Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
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Topic II
CHAPTER 19 HOMEOSTASIS..................................................................................................... 68
1. Concept of homeostasis.............................................................................. 68
2. Regulation of blood glucose level .............................................................. 68
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3. Energy flow within an ecosystem .............................................................. 73
4. Materials cycling ........................................................................................... 75
5. Conservation of ecosystem ........................................................................ 76
6. Study of a local habitat ................................................................................ 77
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 79
*These topics are not required in biology part of HKDSE Combined Science curriculum.
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Topic II
CHAPTER 7
FOOD AND HUMANS
1. Modes of nutrition
Some organisms can make their own food from simple inorganic substances; they are called autotrophs
(e.g. plants). This mode of nutrition is called autotrophic nutrition.
Some cannot make their own food, instead they obtain it by taking in organic substances from other
organisms; they are called heterotrophs (e.g. humans). This mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic
nutrition.
i) Carbohydrates organic substances made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
H:O ratio is always 2:1
as the main energy source (17.1kJ/g)
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Excess carbohydrates are converted into glycogen (in liver/muscles) or lipids (under skin/internal
organs). Cellulose is an important source of dietary fibre.
iii) Proteins organic substances made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
basic building blocks are called amino acids
each molecule has a central carbon atom, attached by an amino group (NH2),
a carboxyl group (COOH), a specific side chain (R) and a hydrogen atom
different amino acids can join together t o form different combinations
among 20 amino acids, 12 of them can be made by human body (non-essential
amino acids), the other 8 must be obtained from the diet (essential amino acids).
functions: (1) growth and repair,
(2) form enzymes, antibodies, haemoglobin, hormones, etc.
(3) provide energy (18.2kJ/g) if carbohydrates and lipids are used up.
found in meat, eggs, fish, beans, dairy products, etc.
deficiency in protein may lead to kwashiorkor.
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Topic II
Excess amino acids cannot be stored. Amino group is removed to form urea (deamination), then
passed out as urine. Remaining parts are converted into carbohydrates or lipids.
iii) Dietary fibre (a.k.a. roughage) consists mainly of cellulose from plant cell walls
adds bulk to food to stimulate peristalsis
holds water to enable faeces remain soft
found in fruits, cereals and vegetables
deficiency in dietary fibre may lead to constipation.
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3. Food tests
Food substance Food test Positive result
Glucose Using Clinistix paper Clinistix paper changes from pink to purple
Reducing sugar Benedicts test Brick red precipitate forms
Starch Iodine test Iodine solution changes from brown to blue-black
A translucent spot is left, which disappears after
Lipid Grease spot test
immersing it in an organic solvent
Protein Using Albustix paper Albustix paper changes from yellow to green
Vitamin C Using DCPIP solution DCPIP solution changes from blue to colourless
4. Balanced diet
Diet refers to all the food we eat. We must have a balanced diet, which consists of all 7 food substances
in right amounts and proportions, to maintain health and meet energy needs of our body. The food
pyramid is a general guide to have a balanced diet, it introduces 6 basic food groups as follows:
(1) eat less: fat, oil, salt and sugar
(2) eat moderately: (a) dairy products; (b) meat, eggs and beans
(3) eat more: (a) vegetables; (b) fruits
(4) eat most: cereals and grains.
Also, different people needs different balanced diet at different stages of life:
(1) Children need more protein, calcium and iron to grow actively.
(2) Males need more energy than females since males have a larger body size, more muscles and less
subcutaneous fat.
(3) People with more muscular activities (heavier workload) require more energy.
(4) Pregnant women need more carbohydrates, proteins, minerals and vitamins because their foetuses
need energy and raw materials for growth. Breast-feeding mothers need an extra supply of nutrients
for milk production.
Eating food with too much saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol may increase the risks of having
cardiovascular diseases.
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Topic II
CHAPTER 8
NUTRITION IN HUMANS
Digestive system
It consists of the alimentary canal (a.k.a. digestive tract or gut) and its associated glands.
(1) Alimentary canal: mouth cavity pharynx oesophagus stomach small intestine (duodenum
and ileum) large intestine (caecum, colon and rectum) anus
(2) Glands: salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas, liver, glands in the small intestine.
2. Ingestion of food
In the mouth cavity, food is cut up by the teeth. The process of chewing food is called mastication.
A. Structure of a tooth
A tooth is divided into the crown (above the gum), the neck (surrounded by the gum) and the root
(embedded inside the jawbone). Each tooth consists of three layers:
i) Enamel outermost, hardest part covering the crown
non-living, mainly made up of calcium salts (calcium phosphate)
protects the tooth from wearing down as a result of chewing.
ii) Dentine middle layer of a tooth, bone-like (but not as hard as enamel)
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strands of living cytoplasm is running through it.
iii) Pulp cavity enclosed at the centre by dentine
contains living cells, blood vessels and nerve fibres
nerve fibres enable the tooth to detect temperature and pressure.
Around the roots, enamel is replaced by cement. Fibres from cement pass into the jawbone and forms
periodontal membrane. Cement and periodontal membrane fix a tooth to the jawbone.
B. Types of teeth
Location General features Functions
Chisel-shaped
Biting
Incisor At the front of the jaw Has flat sharp edges
Cutting of food
1 root
Pointed and curved
Tearing of flesh
Between incisors and Well-developed in carnivores
Canine (For carnivores) kills prey and
premolars (e.g. lions)
prevents them from escaping
1 root
Larger than canines
At the sides of each
Premolar Has broad top with cusps in humans
jaw Chewing, crushing and grinding
1 or 2 roots
food into smaller pieces
Similar to premolars, but larger
Molar Behind the premolars
2 or 3 roots
*In humans, upper jaw is fixed while the lower jaw is movable.
Dentition refers to the number and arrangement of different types of teeth in a mammal. It can be
represented by a dental formula, which shows the number of teeth on each side of upper/lower jaw.
e.g. human adult, on each side: incisor (i) canines (c) premolars (pm) molars (m)
upper jaw 2 1 2 3
lower jaw 2 1 2 3
No. of teeth on each side = ( 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 ) 2 = 16
Total no. of teeth = 16 2 = 32
Dental formula: i c pm m or simply
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Topic II
II. Peristalsis rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles in the wall of alimentary canal
when the bolus enters the oesophagus, circular muscles (on the wall of
alimentary canal) behind it contract, and those in front of it relax.
longitudinal muscles behind it relax, and those in front of it contract
lumen behind it becomes smaller and the bolus is squeezed forward
helps break down food and mixes it with digestive juices.
4. Digestion of food
A. Physical digestion
It increases the surface area of food, but it does not change the chemical composition/structure. It is
mainly brought about by:
(1) Mechanical actions of the alimentary canal, which includes
(a) chewing by teeth,
(b) churning by muscles in the stomach,
(c) peristalsis along alimentary canal
(2) Emulsification of lipids by bile salt in the small intestine.
B. Chemical digestion
Since the physically digested food is not small enough, they are broken down into smaller, simpler
molecules by chemical reactions (which are catalysed by digestive enzymes).
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C. The alimentary canal
i) Mouth cavity humans have three parts of salivary glands, which secrete saliva
contains salivary amylase, mucus (moistens and lubricates food) and water
(dissolves soluble substances).
ii) Stomach a muscular bag with gastric glands on its wall to secrete gastric juice
contains proteases, hydrochloric acid (provides acidic medium for proteases; kills
bacteria) and mucus (protects stomach from being digested by protease/damaged
by hydrochloric acid)
food is churned and digested into a semi-solid paste (called chyme)
entrance is guarded by cardiac sphincter that prevents backflow of gastric juice
exit is guarded by pyloric sphincter that regulates the release of food to duodenum.
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Topic II
5. Absorption of food
Small intestine is very long, which allows sufficient time for complete digestion and absorption.
