SHALE GAS EXTRACTION

A PROJECT ON
PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY I
(CHEN 515)

Submitted by

GROUP C MEMBERS
TO

DR A. SHUWA

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY
ZARIA.

JANUARY, 2017.
 GROUP C MEMBERS

1. AGBARA RICHARD OBINNA (U13CE2021)

2. HUSSAINI SADIQ (U12CE1030)
3. IFEANYI EWA ALAZU (U13CE2005)
4. NURUDEEN MOHAMMED (U14CE3001)
5. ELISHA ADAMS (U12CE1037)
6. ABUBAKAR MUHAMMED (U12CE1024)
7. ALIYU UBAIDA YELWA (U12CE1039)
8. EMMANUEL AMOS (U12CE1064)
9. IBRAHIM MAMMAN ONECHOJO (U13CE2027)
10. ADELAKUN IDOWU TUNDE(U13CE2019)
11. YUSUF ABDULMUMEEN (U12CE1013)

ABSTRACT

Shale gas is natural gas found in shale formations. It is currently being extracted using

unconventional techniques due to the low permeability of shale rock. The most common of

these techniques is horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Hydraulic fracturing involves

the injection of mainly water and sand into a shale formation to generate fractures or cracks

in the target rock formation. The sand or proppant holds the fractures open so that the gas in

the shale can flow to the wellbore and thus be produced. This technique, apart from polluting

water supplies, consumes large volumes of water, and so there is a gradual move towards the
use of waterless methods for fracturing such as pneumatic fracturing, fracturing with dynamic

loads, thermal (cryogenic) fracturing, mechanical cutting and so on. Even with the

environmental challenges only peculiar to unconventional techniques, for example, leakages

of methane from cracks, the current trend in countries with abundant shale gas reserves

shows rapid increase in the volume of shale gas produced. The production of shale gas is

expected to increase in the coming years as newer technologies emerge because these

countries would not only want to be self-reliant in energy supply but will also want to

become net exporters of natural gas.

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Many of the worlds most important oil and gas deposits were originally formed in shale,

known as the source rock. Some of this oil and gas has migrated underground from the shale

into much more porous rocks, such as sandstone. From these formations, the oil and gas can

flow relatively easily into extraction wells, and these are the reservoirs of so-called

conventional oil and gas production. However much of the oil and gas remains in the shale

rock and this is difficult to remove because it is trapped within tiny pore spaces and fixed (or

adsorbed) onto clay mineral particles that make up the shale (Neil et al, 2013)
Due to their highly impermeable nature, shale deposits are unsuitable for conventional

extraction and require extensive artificial fracturing (fracking) to produce commercial

quantities of gas. Fracking uses fluid, usually a mixture of water, sand and chemicals,

pumped at high pressure into the rock to cause narrow fractures to create paths for the gas to

flow to the surface. Although this technique increases production from the wells, it brings

environmental problems not found with conventional gas (Hughes, 2013).

1.1 AIM

The aim of this project is to carry out a research on the technique used for shale gas

extraction and to examine its economic and environmental impacts.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

To find out the technique(s) currently used as well as the emerging technologies for shale

gas extraction.
To assess the present and projected future role of shale gas in global energy supply and to

examine the environmental challenges associated with its extraction.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Brief History of Shale Gas Extraction

Natural gas was first extracted from shale in Fredonia, New York in the 1820s, in shallow,

low-pressure fractures, several years before the breakthrough oil discoveries at wells in

Titusville, New York. However, shale gas usage was limited to early and small-scale

operations. It would not play a significant role in Americas energy portfolio for another

century and a half.

Today, shale gas is extracted via a process called hydraulic fracturing. Indeed, before the

development of shale fracturing technologies, gas companies would drill past shale to get to

sandstone deposits underneath. The development of shale gas has revolutionized the North

American natural gas scene, ushering in an abundance of the cleaner-burning fuel. Prior to

1998 there was no commercial shale gas production in the world, but by 2012 production in

the United States of almost 8 trillion cubic feet of shale gas amounted to one-third of that

countrys total gas production, and more than 7% of global gas production. The technological

breakthroughs that have made this possible are readily exportable, and now other countries

are considering whether to develop their shale gas reserves (Robert, 2013).

