. threefold increase was
noted in the water absorption of the pasta. The highest
value of WAI was characteristic of the pasta with 30%
content of wheat bran. The product characterised by
highly water absorption index swells in stomach; thus,
they are more ecient in satiating hunger and give a
feeling of satiety.
The pasta produced from semolina with addition of
wheat bran were characterised by very low dry matter
losses during cooking. The value of the losses was
from 2.47% for the pasta with 20% content of wheat
bran to 5.76% in the case of the product with 40%
content of the high-bre component (Table 6). An
increase in the content of the high-bre component
(wheat bran) caused an increase in the dry matter
losses during cooking. A similar trend was noted by
Kordonowy & Youngs (1985) and Aravind et al.
(2012b). Applying various non-starch polysaccharides
to pasta, they found that an increase in the content of
dietary bre in the pasta involved an increase in dry
mater losses during cooking. Manthey & Schorno
(2002) maintain that bran-type particles present in
high-bre cereal materials may inhibit the formation
of gluten matrix in the course of the formation of
pasta dough. During cooking, water penetrates the
pasta structure more easily, and the uncovered starch
is more susceptible to leaching. It should be assumed
that the degree of fragmentation of the high-bre com-
ponent may be of high importance. The presence of
large bran-type particles can disintegrate the forming
gluten matrix to a greater degree. In addition, large
bran-type particles interfere with uniform hydration of

2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015
118 Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al.
the material and thus inhibit the formation of the glu-
ten matrix.
It needs to be emphasised that the products with
3540% content of wheat bran (WB35 and WB40)
were characterised by dry matter losses comparable
to the pasta produced in the same production param-
eters obtained from WDF. At the same time, these
products were characterised by considerably higher
content of TDF compared with sample WDF. The
lowest dry matter losses were noted in the case of
products with 2030% addition of wheat bran (sam-
ples: WB20, WB25, WB30). The products displayed
also a notably higher resistance to overcooking. Dur-
ing extended cooking, pasta with 2030% content of
wheat bran lost 5.45.84% of dry matter, while pasta
produced from whole-grain durum our 6.81%
(WDF).
An increase in the content of wheat bran in the
pasta did not have any signicant eect on the value
of the weight increase index during cooking. The value
of this index varied within the range from 2.06 to 2.11,
and it did not dier signicantly from the values for
pasta from WDF. The application of extended cook-
ing time caused an increase in the amount of water
absorbed by the pasta and resulted in greater mass
increase. During extended cooking, all the products
with wheat bran addition absorbed more water and
were characterised by greater mass gain compared with
the pasta from whole-grain durum our (samples:
WDF and COM). It should be noted that the greatest
mass gain during extended cooking was observed in
the case of pasta containing 3540% of wheat bran.
Higher content of water in overcooked pasta has nega-
tive inuence on the consistency of products, particu-
larly its hardness and springiness (Sozer et al., 2007).
From nutritional point of view, the products with
higher content of water are characterised by lower
energetic density.
The sensory assessment comprised estimations of
appearance, colour, taste, hardness, chewiness, spring-
iness and adhesiveness. With regard to the appear-
ance and colour, the highest score was awarded to
the control sample (COM) pasta produced from
WDF (Table 7). It was characterised by the brightest
and the most uniform colour; its surface was more
glassy and semi-transparent. The samples of pasta
with addition of wheat bran were darker, and their
colour was less uniform and glossy. In terms of taste,
the pasta with 20% addition of wheat bran was com-
parable with pasta from WDF. The application of a
higher content of the high-bre component resulted
in deterioration of taste. The specic aftertaste of the
bran lingers in the mouth gives lower scores of the
taste in the sensory analysis. An increase in the con-
tent of the high-bre component caused the pasta to
have a harder structure. At the same time, their
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015
springiness decreased, while chewiness and adhesive-
ness increased. Pasta with an addition of bran was
characterised by notably higher chewiness compared
with the pasta from WDF.
Conclusions
The experiments conducted on the industrial scale
demonstrated the possibility of application of nely
ground wheat bran for the production of pasta with
increased content of dietary bre. The addition of
common wheat bran to semolina, in amounts of 20
40%, caused a signicant increase in the levels of pro-
teins, lipids, minerals and dietary bre in the pasta.