Absorption is mainly taken place in the ileum. Its wall is highly folded with numerous finger-like
projections called villi, which have the following structural adaptations:
(1) finger-like projections to increase surface area for absorption;
(2) a thin epithelium (one-cell thick) shortens distance to increase rate of diffusion;
(3) each villus has a lymph vessel (called lacteal) in its centre, and is surrounded by blood capillaries, to
carry food molecules away rapidly;
(4) movement of villi caused by peristalsis allows surface of villi to contact newly digested food all the
time, it keeps a steep concentration gradient of food molecules across the wall.
Monosaccharides, amino acids, minerals and water-soluble vitamins are absorbed into the blood
capillaries in the villi by diffusion and active transport. These nutrients are then carried through hepatic
portal vein to the liver, which is then carried to the heart via hepatic vein.
Fatty acids and glycerol diffuse across the epithelium and recombine into lipids, which then enter the
lacteal. They will pass into the main lymph vessels and eventually into the bloodstream near the heart.
Most of the water (>90%) is absorbed in the stomach and small intestine by osmosis. Large intestine is
the last site for water absorption.
6. Assimilation of food
The absorbed food will be used as follows:
excess
glucose glycogen
(releasing energy) (stored in liver/ muscles)
excess
excess
lipids stored in adipose tissue under skin/
excess (energy reserve/ make deposited around internal organs
cell membrane)
excess
deaminated
amino acids urea
(make proteins for (pass out in urine)
growth and repair)
Liver is a vital organ for assimilation, which has the following functions:
(1) regulates blood glucose level
converts excess glucose into glycogen as blood glucose level increases (e.g. after a meal)
converts stored glycogen back to glucose if blood glucose level is too low.
(2) stores glycogen, iron (from breakdown of old red blood cells), fat-soluble vitamins;
(3) produces bile, vitamin A (changed from carotene), heat;
(4) converts excess amino acids into urea (by deamination), carbohydrates or lipids;
(5) changes mild toxins such as alcohol to harmless substance (detoxification).
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7. Egestion of food
As the food materials reach the rectum, they become unwanted semi-solid materials called faeces, which
are brown (due to the bile pigments). They mainly consist of indigestible food (e.g. dietary fibre),
secretions from alimentary canal, bacteria, dead cells, and small amount of water.
Faeces are stored temporarily in the rectum that opens through the anus. When the anal sphincter relaxes
and rectum muscles contract, faeces are pushed out through the anus. It is called egestion or defaecation.
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Topic II
CHAPTER 9
GAS EXCHANGE IN HUMANS
In very small organisms (e.g. Amoeba), gas exchange occurs mainly by diffusion on the body surface. On
the other hand, larger organisms (e.g. humans) need a breathing system for efficient gas exchange and a
transport system to carry gases between site of gas exchange and body cells.
Breathing system
Our breathing system consists of the respiratory tract and structures that aid breathing.
(1) Respiratory tract: nostrils nasal cavity pharynx larynx trachea bronchus
bronchiole (in lungs) air sacs ( in lungs)
(2) Related structures: ribs, diaphragm.
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i) Nasal cavity air enters the nasal cavity through a pair of nostrils
hairs in the nostrils filter large dust particles in the air
nasal cavity is lined with
mucus-secreting cells: secrete mucus to trap dust particles and bacteria/
moisten incoming air
ciliated epithelial cells: cilia beat to sweep mucus towards pharynx, which is then
swallowed/coughed out
capillaries with blood to warm up incoming air
olfactory cells to give sensation of smell (by detecting chemicals).
iv) Trachea and bronchi the trachea (a.k.a. wind pipe) divides into 2 bronchi, and then branches into
numerous bronchioles
trachea is supported by C-shaped cartilage; bronchi by circular cartilaginous
rings; bronchioles have no cartilage
cartilages prevent them from collapsing during breathing
inner walls have mucus-secreting cells, ciliated epithelial cells and capillaries
(similar to those in nasal cavity; but no mucus-secreting cells in bronchioles).
v) Air sacs (a.k.a. alveoli) tiny, cup-like structures at the end of bronchioles
form a large respiratory surface for gas exchange to take place
surrounded by blood capillaries
vi) Lungs a pair of (left and right) spongy, pink, lobed organ lying in the thoracic cavity
mainly composed of bronchioles, air sacs and network of blood capillaries
protected by the rib cage (formed by 12 pairs of ribs, sternum and vertebral column)
intercostal muscles are present between each pair of ribs
diaphragm at the bottom of the rib-cage separates thoracic cavity and abdomen
enclosed by inner and outer pleural membranes
inner one is attached to lung surface, outer one touches intercostal muscles and diaphragm
secrete pleural fluid as lubricant (help movement of lung inside thoracic cavity).
*The space between the membranes is called pleural cavity (with pleural fluid inside).
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Topic II
Air sacs have the following adaptations for efficient gas exchange:
(1) large number of air sacs provides a large surface area for gas exchange;
(2) one-cell thick epithelium of air sacs to shorten the distance for faster diffusion of gases;
(3) inner surface is moist (due to a watery secretion by epithelium) to allow gases to dissolve in this
water film before diffusing across epithelium of air sacs;
(4) richly supplied with blood in the capillaries to ensure a rapid transport of gases to and from the air
sacs. This keeps a steep concentration gradient for rapid diffusion.
In air sacs: when oxygen concentration is high, oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form bright red
oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells.
Hb + O2 HbO2
In body cells: since oxygen concentration is low, oxyhaemoglobin breaks down into haemoglobin and
oxygen. Haemoglobin gives a purplish red colour to blood.
HbO2 Hb + O2
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*The above reaction is reversible, but carbon monoxide (CO) can combine irreversibly with haemoglobin, thus
lowers oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.
In air sacs: hydrogencarbonate ions break down to form carbon dioxide and water (in the presence of
the same enzyme). Carbon dioxide then diffuses out of the plasma into air sacs.
HCO3- + H+ CO2 + H2O
4. Ventilation
Ventilation is the process to bring fresh air to the lungs to maintain high oxygen content in the air sacs,
and to remove carbon dioxide from the lungs. It includes inhalation and exhalation.
I. Inhalation intercostal muscles contract to move the ribs upwards and outwards
diaphragm muscles contract to flatten the diaphragm
volume of thoracic cavity increases so that its pressure decreases
air pressure in the lungs is lower than the atmospheric pressure
air rushes into the lungs.
II. Exhalation intercostal muscles relax to move the ribs downwards and inwards
diaphragm muscles relax to cause the diaphragm to return to dome shape
volume of thoracic cavity decreases so that its pressure increases
air pressure in the lungs is higher than the atmospheric pressure
air is forced out of the lungs.
*Rib-cage model and bell-jar model can be used to demonstrate the movement of ribs and diaphragms during
inhalation and exhalation respectively.
Exhaled air has less oxygen and more carbon dioxide than inhaled air. It is also saturated with water
vapour. However, the amount of nitrogen in both inhaled and exhaled air is the most, since it is neither
used nor produced.
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Topic II
CHAPTER 10
TRANSPORT IN HUMANS
In humans, the transport system consists of the circulatory system and the lymphatic system. The human
circulatory system consists of three main parts: blood, blood vessels and the heart.
2. Blood
Blood is a fluid tissue consisting of blood cells suspended in plasma.
I. Plasma mainly consists of water (~90%) and other soluble substances such as:
(1) plasma proteins (e.g. antibodies for body defence and fibrinogen for blood clotting),
(2) nutrients (e.g. glucose, amino acids, minerals, vitamins),
(3) metabolic waste, e.g. urea produced in liver and transported to kidneys for excretion
(4) respiratory gases, i.e. carbon dioxide and a small amount of oxygen,
(5) hormones produced in endocrine glands
distributes heat produced by muscles and liver throughout the body.
*Blood can be differentiated further by Rh factor: those with D-antigen on the surface of red blood cells is
called Rh positive, those without it is called Rh negative.
Individuals with blood group AB (Rh positive) can receive blood from all type of blood and are called
universal recipients. Those with blood group O (Rh negative) can donate blood to people with any type of
blood and are called universal donors. The converse is true for donor-recipient compatibility of plasma.
3. Blood vessels
Blood is carried by blood vessels to different parts of the body. There are three types of blood vessels,
including arteries, veins and capillaries.