2.2 Shale Gas Origin, Geology and Composition

Shale gas is natural gas formed and held within shale formations. It is a fossil fuel originating

from plant, algal or other remains, and composed primarily of methane (CH 4). Generally,

shale formations are composed of fine-grained (less than 0.0039 mm in diameter) laminated

sedimentary rocks made up of clay minerals (at least 30%), quartz, and small quantities of

fossils, organic matter, carbonates, feldspars and other minerals. Gas shale formations are

normally black due to the high organic matter content, although other colours can occur

depending on their mineralogical composition. Shale is formed by the weathering of rocks

and the transport and eventual deposit of fine debris into lakes, lagoons, river deltas and the

sea floor. Vast quantities of dead plankton or aquatic plant material are incorporated into the

deposit, where anaerobic bacteria convert the remains into a waxy substance called kerogen.

Depending on movement in the Earths crust and changes in climate, there are variations in

the rate and type of debris, and other sedimentary rocks such as sandstones or limestone can

be deposited. As sediments are buried deeper underground, they are subjected to increased

temperature due to the Earths subsurface temperature gradient, and increased pressure due to
the weight of accumulated sediments. This causes the sediments to compact and cement into

rock. At temperatures above 50C (122F), kerogen begins converting into oil (catagenesis).

If the shale formation is buried deeper underground, and reaches a depth where the

temperature is above 150C (302F), oil begins converting into natural gas (metagenesis).

Ongoing burial, rock compaction and earth movement together with continued hydrocarbon

generation causes the migration of oil and natural gas from shale. However, some oil or

natural gas will always be retained within the shale, adsorbed on to kerogen and clay

particles, and filling pore spaces and natural fractures. It is this process that forms a potential

shale oil or shale gas reservoir.

The natural gas contained in shale reservoirs has the same primary chemical composition as

the natural gas contained in conventional reservoirs normally up to 95% methane. The main

difference is in the geological and physical properties of the reservoirs in which the natural

gas is stored rather than the composition of the gas itself (Energy Institute, 2015).

2.3 World Distribution of Shale Gas

The volume of gas bound within a specific shale (gas-in-place) is known as the gas resource.

The reserves are the volume of gas that can be technically and economically produced.

Reserves are therefore often much smaller than the resource. The ratio of reserves to resource

varies widely between shale formations, with formations at higher pressure having a higher

estimated ultimate recovery. The U.S. Energy Information Administration estimates that 22

per cent of shale resources are technically recoverable. The economically recoverable fraction

may be much smaller as it depends on gas prices and production costs. The factors affecting

the ratio of reserve to resource are mainly geological. However, there are also non-geological

factors that could affect the size of the reserve. These factors include: engineering design

(such as the number of horizontal wells per pad and the techniques used for fracking); the

effect of the new protocols for earthquake mitigation and monitoring; land access;
environmental permit constraints; well costs; and the prices of gas and competing fuels

(MacKay and Stone, 2013).

Table 2.1 shows the top 10 countries with technically recoverable shale gas resources. There

are no European countries among the top 10 countries with technically recoverable shale gas

resources. However, there are significant resources in some European countries like Poland,

France and the United Kingdom.

Table 2.1 Top 10 countries with technically recoverable shale gas resources
Ran Country Shale gas tcf (tcm)
k
1 China 1,115 (31.6)
2 Argentina 802 (22.7)
3 Algeria 707 (20)
4 US 665 (18.8)
5 Canada 573 (16.2)
6 Mexico 545 (15.4)
7 Australia 437 (12.4)
8 South Africa 390 (11)
9 Russia 285 (8.1)
10 Brazil 245 (6.9)
Others 1,535 (43.5)
World Total 7,299 (206.7)
Source: (EIA, 2013)

2.4 Shale Gas Extraction Techniques.

The two most common methods to achieve extraction of shale gas are horizontal drilling and

hydraulic fracturing. Other fracturing techniques can be employed, some of which are used to

extract cleaner shale gas.

2.4.1 Horizontal Drilling

Horizontal drilling requires drilling a vertical well to a predetermined depth above the shale

gas reservoir. The well is then drilled at an increasing angle until it meets the reservoir
interval in a horizontal plane. Once horizontal, the well is drilled to a selected length, which

could extend to as much as 2500m. Horizontal drilling has a big advantage over vertical

drilling, in that a large amount of the wellbore can come into contact with the reservoir. This

also means that far fewer wells need to be drilled and the wells that are drilled can have many

wells drilled from the same well pad site thus reducing surface impact. Upon completion of

drilling, production casing is placed in the wellbore. A perforating gun is used to create a

series of holes in the casing to connect the rock formation to the wellbore.