The application of 2530% addition of common wheat
bran allowed obtaining products as rich in dietary
bre as pasta prepared at the some technological
parameters from WDF. The pasta containing up to
30% of bran was characterised by lower losses of dry
matter and higher resistance to overcooking, in com-
parison with the pasta from WDF. At the same time,
these products were characterised by good sensory
traits comparable to whole-grain durum pasta (WDF
and COM). This study showed that the addition of
wheat bran had signicantly negative eect on sensory
properties of pasta. The sensory quality of products
containing 3540% of wheat bran was worse than
whole-grain durum pasta (WDF, COM). For the man-
ufacture of high-bre pasta, it is recommended to use
common wheat bran additive up to 30%. The wheat
bran should be characterised by ne and uniform
granulation and possibly high content of gluten.
Acknowledgments
The authors express their sincere gratitude to POL-
MAK S.A. (Kolonia Ludwin, Poland) for providing
the production line, and their contribution to the
study.
References
AACC (1995). Determination of Falling Number No. 56-81, ICC
No107/1, ISO/DIS 3093, ASBC AACC, USA.
AACC (2000). Approved Methods of the American Association of
Cereal Chemists. St. Paul, MN, USA: AACC Inc.
AOAC (1990). Ocial Methods of Analysis of the Association of
Analytical Chemists. Arlington, VA, USA: Association of Ocial
Analytical Chemists.
Aravind, N., Sissons, M.J., Fellows, C.M., Blazek, J. & Gilbert, E.P.
(2012a). Eect of inulin soluble dietary bre addition on techno-
logical, sensory, and structural properties of durum wheat spa-
ghetti. Food Chemistry, 132, 9931002.
Aravind, N., Sissons, M., Egan, N. & Fellows, C.M. (2012b). Eect
of insoluble dietary bre addition on technological, sensory and
structural properties of durum wheat spaghetti. Food Chemistry,
130, 299309.
Asp, N.-G. & Bj orck, I. (1989). Nutritional properties of extruded
food. In: Extrusion Cooking Mercier (edited by. C. Mercier, P.
2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology

Linko & J.M. Harper). Pp. 399 435. St. Paul, MN, USA: AACC
Inc.
Baiano, A., Fares, C., Peri, G. et al. (2008). Use of a toasted durum
whole meal in the production of a traditional Italian pasta: chemi-
cal, mechanical, sensory and image analyses. International Journal
of Food Science and Technology, 43, 16101618.
Barnes, P.J., Day, K.W. & Schoeld, J.D. (1981). Commercial pasta
manufacture: changes in lipid binding during processing of durum
wheat semolina. Zeitschrift f ur Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und
Forschung, 172, 373376.
Brennan, C.S. (2005). Dietary bre, glycaemic response, and diabe-
tes. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 49, 560570.
Brennan, C.S. & Tudorica, C.M. (2008). Evaluation of potential
mechanisms by which dietary bre additions reduce the predicted
glycaemic index of fresh pastas. International Journal of Food Sci-
ence and Technology, 43, 21512162.
Brennan, M.A., Derbyshire, E., Tiwari, B.K. & Brennan, C.S.
(2012). Enrichment of extruded snack products with coproducts
from chestnut mushroom (Agrocybe aegerita) production: interac-
tions between dietary ber, physicochemical characteristics, and
glycemic load. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60,
43964401.
Bustos, M.C., Perez, G.T. & Le
on, A.E. (2011). Sensory and nutri-
tional attributes of bre-enriched pasta. LWT - Food Science and
Technology, 44, 14291434.
Chandalia, M., Garg, A., Lutjohann, D., Bergmann, K., Grundy,
S.M. & Brinkley, L.J. (2000). Benecial eects of high dietary ber Sobota, A. & Skwira, A. (2009). Physical properties and chemical
intake in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The New England
Journal of Medicine, 342, 13921398.
Chillo, S., Laverse, J., Falcone, P.M., Protopapa, A. & Del Nobile,
M.A. (2008). Inuence of the addition of buckwheat our and
durum wheat bran on spaghetti quality. Journal of Cereal Science,
47, 144152.
Chillo, S., Ranawana, D.V., Pratt, M. & Henry, C.J.K. (2011). Gly-
cemic response and glycemic index of semolina spaghetti enriched
with barley -glucan. Nutrition, 27, 653658.