Vena cavae
(anterior vena cava / Arteries
posterior vena cava)
divide into
join into
Arterioles
Veins
divide into a
join into join into network of
Venules Capillaries
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Topic II
As skeletal muscles contract, they press against and squeeze the veins. Valve is opened by blood pressure.
When those muscles relax, valves close and prevent backflow of blood. Blood flows only towards heart.
Moreover, capillaries are specially adapted for exchange of materials between blood and body cells:
(1) Network of capillaries (called capillary bed) provides a large surface area for rapid exchange of
materials between blood and body cells;
(2) Total cross-sectional area of capillaries is very large to slow down the blood flow. This allows a
longer period of time for exchange of materials.
(3) Capillary wall is one-cell thick to provide a short distance for rapid exchange of materials.
4. The heart
The heart is a fist-sized muscular organ located inside thoracic cavity between two lungs. It is surrounded
by a membrane called pericardium. Cardiac muscles contract and relax continuously to provide a
pumping force for blood circulation.
The coronary arteries and coronary veins lie on the heart surface. Coronary arteries receive blood from
aorta and supply nutrients and oxygen to cardiac muscles while coronary veins carry carbon dioxide and
other waste away. A heart attack results if coronary arteries are blocked due to inadequate supply of
blood to cardiac muscles.
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Structure of the heart
i) Atria (a.k.a. auricles) two smaller chambers with a thin muscular wall
receive blood at a low pressure from veins and push blood to ventricles
right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from head and arms through anterior vena cava
and blood from legs and abdomen through posterior vena cava
left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through pulmonary veins.
iii) Septum a thick muscular wall separating left and right sides of the heart. It prevents the mixing of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
iv) Heart valves a semi-lunar valve is present at the base of aorta and pulmonary artery respectively
prevent backflow of blood into ventricles as ventricles relax
a large valve is present to separate atrium from ventricle on each side, bicuspid valve
(with 2 flaps) is at the left while tricuspid valve (with 3 flaps) is at the right
prevent backflow of blood from ventricles to atria when ventricles contract
held by heart tendons (a.k.a. chordate tendineae) which prevent valves from turning
inside out when ventricles contract.
5. Blood circulation
In a complete blood circulation, blood flows through the heart twice, first to the lungs (pulmonary
circulation), then to all other parts of the body (systemic circulation). This type of circulation is called
double circulation.
A. Pulmonary circulation
Right ventricle pulmonary artery lungs pulmonary veins left atrium
B. Systemic circulation
Left ventricle aorta all body parts (except lungs) vena cavae right atrium
*Hepatic portal vein is the only portal vein in humans (in which both of its ends are connected to capillary beds).
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6. Exchange of materials into body cells
A. Formation of tissue fluid
At the arterial end of capillary bed, blood pressure in capillaries is higher than that of fluid
surrounding the body cells. Some materials in plasma (e.g. oxygen, sugars, lipids, water, minerals and
hormones) are forced out of the differentially permeable capillary wall to form tissue fluid.
Useful substances will diffuse from the tissue fluid into body cells and waste (e.g. carbon dioxide)
diffuse out from body cells into tissue fluid, then into blood. Due to retention of plasma proteins, red
blood cells and blood platelets, water potential in the blood at the venous end of capillary bed is lower
than that in tissue fluid, water in tissue fluid will return into capillaries by osmosis. Excess tissue fluid
will be drained into lymph capillaries of the lymphatic system.
Tissue fluid is an important linkage for the exchange of materials between capillaries and body cells. It
also provides a constant environment for body cells.
7. Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system consists of a network of lymph vessels and lymph nodes along the vessels.
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Topic II
CHAPTER 11
NUTRITION AND GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
1. Plants as autotrophs
Plants can make complex organic substances from simple inorganic substances (autotrophic nutrition),
they are called autotrophs.
They use light energy to produce food (carbohydrates) from carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis.
Oxygen is released as a by-product.
Plants also absorb minerals and water from the soil, in which minerals are used for synthesizing other
materials such as proteins, lipids and chlorophyll.
Plants convert light energy into chemical energy by photosynthesis. They serve as basic food sources for
other organisms (producers).
(2) Trace elements: plants need a very small amount of these elements, e.g. copper, zinc, molybdenum,
cobalt and boron.
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3. Absorption of water and minerals
Terrestrial dicotyledonous plants mainly absorb water and minerals via the roots.
A. Structure of roots
i) Root cap protects the root tip
the cells are continuously rubbed away and replaced by new cells.
ii) Epidermis outermost layer, made up of thin-walled cells
protects the inner tissues from infection
many epidermal cells develop root hairs.
iii) Cortex underneath epidermis, made up of several layers of thin-walled cells
stores food (starch) and allows water and mineral to pass across the root.
iv) Vascular bundle situated at the centre of the root
consists of phloem for food transport and xylem for mineral and water
transport.
To facilitate water and mineral absorption, roots are structurally adapted as follows:
(1) epidermal cells consists of one layer of thin-walled cells and are not covered by cuticle;
(2) root branches and root hairs provide large surface area for absorption of water and minerals;
(3) long and fine root hairs can easily grow between soil particles.
Minerals (in the form of ions) are absorbed into the root by active transport (against concentration
gradient). Some will be absorbed together with water as water is absorbed into the root. Sometimes,
minerals will be absorbed by diffusion.
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Topic II
A. Structure of leaves
i) Epidermis outermost layer for protecting inner tissues from mechanical injuries and infection
most epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts, except guard cells
usually covered by a thin waxy layer of cuticle, which reduces water loss.
ii) Palisade mesophyll tightly packed cylindrical cells underneath the upper epidermis
contains many chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
iii) Spongy mesophyll irregularly-shaped cells beneath palisade mesophyll, with air spaces
among them
contains fewer chloroplasts than palisade mesophyll cells.
iv) Vascular bundles situated inside veins and the mid-rib, and embedded in the mesophyll
consist of two tissues: phloem and xylem.
v) Guard cells sausage-like cells with many chloroplasts
each spore on the epidermis (i.e. stoma) is surrounded by two guard cells
control the opening and closing of stoma.
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Leaves are organs structurally adapted for gas exchange as follows:
(1) leaves are broad and flat to provide a large surface area for gas exchange;
(2) air spaces between spongy mesophyll cells allow gases to diffuse freely;
(3) surface of mesophyll cells is moist to allow gases to dissolve in it and then diffuse into or out of
the cells easily;
(4) guard cells are present to regulate the rate of gas exchange.
As the stomata open for gas exchange, water on the surface of mesophyll cells will be evaporated and
lost through the stomata. This may lead to dehydration.
Terrestrial plants have an impermeable layer of cuticle covering the epidermis to prevent water loss.
The upper epidermis also has fewer (or even no) stomata than the lower epidermis since it is under
direct illumination by the sun.
Floating plants only have stomata and cuticle on their upper epidermis. Submerged plants have no
cuticle so that gases, water and minerals can diffuse directly all over their surface.
The stems also have stomata (for herbaceous plants) or lenticels (for woody plants) for gas exchange.
Lenticels are small broken parts on the thick cork layer covering the stem.
Roots are not covered by cuticle, therefore gas exchange take place all over their surfaces.
(2) Photosynthesis: carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is released; its rate increases as light
intensity increases.
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Topic II
In the dark, only respiration occurs but no photosynthesis since there is no light. Therefore there is a
net uptake of oxygen and a net release of carbon dioxide.
In the daytime, as the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases. At the
compensation point, the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration; there is no net
exchange of gases.
As the light intensity increases further, rate of photosynthesis is usually faster than rate of respiration
since light intensity is high. Therefore there is a net uptake of carbon dioxide and a net release of
oxygen.
The uptake of carbon dioxide will eventually stop since some other factors (e.g. carbon dioxide
concentration) limit the rate of photosynthesis.
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CHAPTER 12
TRANSPIRATION, TRANSPORT AND SUPPORT IN PLANTS
1. Transpiration
All organisms lose water to the surroundings, so water must be replaced continuously to maintain a
constant water balance. Plants lose water by a process called transpiration, which is the loss of water
vapour from the surfaces of plants due to evaporation.