2.4.2 Hydraulic Fracturing

The second critical element to the success of shale gas exploration and production is the use

of hydraulic fracturing. This process involves the injection of mainly water and sand, or a

similar proppant into a shale formation to generate fractures or cracks in the target rock

formation. The sand or proppant holds the fractures open so that the gas in the shale can flow

to the wellbore and thus be produced. The fluid, or fracture fluids, are mainly comprised of

water and sand with a small balance consisting of additives that improve the efficiency of the

fracture process. The particulars of each hydraulic fracture are based on the specifics and

characteristics of the rock formation in question. At the completion of the drilling and

fracturing process, the water used in the fracture stimulation process is produced back along

with natural gas. This water requires management to protect surface and ground water

resources, and ideally reduce future demands for fresh water. Stakeholders including local

and federal governments and shale gas operators look for ways to Reduce, Re-use, and

Recycle in order to minimize the impact on the environment and the community. Water

treatment technologies have been developed for use on shale gas produced water so that it

can be re-used.
 Figure 2.1 Illustration for Horizontal Drilling and Hydraulic Fracturing
2.4.2.1 Fracking Fluids

Fluids used for hydraulic fracturing purposes are called fracking fluids or fracturing fluids.

They are injected into drilled boreholes under high pressure, in order to create targeted

fractures and fissures in gas-bearing bedrock. After the fracturing operation, the fracturing

fluid in the wellbore has to be removed, so that natural gas can be produced from the well.
The composition of the fracturing fluid varies from one product to another and the design of

the fluid varies depending on the characteristics of the target formation and operational

objectives. However, the fracturing fluid used in modern slickwater fracturing is typically

comprised of around 98% water and sand (as a proppant) with chemical additives comprising

2%.

Table 2.2 Fracturing Fluid additives

Additive Type Main Compound(s) Purpose
Diluted Acid (15%) Hydrochloric acid or Help dissolve minerals and initiate
muriatic acid cracks in the rock.
Biocide Glutaraldehyde Eliminates bacteria in the water that
produce corrosive by-products
Breaker Ammonium persulfate Allows a delayed break down of the
gel polymer chains
Corrosion Inhibitor n,n-dimethyl formamide Prevents the corrosion of the pipe
Crosslinker Borate salts Maintains fluid viscosity as
temperature increases
Friction Reducer Polyacrylamide or Minimizes friction between the fluid
Mineral oil and the pipe
Gel Guar gum or hydroxyethyl Thickens the water in order to
cellulose suspend the sand
Iron Control Citric acid Prevents precipitation of metal
oxides
KCl Potassium chloride Creates a brine carrier fluid
Oxygen Scavenger Ammonium bisulphite Removes oxygen from the water to
protect the pipe from corrosion
pH Adjusting Agent Sodium or potassium Maintains the effectiveness of other
carbonate components, such as crosslinkers
Proppant Silica, quartz sand Allows the fractures to remain open
so the gas can escape
Scale Inhibitor Ethylene glycol Prevents scale deposits in the pipe
Surfactant Isopropanol Used to increase the viscosity of the
fracture fluid
Source: (GWPC, 2009)

2.4.2.2 Multi Stage Fracturing

Multiple fracturing operations are necessary in order to effectively stimulate the reservoir

rock. This process is called multi-stage fracturing and consists of dividing the horizontal
leg into sections which are then fractured independently. During this operation, each stage

is isolated from the rest of the wellbore using various types of plugs or packers (seals). Upon

completion of all fracture stages, the plugs or packers are removed and all stages of the

wellbore are allowed to flow back to the surface.

2.4.3 Pneumatic Fracturing

This technique makes use of a gas (typically air or nitrogen) to fracture the reservoir rock. It

is a technique normally used in shallow formations. Today, a new experimental technique of

extraction by non-flammable propane, heptafluoropropane, a refined hydrocarbon, is gaining

recognition. Injecting gas underground to exploit hydrocarbons is not new: oil groups have

been injecting CO2 into oil or gas wells for a long time. As it reaches the underground where

temperatures are higher, the gas progressively dilates, making it possible to put pressure on

the hydrocarbons and extract them more easily. In the case of unconventional gas,

heptafluoropropane could make it possible to crack the bedrock where coal and shale oil and

gas are trapped. Unlike hydraulic fracturing, which requires large amounts of water and

chemicals, here gas is self-sufficient (Aline, 2014).