Esposito, F., Arlotti, G., Bonifati, A.M., Napolitano, A., Vitale, D.
& Fogliano, V. (2005). Antioxidant activity and dietary bre in
durum wheat bran by-products. Food Research International, 38,
11671173.
Fostell-Powell, K., Holt, S.H.A. & Brand-Millar, J.C. (2002). Inter-
national table of glycemic index and glycemic load values. The
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76, 556.
Guzman, L.B., Lee, T.-C. & Chichester, C.O. (1992). Lipid binding
during extrusion cooking. In: Food Extrusion Science and Technol-
ogy (edited by J.L. Kokini, C.-T. Ho & M.V. Karwe). Pp. 427
436. New York, NY, USA: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Ho, C.T. & Izzo, M.T. (1992). Lipid protein and lipid-carbohydrate
interactions during extrusion. In: Food Extrusion Science and Tech-
nology (edited by J.L. Kokini, C.-T. Ho & M.V. Karwe). Pp. 415
425. New York, NY, USA: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Kasprzak, M. & Rzedzicki, Z. (2012). Application of grasspea
wholemeal in the technology of white bread production. Polish
Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 62, 207213.
2014 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Application of bran for pasta production A. Sobota et al. 119
Kaur, G., Sharma, S., Nagi, H.P.S. & Dar, B.N. (2012). Functional
proporties of pasta enriched with variable cereal brans. Journal of
Food Science and Technology, 49, 467474.
Kordonowy, R.K. & Youngs, V.L. (1985). Utilization of durum
bran and its eect on spaghetti. Cereal Chemistry, 62, 301308.
Manthey, F.A. & Schorno, A.L. (2002). Physical and cooking qual-
ity of spaghetti made from whole wheat durum. Cereal Chemistry,
79, 504510.
Mariani-Costantini, A. (1988). Image and nutritional role of pasta in
changing food patterns. In: Durum Wheat: Chemistry and Technol-
ogy (edited by G. Fabriani & C. Lintas). Pp. 283302. St. Paul,
MN, USA: AACC Inc.
Muller-Lisner, S. (1988). Eect of wheat bran on weight of stool and
gastrointestinal transit time: a meta analysis. A British Medical
Journal, 296, 615617.
Obuchowski, W. (1997). Technology of Industrial Production of
Pasta. Pozna
n, Poland: Agricultural University Press. (in Polish).
Rzedzicki, Z., Mysza, A. & Kasprzak, M. (2004). Study on water
solubility index; determination method. Annales UMCS, 59, 323
328 (in Polish, abstract in English).
Sgrulletta, D., Scalfati, G., De Stefanis, E. & Conciatori, A. (2005).
Dietary bre components of high-bre commercial products. Eect
of cooking process. Italian Journal of Food Science, 3, 285294.
Sobota, A. & Dobosz, M. (2010). Quality of whole meal and whole
grain pasta available in market (in Polish). Food Science Technol-
ogy Quality, 6, 8399.
composition of extruded pasta. Acta Agrophysica, 13, 245260 (in
Polish, abstract in English).
Sozer, N., Dalgc, A.C. & Kaya, A. (2007). Thermal, textural and
cooking properties of spaghetti enriched with resistant starch. Jour-
nal of Food Engineering, 81, 476484.
Theuwissen, E. & Mensink, R.P. (2008). Water-soluble dietary bers
and cardiovascular disease. Physiology and Behavior, 94, 285292.
Troccoli, A., Borrelli, G.M., De Vita, P., Fares, C. & Di Fonzo, N.
(2000). Durum wheat quality: a multidisciplinary concept. Journal
of Cereal Science, 32, 99113.
Tudorica, C.M., Kuri, V. & Brennan, C.S. (2002). Nutritional and
physicochemical characteristics of dietary ber enriched pasta.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 347356.
Vetrimani, R., Sudha, M.L. & Haridas Rao, P. (2005). Eect of
extraction rate of wheat our on the quality of vermicelli. Food
Research International, 38, 411416.
Wang, W.M., Klopfenstein, C.F. & Ponte, J.G. (1993). Eects of
twin-screw extrusion on the physical properties of dietary ber and
other components of whole wheat and wheat bran and of the bak-
ing quality of the wheat bran. Cereal Chemistry, 70, 707711.
WHO. (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases.
Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation. Geneva: World
Health Organization.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015