Over than 90% of water is lost through stomata of leaves and young green stems, and less than 10% of
water is lost through cuticle. In woody plants, a very small proportion of water is lost through lenticels of
woody stems. (Its water loss is the most if all leaves have been fallen off.)
A. Process of transpiration
Water film on the surface of mesophyll cells evaporates into the air space. The air space becomes
almost saturated with water vapour. The water vapour concentration in the air space is now higher
than that in the atmosphere, water vapour thus diffuses to less saturated outside via stomata.
During transpiration, mesophyll cells continuously lose water to the air space, thus lowering its water
potential. Water is then drawn from neighbouring cells by osmosis. The neighbouring cells draw water
in the same way as before; a water potential gradient is set up between the xylem and mesophyll cells.
Eventually, water is drawn from the xylem and a force is created to pull water up the xylem vessels,
which is called the transpiration pull.
A bubble potometer can be used to measure the rate of water uptake by a leafy shoot. The leafy shoot should be
cut and fit into the potometer under water to prevent blockage of xylem vessels by air bubbles, which would
affect the water uptake of the shoot.
A weight potometer can measure the rate of water uptake by its burette, and the rate of water loss by the
balance. The amount of water absorbed is slightly greater than the amount of water lost since some water is
retained of photosynthesis, growth and other metabolic activities.
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Topic II
A. Vascular bundles
i) Xylem mainly consists of xylem vessels
continuous hollow tubes made up of dead cells
these cells have no cytoplasm or nucleus, but thick and lignified cell walls
transports water and minerals.
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ii) Phloem mainly consists of sieve tubes and companion cells
sieve tubes are living cylindrical cells with porous end walls called sieve plates
have cytoplasm but no nucleus
companion cells are narrow cells beside each sieve tube
contain nucleus and cytoplasm, support metabolism of sieve tubes
transport organic nutrients e.g. sucrose.
B. Transport of substances
As the leaves transpire, water is drawn out from the xylem vessels to replace water lost. Water is
pulled up to the upper end of xylem vessels from the roots by transpiration pull. A continuous stream
of water is formed inside the xylem vessels. Dissolved minerals in water are also transported up the
plant.
Organic nutrients, e.g. sucrose, produced inside leaves are transported along phloem to growing
regions (e.g. buds, root tips, fruits) or storage organs. This process is called translocation. The exact
mechanism is still unknown.
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Topic II
3. Support in plants
Terrestrial plants need to stand upright to (1) ensure that their leaves can receive the maximum amount of
sunlight, (2) create favourable conditions for pollination and dispersal of fruits/seeds.
**Thick-walled cells can also be found in other tissues of a stem, e.g. collenchyma and sclerenchyma. They also
help support in plants.
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*CHAPTER 13
REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
1. Types of reproduction
Organisms can produce offspring for the continuation of a species.
There are two types of reproduction: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Number of parents One Usually two (opposite sex)
Gametes involved No Male and female
Meiotic cell division (to produce gametes)
Types of cell division Mitotic cell division
Mitotic cell division (growth/development)
Genetic make-up of
Identical to its parent Different from its parents
offspring
Bacteria (a single-celled organism):
binary fission Flowering plants: flowers and seeds
Examples
Yeast: budding Humans
Flowering plants: vegetative propagation
In winter, aerial part of the plant dies and underground storage organ remains dormant in the soil. Buds
grow into new aerial shoots using food in storage organs. Adventitious roots grow and start to absorb
water and minerals from the soil. The shoots develop leaves and old storage organ dries up as food is
used up. Food is made by photosynthesis and is transported to new storage organs to support its growth.
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Topic II
A. Structure of a flower
35
iii) Sepals make up the outermost ring of a flower, called calyx
small and usually green in colour to protect flower bud/carry out photosynthesis
some are brightly coloured to attract insects.
iv) Petals make up the ring just inside calyx, called corolla
usually brightly coloured, scented to attract insects
some have nectaries to secrete nectar for insects to feed on
some have insect guides to direct insects towards nectary.
vi) Carpels the innermost ring of a flower, consists of stigma, style and ovary
style supports stigma which receives pollen grains
ovary contains ovule that has female gametes (i.e. ova/egg cells) inside
attached to ovary wall by a stalk
protected by a layer of cells called integuments
with a small hole (micropyle) in the integument.
Most flowers are bisexual (with both stamens and carpels), but some
are unisexual (have either stamens/carpels only).
B. Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigmas of flowers.
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains to stigmas of the same flower or other flowers of the
same plant; while cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains to flowers on another plant of the
same species. The former one has less genetic variations in the offspring.
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Topic II
C. Fertilization
After pollen grains are received by stigma of the same species, sugary secretion on the tip of stigma
stimulates pollen grains to develop a pollen tube. Pollen tube secretes enzyme to break down
neighbouring style tissues and grows towards the ovule. It grows through micropyle and its tip bursts
to release male gamete into the ovule. Male gamete fuses with female gamete to form a zygote. This
process is called fertilization.
After fertilization, the sepals, petals, stamens, stigma and style will wither and fall off. Other floral
parts will have the following fates:
A fruit consists of a fruit wall enclosing seeds. It protects the seeds and helps disperse them. Some
fruits have fleshy and edible fruit walls (e.g. peaches, berries) while some have not (e.g. peanuts).
*Monocotyledonous plants have one cotyledon, while dicotyledonous plants have two cotyledons.
38
Topic II
CHAPTER 14
REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
39
B. Structure of human female reproductive system
40
Topic II
ii) Ovum female gamete produced in ovaries (number of ova in ovaries is fixed before birth)
spherical in shape, relatively big, produced in much smaller numbers
cannot move by itself (only by beating action of cilia and contraction of muscles)
consists of a nucleus (with haploid number of chromosomes), cytoplasm as food reserve
for early development of embryo and cell membrane surrounded by protective layer.
2. Sexual maturity
Sex organs (i.e. testes and ovaries) are well formed at birth but not yet mature, they eventually become
mature during puberty. Puberty begins at ages of about 11 to 14, with more production of sex hormones,
which stimulate gamete formation and development of secondary sexual characteristics.
III. Menstrual cycle occurs every 28 days, varies with different females
uterine lining thickens and its blood supply is increased to prepare for implantation
if ovum is not fertilized, (1) thickened uterine lining will break down,
(2) yellow body degenerates in about 14 days after ovulation
uterine lining, blood and ovum discharge through vagina (menstruation/period)
if ovum is fertilized, (1) uterine lining will not break down, (2) degeneration of
yellow body will be delayed
no menstruation until baby is born
after menstruation, another ovum in ovary will develop, the cycle then repeats.
*A woman reaches menopause at age of around 50. Ovulation and menstruation gradually stops and
she can no longer become pregnant.
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Source: Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts
3. Fertilization in humans
Fertilization occurs in female body in nature (internal fertilization). However, test-tube baby could be
born using a technique called in vitro fertilization (IVF).
I. Copulation (a.k.a. mating) erectile tissue is filled up with blood when sexually stimulated
soft penis becomes erect and can be inserted into vagina
muscles of epididymis/sperm duct contract to eject semen into vagina (ejaculation).
II. Fertilization sperms swim through the cervix, up the uterus and enter the oviducts
acrosome (at head of sperm) secretes enzyme to digest protective layer of ovum
only one sperm can penetrate through ovums cell membrane
tail is cut off once the sperm enters ovums cytoplasm
fusion of nuclei of sperm and ovum takes place to form a zygote
protective layer of ovum changes to prevent other sperms to enter.
Twins are individuals born to the same mother in one pregnancy, there are two types of twins:
(1) Identical twins: 1 fertilized ovum separates into 2 embryos by mitotic cell division
same genotype.
(2) Fraternal twins: 2 ova fertilized by 2 different sperms respectively
different genotypes.
4. Development of embryo
The fertilized egg (zygote) divides repeatedly by mitotic cell division to form a ball of cells (called
embryo). The embryo then implants onto thickened uterine lining. This occurs about 7 days after
fertilization (the beginning of pregnancy).