2.4.4 Fracturing With Dynamic Loading

Fracturing with Dynamic Loading do not make use of fluids, but rather by inducing a

dynamic loading by detonating explosives placed at the bottom of the well or by applying

electrical impulses.

Problems of wellbore damage, safety hazards, and unpredictable results reduced the relative

number of wells stimulated by high-strength explosives. More recently, studies have shown

that propellants have strong advantages over explosives. Propellants are substances which

deflagrate rather than detonate (Luca, 2013).

 In electric fracturing, electricity is used to induce mechanical loads into the rock. If high

enough, this loading will fracture the rock.

2.4.5 Thermal (cryogenic) Fracturing

Fracturing can be achieved by using a fluid colder than the reservoir. This will create thermal

stresses that could fracture the rock. Even if a fluid is used this is not strictly speaking

hydraulic fracturing in the traditional sense, because it is not the elevated pressure of the fluid

and high injection rates that breaks the rock. (Luca, 2013).

2.4.6 Mechanical Cutting of the Shale Formation

A patent from 2010 by Coleman and Hester presented a method to remove mass from a

formation between two connected wellbores using a flexible cutting cable. According to this

idea, two wellbores are drilled and connected; a cutting cable is inserted into the first well

and fished out from the second; finally, the cable is repeatedly pulled back and forth. This

sawing action removes formation material between the wellbores to form an opening in the

shape of a plane (Luca, 2013).

2.4.7 Enhanced Bacterial Methanogenesis

It is reported that shallow biogenic shale gas reservoirs generate gas by microbial activity,

implying that current production to the surface consists of ancient adsorbed gas as well as

recent biogenerated gas. Naturally-occurring microorganisms (methanogens) are stimulated

within the shale formations to enhance the production of methane as by-product of their

normal metabolic processes. Enhanced bacterial methanogenesis appears to be at the concept

stage for what it concerns in-situ application. The technique has been successfully applied in

laboratory. Further work is required to determine how to stimulate the microorganisms within

the reservoir to consume more of the organic carbon and thus increase gas production rates

(Luca, 2013).
2.6 Environmental Impacts of Shale Gas Extraction

The extraction and use of shale gas can affect the environment through the leaking of

extraction chemicals and waste into water supplies, the leaking of greenhouse gases during

extraction, and the pollution caused by the improper processing of natural gas. A challenge to

preventing pollution is that shale gas extraction varies widely in this regard, even between

different wells in the same project; the processes that reduce pollution sufficiently in one

extraction area may not be enough in another (Bahadori, 2013).

2.6.1 Air Pollution

Natural gas has been referred to as a low-carbon fuel, as its combustion produces

significantly less carbon dioxide emissions than coal and petroleum-based fuels. However, to

understand the implications for climate change, one must look at not only the greenhouse gas

(GHG) emissions from combustion in a vehicle or power plant but also those from production

activities. For natural gas, the primary concern is leakage and venting throughout the supply

chain, as methane (CH4), a potent greenhouse gas, is its primary constituent.

In addition to GHGs, fugitive emissions of natural gas can release volatile organic

compounds (VOCs) and hazardous air pollutants, such as benzene. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

are another pollutant of concern, as drilling, hydraulic fracturing, and compression equipment

typically powered by large internal combustion engines produce these emissions (Alvarez,

2012).

2.6.2 Impact on Water Resources

2.6.2.1 Water consumption

Although water is used in several stages of the shale gas life cycle, the majority of water is

typically consumed during the production stage. This is primarily due to the large volumes of
water (2.35.5 million gallons) required to hydraulically fracture a well. After fracturing a

well, anywhere from 5% to 20% of the original volume of the fluid will return to the surface

within the first 10 days as flowback water. An additional volume of water, equivalent to

anywhere from 10% to almost 300% of the injected volume, will return to the surface as

produced water over the life of the well (EPA, 2014).

2.6.2.2 Water Quality

Concerns over water quality focus on potential drinking water contamination by methane or

fluids from hydraulic fracturing activities. The possible pathways for this contamination

include underground leakage from the wellbore to drinking water aquifers and improper

disposal or accidental leakage of hydraulic fracturing fluids to surface water bodies (EPA,

2014).