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Topic II
I. Amnion thin membrane developed by embryo which secretes amniotic fluid that:
(1) serves as a cushion to absorb shock,
(2) keeps the embryo moist (prevents it from desiccation),
(3) provides a constant environment for embryo,
(4) supports the embryo (by allowing it to move around easily),
(5) lubricates birth canal during labour.
II. Placenta temporary disc-shaped organ, formed by maternal uterine tissue and embryonic villi
finger-like villi increase surface area for exchange of substances
capillaries of embryo and mother are close to each other but do not join, so mothers
blood is separated from embryos blood
walls of capillaries are very thin to increase the rate of diffusion of substances:
(1) From mother to embryo: nutrients (e.g. glucose, mineral salts), oxygen, antibodies;
(2) From embryo to mother: carbon dioxide, metabolic wastes (e.g. urea, excess salts)
advantages: (1) prevent high blood pressure of mother from damaging blood vessels of
embryo;
(2) prevent harmful substances to diffuse from mother to baby (but some
small harmful substances, e.g. alcohol, are still able to pass through)
secretes hormones to maintain thickness of uterine lining/keep placenta good for diffusion.
III. Umbilical cord connects abdomen of embryo with placenta, contains blood and stem cells
contains two umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein
umbilical artery: carries deoxygenated blood from embryo to mother
umbilical vein: carries oxygenated blood from mother to embryo.
Main organs appear at the end of 8th week, embryo is then called foetus. It normally takes 39 weeks from
fertilization to birth.
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5. Birth process
During last month of pregnancy, the head of embryo turns down towards the cervix. Uterine and
abdominal muscles contract rhythmically with increasing strength and frequency and cervix dilates.
(Labour begins and labour pain is experienced.) Amnion breaks, amniotic fluid flows out through vagina
to act as lubricant.
Pelvis expands and muscular contraction becomes stronger and stronger to expel the baby out of uterus.
Umbilical cord is then tied and cut. Uterine muscles contract powerfully to push placenta out of the body.
Remains of umbilical cord will dry up and fall off. A scar (navel) will be left at babys abdomen.
*Caesarean section is carried out (i.e. cut open mothers abdomen and uterus to deliver the baby) if natural birth
possesses risks to life of baby/mother.
6. Parental care
Babies receive great care and protection from their parents. This parental care ensures a better
development of babies and increases their chance of survival.
In humans, it starts from suckling of milk produced s mammary glands. Breast milk is the best
food for babies since:
(1) it contains all nutrients that a baby needs,
(2) it contains antibodies to protect baby against disease in early months,
(3) it enhances development of brain and retina in babies.
Breast-feeding helps build a bond between mother and baby. It also helps recovery of mothers uterus,
reduces risk of breast/ovarian cancer for the mother.
7. Birth control
Birth control aims to (1) slow down the increasing rate of human population,
(2) reduce the rate of using of natural resources/pollution,
(3) conserve environment/save natural habitats.
It also allows better family planning to provide a better living standard for each family member.
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Topic II
45
*CHAPTER 15
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
(2) Cell enlargement: increase in size of cells by assimilating food substances and synthesizing new
materials in cytoplasm.
2. Measurement of growth
There are different parameters for measuring growth:
Parameters Advantages Disadvantages
Continuous measurement is not
Dry mass (dry weight)
possible (since organism is killed)
- Mass with water removed More accurate to measure amount of
Need a large sample size
- Heating in oven 100C for over 30 organic matter in an organism
Time-consuming
minutes (to obtain constant mass)
Not suitable for large organisms
Continuous measurement is possible
Fresh mass (fresh weight) Less accurate (affected by water
(since organism is alive)
- Mass with water retained content of organism)
Easy and convenient
Size
- Length/height: structures that mainly Continuous measurement is possible
Not too accurate since measures growth
grows by elongation (since organism is alive)
in one dimension only
- Surface area: flat structures Easy and convenient
- Volume: irregularly shaped structures
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Topic II
3. Germination of seeds
As seeds are dispersed to a suitable place, they will grow and develop into a new plant.
The seed absorbs water and swells, seed coat then breaks and radicle emerges. Root hairs develop from
the radicle to increase surface area for water and mineral absorption. The hypocotyl grows in a hook and
elongates, bringing up cotyledon up above the soil. (Cotyledons protect delicate plumule tip from
damage.) The hypocotyl straightens and cotyledons become green to carry out photosynthesis for a few
days. Young leaves will develop to make food and cotyledons fall off.
4. Growth in plants
Growth only happens in certain regions called meristems, which are groups of cells that are able to divide
by mitotic cell division throughout the plants life. There are two types of meristems:
i) Apical meristem found at root and shoot tips
its growth increases length of the plant, thus is called primary growth.
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Source: Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts
B. Growth curve
It can be obtained by plotting any parameter of growth (e.g. mass, height) of organism against time.
An annual plant is a plant that lives for only one growing season, usually with an S-shaped curve.
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Topic II
5. Growth in humans
Growth occurs in all parts of the body, but active growth usually takes place at certain period, usually at
infancy and adolescence. When a human becomes an adult, they show no net increase in their size, but
cell division still continues to replace worn out or damaged cells (e.g. production of new blood cells).
Different parts of the body grow at different times and rates. For example, the brain grows rapidly during
infancy and early childhood while reproductive organs only start to grow more rapidly at puberty.
Boys and girls have also different growth rates at adolescence. Around age 11 to 14, growth rates of girls
is faster than that of boys; while growth rate of boys is faster after age of 14. It shows that girls enter
puberty earlier than boys.
*All cells except nerve cells are capable of dividing actively in order to replace old cells.
Growth curve
The growth curve typically consists of five stages:
*Growth hormone secreted by pituitary gland in the brain stimulates growth of bones and muscles. Too much
growth hormone will result in gigantism and too little will cause dwarfism.
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CHAPTER 16
DETECTING THE ENVIRONMENT
1. Irritability
Organisms have to detect changes in both external and internal environment and give appropriate
responses to survive. This ability is called irritability.
Changes that cause a response in the body are called stimuli. They are detected by receptors which are
made up of sensory cells. Some are single sensory cell (e.g. pain receptors in skin) while some are sense
organs (e.g. eyes, ears) consisting of numerous sensory cells.
A. Types of receptors
Type of receptor Sense organ Stimulus detected
Photoreceptor Eye Light
Mechanoreceptor Ear, skin Sound, vibration, pressure, touch
Chemoreceptor Nose, tongue Chemicals (in air and food)
Thermoreceptor Skin Temperature
B. Coordinating systems
When a sense organ detects a stimulus, it converts it into nerve impulses, which are then sent to the
brain via nerves. The brain interprets and gives sensations (such as sight, hearing, taste, etc.). Nerve
impulses are then sent by the brain to effectors such as muscles and glands to give responses.
Coordination is the process that receptors and effectors work together to give appropriate responses to
a stimulus. In humans, this is carried out by two coordinating systems: the nervous system and the
endocrine system.
Plants have no such coordinating systems as humans; they rely on chemical substances produced.
Their responses are slow and usually involved movement of body parts caused by growth.
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Topic II
ii) Choroid contains a black pigment, which absorbs light to reduce reflection of light within the
eye/help form a sharp image
is rich in blood vessels to supply nutrients/oxygen to and remove wastes from the eye
its front part forms the iris, which is a pigmented muscular structure
its colour depends on pigments present
controls the size of pupil (a hole at the centre of iris that light enters the eye).
iii) Retina contains light-sensitive cells (i.e. photoreceptors) rod cells and cone cells
its central region is the yellow spot which contains cone cells only
optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres that carries nerve impulses from retina to brain
the place where optic nerve leaves the eyeball is called blind spot, in which no
photoreceptors are present
iv) Lens transparent, elastic, biconvex, consisting of transparent living cells with no nuclei
refracts and focuses light onto retina
connected to ciliary body (behind the iris) by suspensory ligaments
ciliary muscles control thickness of lens, hence degree of refraction of light
v) Aqueous humour watery fluid that fills the anterior chamber between cornea and lens
supplies nutrients and oxygen to cornea/conjunctiva/lens by diffusion
keeps cornea in convex shape, refract light onto retina.
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vi) Vitreous humour a jelly-like fluid that fills posterior chamber between lens and retina
helps maintain spherical shape of eyeball and refract light onto retina.
*Human has two eyes with overlapping visual fields to a binocular vision, which gives (1) a 3-dimensional
vision, (2) accurate judgment of distance of an object, and (3) cancels out the blind spot effect of each eye.
This ability is important for predators to hunt preys. On the other hand, prey animals (e.g. rabbits) have eye at
two sides which provides a wider visual field for them to detect predators.
Light rays from an object are refracted by cornea, aqueous humour, lens and vitreous humour onto the
retina. The image formed is real, inverted and diminished. It is detected by rod and cone cells, which
then generate nerve impulses. These impulses are transmitted along optic nerve to visual centre at
cerebral cortex of the brain. The brain interprets the nerve impulses and sees an upright image.
D. Eye accommodation
Our eye has the ability to focus on objects at different distances by changing the curvature of lens.
i) For near objects circular ciliary muscles contract to reduce tension in suspensory ligaments
lens becomes more convex due to its own elasticity
light is refracted more by lens and focused onto retina.
ii) For distant objects circular ciliary muscles relax to increase tension in suspensory ligaments
lens becomes less convex as it is pulled outwards
light is refracted less by lens and focused onto retina.
*Refraction of light mostly occurs at cornea. Light refraction at lens is mainly for fine focusing.
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Topic II
E. Eye defects
Eye defect Conditions Cause Corrections
Can only see near objects clearly Wear concave lenses to
Lens is too thick
Short sight (image of distant objects forms in diverge light rays before
Eyeball is too long
front of the retina) reaching the eye
Some of the eye defects can be corrected by wearing contact lenses or, more recently, laser eye surgery.
Ray diagrams:
3. Tropism in plants
Tropism is the directional growth movement of a part of a plant as a response to a unilateral stimulus.
The growth direction is affected by the direction of the stimulus.
If the plant grows towards the stimulus, it is regarded as a positive response. If it grows away from the
stimulus, it is regarded as a negative response.
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A. Types of tropism
(1) Phototropism: a directional growth movement as a response to a unilateral light source.
(2) Geotropism: a directional growth movement as a response to gravity.
(3) Hydrotropism: a directional growth movement as a response to a unilateral water source.
Shoots Roots
Positive ()
Phototropism Negative ()
(much stronger than gravity)
Geotropism** Negative () Positive ()
Positive ()
Hydrotropism** /
(much stronger than gravity)
Such responses enable leaves to obtain maximum amount of light for photosynthesis; they also allow
roots to grow deep into soil to obtain water and minerals, and to get better anchorage.
*Rotating clinostat is an instrument that rotates along a horizontal axis, so that each side of the sample (e.g.
shoots or radicles) are evenly acted on by a unilateral stimulus (e.g. light, force of gravity). It can remove the
effect of unilateral stimuli.
Only the shoot tip or root tip gives responses (i.e. sensitive) to stimuli, in the way of growth. The
following experiments show how shoot tip is responsible for the growth responses of plants:
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Topic II
The first plant hormones discovered are auxins, named by Went. They are chemicals mainly produced
by the growing points of shoot tips and root tips, and then diffuse to region of elongation where
growth is caused. The most common type of naturally occurring auxins is indoleacetic acid (IAA).
55
They are easily diffused away from the illuminated side to the shaded side by the effect of light.
*Different plants are also affected differently by the same concentration of auxins. Some synthetic auxins are
used as weed killers, for example, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is used in grass lawns or grain fields
to remove dicotyledonous weeds.
**They are also produced by buds, flowers and developing fruits. They can inhibit the growth of side buds
while allowing the bud at shoot tips to grow; they can also stimulate adventitious roots to grow when growing
new plants from cuttings.
High concentration of auxins stimulates the shoot growth but inhibits root growth on the shaded side.
Therefore, the shaded side will grow faster than the illuminated side. The shoot grows and bends
towards light, while the root grows and bends away from light.
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Topic II
The human ear consists of three main parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
i) Outer ear includes pinna, eardrum and auditory canal
pinna is a flap of elastic cartilage covered by skin to (1) collect sound waves in the air,
(2) help direct sound through auditory canal to a thin elastic membrane (eardrum)
cerumen (a.k.a. ear wax) is produced for (1) cleaning, (2) lubrication, (3) inhibiting
bacterial/fungal growth.
ii) Middle ear consists of three ear bones, called hammer, anvil and stirrup
they amplify and transmit vibrations from eardrum to oval window, which is a
flexible membrane to transmit vibrations to the inner ear
round window releases pressure in cochlea into the air in the middle air
connected to pharynx by the Eustachian tube
allows air to enter/leave the middle ear to minimize pressure difference between
middle ear and the atmosphere (usually done by swallowing)
eardrum bulges if pressure on both sides are not equal. It cannot vibrate freely
in response to sound waves and we feel pain.
iii) Inner ear consists of tubes that forms cochlea (for hearing) and three semicircular canals
(involved in keeping body balance)
cochlea is a coiled tube with three canals separated by membranes
upper and lower canals are filled with a fluid perilymph
central canal are filled with endolymph, and contains sensory hair cells (a kind
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of mechanoreceptors) to detect changes in pressure
semicircular canals are located in three planes at right angles to each other
this enables the hair cells to detect head movements in any directions
auditory nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres that carries nerve impulses from the hair
cells to brain.
B. Mechanism of hearing
Sound waves in the air are collected by pinna and are directed to the eardrum along auditory canal.
They cause mechanical vibration in the eardrum. The ear bones amplify and transmit vibrations from
eardrum to oval window. As the oval window vibrates, perilymph in the upper canal of cochlea is
forced to vibrate. Such vibrations are transmitted to endolymph of the central canal.
This bends and stimulates the hairs of sensory hair cells, which then generate nerve impulses. These
impulses are transmitted along auditory nerve to auditory centre of the brain. The brain interprets the
nerve impulses and hears the sound.
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Topic II
CHAPTER 17
COORDINATION IN HUMANS
In order to make all receptors and effectors to function properly and efficiently, coordination is necessary
to connect them together. In humans, this is carried out either by the nervous system and the endocrine
system.
(1) The central nervous system (CNS) the brain and the spinal cord;
(2) The peripheral nervous system (PNS) 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
They are all made up of nerve cells (neurones) which are the basic units of the nervous system.
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B. Types of neurones
There are three types of neurones:
(1) Sensory neurones: transmit nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS
with a long dendron, and a short axon; cell body is oval-shaped.
(2) Motor neurones: transmit nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors
with short dendrons, and a long axon; cell body is star-like.
(3) Interneurones: transmit nerve impulses between neurones within CNS
dendrons same length as axon.
3. The brain
The brain makes up about 2% of our body weight. It is enclosed by cranium, and covered by three layers
of membranes. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced inside cavities of the brain, and fills the space between
inner and middle membranes. It supplies nutrients/oxygen to neurones and removes wastes from them,
absorbs shock and maintains shape of the brain by providing mechanical support.
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Topic II
iii) Medulla oblongata a slender tube connecting the brain to spinal cord
grey matter at inner region, and white matter at outer region
functions: (1) controls involuntary actions (e.g. breathing, heartbeat), and
reflex actions e.g. swallowing, coughing;
(2) relays impulses between spinal cord and the brain.
It has 31 pairs of spinal nerves; each of them is connected to the spinal cord by two nerve roots:
(1) The dorsal root contains sensory neurones. It has a swelling called dorsal root ganglion since the cell
bodies of sensory neurones group outside spinal cord.
(2) The ventral root contains motor neurones, in which their cell bodies are in grey matter of spinal cord.
Spinal cord relays impulses between receptors or effectors and the brain; it is also responsible for reflex
actions.
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5. Nervous actions
A. Voluntary actions
These actions involve interpretation and are under conscious control of the cerebrum. When a
receptor receives stimuli and generates nerve impulses, these nerve impulses then transmit along the
sensory neurones to the cerebrum. The cerebrum processes and integrates information, and then sends
impulses along the motor neurones to effectors to generate a response.