2.6.3 Induced Seismicity

It is well known and documented that injecting fluid underground at high pressure can lead to

tremors. Injecting fluid either fractures the rock or enlarges existing fractures. The normal

stress between the two faces of the fracture is reduced due to the hydrostatic pressure of the

fluid in between. Therefore the friction force that keeps the rocks from moving, which is

proportional to the normal force between the two faces, is reduced. This leads to movement

of the two faces relative to each other, which is recorded as seismic activity (Aaron, 2011).

2.7 Economic Impact

The increase in the extraction of shale gas over the past several years has led to a general

decrease in the price for natural gas mainly due to the large domestic supply of the gas. As

like other free markets, prices for natural gas are significantly driven by supply and demand.

Since there is now considered to be an abundant supply of natural gas coupled with lower
prices, the result has sparked interest in the use of natural gas for electricity production and

even as a transportation fuel (Jason, 2015).

Globally, the energy markets of the coming decades will move towards a more competitive

and fragmented order, in which many energy importing countries also utilise significant

domestic resources, and are able to balance their imports with regional exporters and the

major global players. Figure 2.3 shows the rapid increase in projected shale gas production in

the U.S which might see the U.S moving away from being a natural gas importing country to

becoming a natural gas exporting country.

Figure 2.3 Shale Gas Leads Projected Natural Gas Production in the U.S (Allan. 2014).
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS, INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT

Figure 3.1 Shale Gas Production Facility: Schematic Diagram Illustrating the Hydraulic
Fracturing Technique for Shale Gas Extraction (Cook et al, 2013)
Figure 2.2 Fracking Fluid additives and Proppant Mixing/Blending Unit. (EPA, 2014)
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 METHODOLOGY

Hydraulic fracturing is the most widely used technique for shale gas production. However,

the process of producing natural gas from shale deposits involves many steps in addition to

hydraulic fracturing. These steps include road and well pad construction, drilling the well,

casing, perforating, hydraulic fracturing, completion, production, abandonment, and

reclamation.

4.6.1 Road and Well Pad Construction.

A well requires a prepared area on the surface, called a pad, that provides a stable base for a

drilling rig, retention ponds, water storage tanks, loading areas for water trucks, associated

piping, and pumping and control trucks. After well completion, the pad serves as the location

of the wellhead and other equipment. Preparing a pad involves clearing and levelling several

acres of land. Its size depends on the depth of the well and the number of wells to be drilled

on the site. In addition to land disturbed for building the well pad, three to four acres are

disturbed per pad for roads and utilities to service the pad (Clark et al, 2013).

4.6.2 Drilling

Most shale gas resources are located at depths of 6,000 feet or more below ground level, and

can be relatively thin (for example, the Marcellus shale formation is between 50200 feet

thick depending on location). The efficient extraction of gas from such a thin layer of rock

requires drilling horizontally through the shale. This is accomplished by drilling vertically

downward until the drill bit reaches a distance of around 900 feet from the shale formation.

At this point, a directional drill is used to create a gradual 90-degree curve, so that the

wellbore becomes horizontal as it reaches optimal depth within the shale. The wellbore then

follows the shale formation horizontally for 5,000 feet or more. Multiple horizontal wells
accessing different parts of the shale formation can be drilled from a single pad (Clark et al,

2013).

4.6.3 Casing and Perforating

At various stages in the drilling process, drilling is stopped and steel casing pipe is installed

in the wellbore. Cement is pumped into the annulus, or void space between the casing and the

surrounding mineral formation. After the wellbore reaches a depth below the deepest

freshwater aquifer, casing and cement are installed to protect the water from contamination

due to the drilling process. Additional casing and cementing along the entire wellbore occurs

after the well has reached its full horizontal length. This process is intended to prevent

leakage of natural gas from the well to the rock layers between the shale formation and the

surface, as well as to prevent the escape of natural gas to the surface through the annulus. The

casing surrounding the horizontal section of the well through the shale formation is then

perforated using small explosives to enable the flow of hydraulic fracturing fluids out of the

well into the shale and the eventual flow of natural gas out of the shale into the well (Clark et

al, 2013).

4.6.4 Hydraulic Fracturing and Completion

Even though the well casing is perforated, little natural gas will flow freely into the well from

the shale. Fracture networks must be created in the shale to allow gas to escape from the

pores and natural fractures where it is trapped in the rock. This is accomplished through the

process of hydraulic fracturing. In this process, typically several million gallons of a fluid

composed of 9899.5% water and proppant (usually sand) is pumped at high pressure into the

well. The rest of the fracking fluid (0.52% by volume) is composed of a blend of chemicals,

often proprietary, that enhance the fluids properties. These chemicals are listed and their

functions has been list in Table 2.2. This fluid pushes through the perforations in the well

casing and forces fractures open in the shale-connecting pores and existing fractures and
creating a pathway for natural gas to flow back to the well. The proppant lodges in the

fractures and keeps them open once the pressure is reduced and the fluid flows back out of

the well (Clark et al, 2013).

4.6.5 Production, Abandonment and Reclamation

During production, gas that is recovered from the well is sent to small-diameter gathering

pipelines that connect to larger pipelines that collect gas from a network of production wells.

Once a well no longer produces at an economic rate, the wellhead is removed, the wellbore is

filled with cement to prevent leakage of gas into the air, the surface is reclaimed (either to its

pre-well state or to another condition agreed upon with the landowner), and the site is

abandoned to the holder of the lands surface rights (Clark et al, 2013).
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Discussion of Key Findings

5.1.1 Hydraulic Fracturing: The Most Commonly Used Technique for Shale Gas Extraction

Hydraulic fracturing or fracking as it is sometimes called is the most commonly used shale

gas extraction technique. This is because of the ready availability and relative cheapness of

the fluid used for this operation. The fluid consists of 98-99.5% of sand and water, the

remaining being chemical additives.

5.1.2 Environmental Challenges of Shale Gas Production

Leakages and venting of greenhouse gases such as methane at the production facility,

enormous water requirement, pollution of water resulting from chemicals used for hydraulic

fracturing, and induced seismic activity are environmental challenges of great concern.

5.1.2 Waterless Shale Gas Extraction Techniques

The large quantity of water used during the hydraulic fracturing process has raised public

concerns, and in addition to this, the problem of water pollution which reduces the quality of

potable drinking water may force companies involved in large scale shale gas production to

look towards waterless shale gas extraction techniques such as the pneumatic fracturing,

fracturing with dynamic loads, Thermal (cryogenic) fracturing, Mechanical cutting and so on.

5.1.2 Shale Gas: The Future of Global Energy Supply

The production of shale gas will no doubt increase tremendously in future. Several factors

supports this forecast.

Shale gas is a cleaner fuel than most petroleum-based fuels.

 With the emergence of technologies for large scale production, countries with abundant

reserves of shale gas are likely to go into massive production to cater for the ever

increasing demand of natural gas, and to move from being natural gas importing countries

to becoming natural gas exporting countries.

 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSION

Shale gas is an unconventional natural gas but it has same composition with conventional

natural gas (consisting mainly of methane). It differs from conventional natural gas only in

the geological formations from where it is extracted.

Unconventional techniques are used for the extraction of shale gas with the most common

technique being horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. This method requires large

volumes of water and there may also be leakage of chemical into water supplies due to

flowback water which returns back to the surface.

However, with the attendant problems associated with hydraulic fracturing, there is a gradual

shift towards the use of waterless fracturing techniques such as the pneumatic fracturing,

fracturing with dynamic loads, Thermal (cryogenic) fracturing, Mechanical cutting and so on.

In additional to the impact of shale gas extraction on water supplies, leakage of greenhouse

gases such as methane at the production site, and induced seismic activity caused by

fracturing also poses great environmental challenges.

Against all odds, the production of shale gas is expected to increase as current and emerging

techniques supports large scale production. Countries blessed with this resource apart from

wanting to be self-reliant in energy production would also want to move from being

importers of natural gas to becoming exporters of the commodity.

 CHAPTER SEVEN

7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Understanding the shale rock formation of the well, by way of collecting core data about

their, porosity, permeability and mechanical properties will help in determining how

much shale gas they hold and how well the can fracture.
2. Utilization of advanced technologies during Hydraulic fracturing Production logging,

micro-seismic, frac-tracers, temperature sensors, and so on allows for more effective

reservoir drainage and also ensures that the fracturing operation remains confined to the

targeted zone.
3. Government of countries involved in shale gas extraction should enact stricter laws that

would help mitigate the adverse environmental impacts of shale gas extraction both in

these countries and by extension in the world at large.

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