*Some voluntary actions are directly initiated by cerebrum without responding to any stimulus; learning may
be required in this case.
B. Reflex actions
These actions do not involve the cerebrum (involuntary actions). They are inborn, rapid and
automatic responses to avoid further damages to the body or help regulate some vital processes e.g.
breathing. They are also stereotyped since the same stimulus always gives the same response.
Reflex actions involving medulla oblongata are called cranial reflexes e.g. blinking reflex of the eye;
while those involving spinal cord are called spinal reflexes e.g. swallowing and coughing.
Nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain via another pathway so that a person can know what happening.
However, the reflex action has already completed before the nerve impulse reaches the cerebrum.
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Topic II
Some voluntary activities can also be rendered reflex actions after long practising time, e.g. playing piano and
typing.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that produce chemicals called hormones, which then diffuse
directly into the blood stream. They do not release their secretions thorough ducts as exocrine glands (e.g.
salivary glands in the alimentary canal), but are richly supplied with capillaries for rapid diffusion.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are effective in small amounts. They are circulated in the blood
stream and act on specific target cells or organs to cause them to give responses. They are important for
regulation of body processes and maintaining constant internal environment.
Hormones secreted
Endocrine gland Location** Functions of hormones secreted
(examples)**
Controls secretions of other endocrine glands
Thyroid-stimulating
Pituitary gland At the base of the brain Affects growth, reproduction, urine
hormone, growth hormone
concentration
Thyroid hormones Affects metabolic rate
Thyroid gland Throat
(e.g. thyroxine) Regulates growth and development
Pancreas Abdomen (behind
Insulin, glucagon Regulate blood glucose level
(islets of Langerhans) stomach)
Adrenal glands On top of kidneys Adrenaline Prepare the body for emergency action
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*CHAPTER 18
MOVEMENT IN HUMANS
ii) Appendicular skeleton lies on both sides of the body, mainly for movement
limb bones are arm and leg bones
a fore limb (arm bone) includes humerus, radius, and ulna
a hind limb (leg bone) includes femur, knee cap, tibia, and fibula
allow movement of the body
girdles are strong structures with flat bones
pectoral girdles form the shoulders/join arm bones to axial skeleton
pelvic girdle forms the hip/join leg bones to axial skeleton.
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Topic II
2. Joints
A joint is the place where two or more bones meet. It allows the bones to move in a flexible way.
*Some joints are immovable, e.g. sutures in cranium. The bones are joined up firmly, so they are impossible to
move.
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3. Muscles
Muscles make up about 40% of our body weight. They are principal effectors for movement in humans.
A. Types of muscles
Types Location Structure Functions Control
Muscle fibres held by Voluntary
Attached to associated Powerful contraction,
Skeletal muscles connective tissues Involuntary by
bones by tendons easily fatigue
Striated reflex actions
Powerful contraction,
Cardiac muscles In the heart Striated Involuntary
easily fatigue
In the walls of hollow
Smooth muscles organs (e.g. alimentary Non-striated Contract slowly Involuntary
canal, blood vessels)
*Each muscle fibre is a single muscle cell with many nuclei.
As a nerve impulse reaches the ending of axon of a motor neurone, it stimulates it to release
neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters diffuse across synapse called neuromuscular junction to
the muscle fibre, and stimulate it to generate an electrical impulse. The electrical impulse spreads
along the muscle fibre and triggers muscle contraction.
If the tendon is long, a muscle can move a bone that is far from it (e.g. finger bones). If muscles attach
directly to bones without tendons, our limbs would be too thick and bulky for fine movements.
**Tendons that move during muscle contraction are called insertions; while those that remain stationary
during contraction are called origins.
As the flexor and extensor contract and relax in a coordinated way, our body is allowed to move.
Cramps occur when groups of muscles contract at the same time without coordination.
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Topic II
e.g. elbow joint: a hinge joint that allows movement in one plane only.
1. Concept of homeostasis
The capacity of living things to maintain a constant internal environment is called homeostasis. It is
important for organisms to survive since it ensures the best internal environment for the cells to function.
Some parameters of the internal environment that must be kept stable are as follows:
(1) Water and mineral content in blood: It is known as osmoregulation, which is regulated by kidneys of
the urinary system. A stable water potential in cells is essential for them to carry out metabolic
activities properly.
(2) Blood glucose level: It is regulated by the pancreas and the liver to provide sufficient glucose for
respiration in cells.
(3) Gas content in blood: It is regulated by controlling rate and depth of breathing and heartbeat.
Sufficient supply of oxygen is essential for respiration and removal of carbon dioxide as a metabolic
waste is important to maintain a stable pH in blood.
(4) Body temperature: The human skin is important to keep a body temperature at 36.5 37C.
The receptor first detects the changes in level of the parameter. The control centre (usually part of
nervous system or endocrine system) then processes information received and coordinates different
effectors, such as glands, to produce a response that has an opposite (negative) effect in order to reverse
the original change. The level of the parameter can be restored to normal.
** In a positive feedback system, the response increases the degree of original change, e.g. during labour, uterine
muscle contractions stimulate the brain to secrete more hormones, which in turn causes stronger uterine
contractions.
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Topic II
When blood glucose level increases (e.g. after absorption of glucose in small intestine), pancreas
secretes more insulin and less glucagon into blood. Insulin acts on liver cells and body cells as stated
above to lower the blood glucose level to normal.
When blood glucose level decreases (e.g. during exercise), pancreas secretes less insulin and more
glucagon into blood. Glucagon acts on liver cells as stated above to raise the blood glucose level to
normal.
If blood glucose level is too high, water will leave the cells by osmosis, affecting normal metabolism.
Glucose may eventually pass out of the body in urine if blood glucose level is higher than that the
kidneys can reabsorb (i.e. 180mg/100cm3), this happens in people with diabetes mellitus.
After glucose is taken in, a healthy person will have his/her blood glucose level return to normal
within a short period of time. For a diabetic, blood glucose level remains high, but falls gradually
since glucose passes out in urine.
Diabetes mellitus is often caused by failure to produce enough insulin by pancreas. This may be
controlled by injecting insulin, or totally cured by pancreas transplant.
If blood glucose level is too low, i.e. falls below 40mg/100cm3, all body cells will be affected due to
insufficient glucose for respiration. Since neurones in the brain can only use glucose as their energy
source, they cannot function properly, and the person will become unconscious.
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CHAPTER 20
ECOSYSTEMS
Ecology is the study of interrelationships between organisms and those between organisms and their
environment. It can be studied at different levels:
species population community ecosystem biome biosphere
Population a group of individuals of the same species living in the same habitat
Community all the populations of the different species living in the same habitat
a self-supporting, stable, but dynamic unit of living (all the organisms in the community) and
Ecosystem
non-living (physical environment) components interacting with each other
a complex of ecosystems covering a large geographical area, characterized by a dominant
Biome
type of plant, e.g. savanna, desert, tropical rainforest, tundra
Biosphere entire space on earths surface containing organisms
The ecosystem
It is the basic unit of ecological study. All ecosystems are self-supporting, stable but dynamic since they
have the following basic features:
(1) Physical environment affects and, in turn, affected by organisms (interactions).
(2) Organisms develop special relationships with one another (interdependence).
(3) Energy flows from one organism to another in the form of food when organisms are being eaten; it is
eventually lost as heat. A constant input of energy from the sun is thus essential.
(4) Various elements are cycled in the ecosystem rather then lost.
Different ecosystems have different living and non-living components. Major types of ecosystems in
Hong Kong are freshwater stream, rocky shore, mangrove, grassland and woodland.
2. Components of an ecosystem
Each ecosystem has 2 components: abiotic factors (non-living component) and biotic community (living
component). These components influence the number, types, distribution and behaviour of organisms,
and also their adaptations to, thus their survival, in a habitat.
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Topic II
A. Abiotic factors
i) Temperature affects distribution and behaviour of organisms, partly because it affects
enzymatic activities, and thus metabolic rate or organisms
homoiotherms (e.g. birds/mammals) can maintain their body temperature, thus
remain active in a wider temperature range
mammals may have a thick layer of subcutaneous fat and furs to reduce heat
loss in cold areas
birds usually migrate to warmer places in cold seasons
poikilotherms (e.g. fish/amphibians/reptiles) cannot maintain a constant body
temperature, thus are restricted to a narrower temperature range
amphibians/reptiles may hibernate in winters
fish/some types of insects (e.g. butterflies) may migrate to warmer places in
cold seasons
some plants cannot grow in tropical regions (e.g. apples) while some cannot grow
in cold regions (e.g. bananas, pineapples).
ii) Light intensity and duration affects photosynthesis rate and flowering of plants.
some plants flower only at night, e.g. Epiphyllum
affects behaviour of animals: some are active in daytime (diurnal) while some are active
at night only (nocturnal)
nocturnal animals may have good night vision (e.g. owls) or special methods for
sensing the environment, e.g. bats determine location of obstacles/preys by receiving
echoes of ultrasound emitted.
v) Water current in streams/at coastlines: organisms are flatten in shape to reduce water resistance
fish may have fins modified into sucker-like structures
on rocky shores: organisms firmly attach to rock surface/immobile.
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in leaves to remove excess salt absorbed.
i) Predation ( , ) predators hunt, capture, kill and eat preys, forming food chains/webs
populations of predators and preys sometimes follow a cycle
change in population of predator is always lagging behind that of prey
e.g. snakes feed on rats.
ii) Competition ( , ) organisms compete for common needs, e.g. food, shelter, sunlight, oxygen,
water, mates, etc.
may be intraspecific (same species) e.g. barnacles on the same rock;
or interspecific (different species) e.g. barnacles and mussels
intraspecific competition is more intense since individuals of the same
species have the same needs.
iii) Commensalism ( , 0) two organisms live together such that one is benefited while the other is
neither harmed or benefited
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Topic II
D. Ecological succession
Gradual change in the composition of a community over a period of time is called ecological
succession.
New species are better adapted to new conditions than original species since the former modify their
environment. They gradually replace original species and reach a stable climax community consisting
of the maximum number of organisms in a habitat.
I. Primary succession
(1) A barren area (e.g. created by volcanic eruption, reclamation) is colonized by lichens and
mosses forming a pioneer community. Accumulated organic matter and broken rocks forms
the soil.
(2) Grass, ferns and herbs then gradually replace lichens and mosses, providing food and shelter
for small animals.
(3) Death and decay of plants thickens soil for shrubs to develop, attracting more animals.
(4) Soil becomes so thick and rich in nutrients that trees grow over shrubs, forming woodland. A
climax community is also reached.
Less than 10% of energy is transferred between successive trophic levels. Most energy is lost as heat
during respiration/through excretory products (e.g. urea, carbon dioxide)/some materials are not digested
or absorbed/organisms are not being eaten.
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A. Food chains and food webs
A food chain shows a particular set of linear feeding relationship between organisms. It always starts
with a producer.
Energy flows from a lower trophic level (feeding level) to a higher one. Due to energy loss as heat/as
chemical energy used by decomposers, a food chain seldom consists of more than 5 trophic levels. The
longer the food chains, the less consumers at higher trophic levels it can support (i.e. function less
efficiently.
fish tadpole
grasshopper mouse rabbit protozoa
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Topic II
B. Ecological pyramids
I. Pyramid of numbers
It shows the number of organisms at each trophic level (proportional to the width of each bar).
Since less and less energy is available between each successive trophic level, number of organisms
that can be supported at higher trophic levels is usually fewer. But it cannot express accurately the
energy level relationships between (1) large producers and consumers, or (2) hosts and parasites.
grass mouse snake hawk tree caterpillar small bird hawk grass mouse cat flea
4. Materials cycling
As matters can neither be created nor destroyed (i.e. there are a fixed amount of elements), a continuous
supply of materials is made possible only by their cyclic use among organisms. Such cycling of materials
forms the basis for interdependence among organisms in an ecosystem.
A. Carbon cycle
dissolution in water
Carbon dioxide
(then diffusion)
photosynthesis (in atmosphere)
combustion
respiration carbonates
(in limestone)
respiration
fossil fuels
carbohydrates decomposition
(e.g. coal, petroleum)
(in producers) (then respiration by
decomposers)
under heat/pressure
feeding death
for a long time
carbohydrates organic wastes/
(in consumers) death/excretion dead bodies
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B. Nitrogen cycle
nitrogen diffusion
lightning
(in atmosphere)
(then dissolution
in rainwater) diffusion
denitrification nitrogen
(by denitrifying bacteria) (in soil air)
nitrogen-fixation
nitrates (by nitrogen-fixing bacteria)
(in soil)
nitrification ammonium
absorption and nitrites
(by nitrifying bacteria) compounds
assimilation (in soil) nitrification
(in soil)
proteins (by nitrifying bacteria)
(in producers)
feeding ammonification
proteins organic wastes/ (by putrefying
(in consumers) death/excretion dead bodies bacteria/fungi)
5. Conservation of ecosystem
Humans, with his intelligence, are capable to modify the environment to some extent to enhance their
survival. These changes may upset the balance of the ecosystem and may eventually threaten our survival.
Undesirable impacts brought by human activities on the environment are exemplified as follows:
(1) Air pollution: exhaust fumes from vehicles/factories/power stations e.g. CO, CO2, NO2, SO2, etc.,
carbon/lead particles and CFCs may cause acid rain/form smog/cause respiratory
diseases/destroy ozone layer etc.
(2) Water pollution: sewage from factories/homes/agriculture may contain excessive inorganic nutrients/
organic wastes that favour algal/bacterial growth; other pollutants may be pesticides,
toxic heavy metal ions, oil and hot water.
(3) Land pollution: rubbish decomposes in landfills, giving off harmful gases/bad smells; metal cans or
non-biodegradable plastics corrode slowly and take up lots of land space.
(4) Noise pollution: loud sound from machinery/construction/human activities may result in mental
stress, even deafness.
(5) Over-exploitation of resources (e.g. overfishing) may not give enough time for resources to
regenerate, causing rapid depletion.
(6) Deforestation destroys natural habitats, causes soil erosion/desertification, upsets carbon cycle
balance and may cause global warming.
(8) Destruction of habitats or overhunting may put species into extinction (endangered species).
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Topic II
(9) Global warming leads to climatic changes such as melting of ice caps in polar regions, more frequent
floods/storms or even droughts in some places. Agriculture is also threatened.
The government has taken various measures in reducing pollution and conservation:
(1) enacting pollution control ordinances;
(2) launching the Action Blue Sky Campaign to reduce air pollution;
(3) launching the Harbour Area Treatment Scheme (HATS) with sewage treatment plants.
A. Sampling methods
They are used to study the distribution and abundance of organisms in a habitat.
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II. Transects a piece of inelastic string with markings at regular intervals e.g. 1m
used for systematic sampling to record changes in both abundance and distribution of
species in habitats with some transitionse.g. along a rocky shore
can be the line transect method or the belt transect method
line transect method:
(1) place a transect in a specific position carefully chosen
(2) record individuals that touches the transect at regular intervals (or all the way along)
belt transect method has 2 versions:
(1) (a) set up 2 parallel transects at 0.5m/1m apart (to study a strip of fixed width),
(b) record the number of organisms within 2 lines.
(2) (a) place quadrats at fixed intervals along a transect,
(b) record organisms enclosed by the quadrats.
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Topic II
REFERENCES
Pan K.C. (2003). Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts, Book 1.
Pan K.C., Cheung L.M. (2003). Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts, Book 2.
Pan K.C., Cheung L.M. (2004). Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts, Book 3.
Yung H.W., Ho K.M., Ho Y.K., Tam K.H., Tong L.P. (2009). New Senior Secondary: Mastering Biology, Book 1A,
1B, 2.
Yung H.W., Ho K.M., Ho Y.K., Tam K.H., Tong L.P. (2010). New Senior Secondary: Mastering Biology, Book 3.
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