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SECTION 8.

3 POLAR FORM AND DEMOIVRES THEOREM 483

8.3 POLAR FORM AND DEMOIVRES THEOREM


Figure 8.6 At this point you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers. However, there
Imaginary
axis
is still one basic procedure that is missing from the algebra of complex numbers. To see this,
consider the problem of finding the square root of a complex number such as i. When you
(a, b)
use the four basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division), there
seems to be no reason to guess that

( {2 )
r 1+i 1+ i2
{i = . That is, = i.
b {2

Real To work effectively with powers and roots of complex numbers, it is helpful to use a polar
a 0 axis representation for complex numbers, as shown in Figure 8.6. Specifically, if a + bi is a
nonzero complex number, then let 0 be the angle from the positive x-axis to the radial line
passing through the point (a, b) and let r be the modulus of a + bi. So,
Complex Number: a + bi
Rectangular Form: (a, b) a = r cos , b = r sin , and r = { a 2 + b2
Polar Form: (r, )
and you have a + bi = (r cos ) + (r sin )i from which the following polar form of a
complex number is obtained.

Definition of Polar Form The polar form of the nonzero complex number z = a + bi is given by
of a Complex Number z = r(cos + i sin )
where a = r cos , b = r sin , r = {a 2 + b2, and tan = b/a. The number r is
the
modulus of z and 0 is the argument of z.
484 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

REMARK: The polar form of z = 0 is given by z = 0(cos + i sin ) where 0 is any


angle.

Because there are infinitely many choices for the argument, the polar form of a complex
number is not unique. Normally, the values of 0 that lie between and are used, though
on occasion it is convenient to use other values. The value of 0 that satisfies the inequality

< Principal argument

is called the principal argument and is denoted by Arg(z). Two nonzero complex numbers
in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same modulus and the same principal
argument.

EXAMPLE 1 Finding the Polar Form of a Complex Number


Find the polar form of each of the complex numbers. (Use the principal argument.)
(a) 1 i (b) 2 + 3i (c) i

Solution (a) Because a = 1 and b = 1, then r 2 = 1 2 + (1)2 = 2, which implies that r = {2.
From a = r cos and b = r sin ,
a 1 {2 b 1 {2
cos = = = and sin = = = .
r {2 2 r {2 2
So, = /4 and

[ ( 4 ) + i sin( 4 )].
z = {2 cos

(b) Because a = 2 and b = 3, then r 2 = 2 2 + 32 = 13, which implies that r = {13. So,
a 2 b 3
cos = = and sin = =
r {13 r {13

3 (3/2). So, the polar


[ (
and it follows that = arctan 3 form is
z = {13 cos arctan + i sin arctan

2 ) ( 2 )]
= {13 [cos(0.98) + i sin(0.98)].
(c) Because a = 0 and b = 1, it follows that r = 1 = /2, so
and

(
z = 1 cos
2
+ i sin ).
2
The polar forms derived in parts (a), (b), and (c) are depicted graphically in Figure 8.7.
SECTION 8.3 POLAR FORM AND DEMOIVRES THEOREM 485

Figure 8.7
Imaginary Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis axis

4
z = 2 + 3i z=i
3 1
Real 2
axis
1 1

z=1i Real
Real
2 axis
axis
(c) z = 1 cos + i sin
1 2
(a) z = 2 cos 4 + i sin 4
[ ( ) ( )] (b) z = 13[cos(0.98) ( 2 2 )
+ i sin(0.98)]

EXAMPLE 2 Converting from Polar to Standard Form


Express the complex number in standard form.

[ ( 3) + i sin( 3)]
z = 8 cos

Solution Because cos( /3) = 1/2 and sin( /3) = {3/2, you can obtain the standard form

]
1 {3
= 4 4{3i.
2 2

The polar form adapts nicely to multiplication and division of complex numbers.
Suppose you are given two complex numbers in polar form
z1 = r1(cos 1+ i sin 1) and z2 = r2(cos 2+ i sin ).
2

Then the product of z1 and z2 is given by


z1z 2 = r1r2(cos 1+ i sin 1 )(cos 2+ i sin 2)
= r1r2[(cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 ) + i (cos 1 sin 2+ sin 1 cos 2)].
Using the trigonometric identities
cos( 1 + 2 ) = cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2

and
sin( 1 + 2 ) = sin 1 cos 2+ cos
1 sin 2

you have
z1z2 = r1r2[cos( 1 + 2 ) + i sin( 1 + 2)].
This establishes the first part of the following theorem. The proof of the second part is left
to you. (See Exercise 63.)
486 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

Theorem 8.4 Given two complex numbers in polar form

Product and Quotient of z1 = r1(cos 1 + i sin 1) and z2 = r2(cos 2 + i sin 2 )


Two Complex Numbers the product and quotient of the numbers are as follows.
z1z2 = r1r2[cos( 1 + 2 ) + i sin( 1 + 2)] Product

z1 r1
z2 = r2 [cos( 1 ) + i sin( 1 )], z2 G 0 Quotient
2 2

This theorem says that to multiply two complex numbers in polar form, multiply moduli
and add arguments, and to divide two complex numbers, divide moduli and subtract argu-
ments. (See Figure 8.8.)
Figure 8.8
Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis

z1z2 z2 z1 z2
1 + 2 r r2 r1 z1
2 z2
r1r 2 2 r1 z1 r2
r1 1 2
1 1 2
Real Real
axis axis

To multiply z1 and z2: To divide z1 by z2:


Multiply moduli and add arguments. Divide moduli and add arguments.

EXAMPLE 3 Multiplying and Dividing in Polar Form

Determine z1z2 and z1/z2 for the complex numbers


1
z1 = 5 cos
4 (
+ i sin
4
and z2 =
3 )
cos + i sin
6 6
. ( )
Solution Because you are given the polar forms of z1 and z2, you can apply Theorem 8.4 as follows.
multiply
1 5 5 5
z1z2 = (5) (3) [cos(4 + 6) + i sin(4 + 6)] = 3 (cos 12 + i sin 12)
add add
divide
z1 5 cos + i sin = 15 cos + i sin
[ ( ) (4 )] ( )
=
z2 1/3 4 6 6 12 12
subtract subtract
SECTION 8.3 POLAR FORM AND DEMOIVRES THEOREM 487

REMARK: Try performing the multiplication and division in Example 3 using the stan-
dard forms
5{2 5{2 {3 1
i and z2 =
z1 = + 2 + i.
2 6 6
DeMoivres Theorem
The final topic in this section involves procedures for finding powers and roots of complex
numbers. Repeated use of multiplication in the polar form yields
z = r(cos + i sin )
z2 = r(cos + i sin ) r (cos + i sin ) = r 2(cos 2 + i sin 2 )
z3 = r(cos + i sin ) r 2(cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r3(cos 3 + i sin 3 ).
Similarly,
z4 = r4(cos 4 + i sin 4 )
z 5 = r 5(cos 5 + i sin 5 ).
This pattern leads to the following important theorem, named after the French mathemati-
cian Abraham DeMoivre (16671754). You are asked to prove this theorem in Chapter
Review Exercise 71.

Theorem 8.5 If z = r (cos + i sin ) and n is any positive integer, then


DeMoivres Theorem zn = rn(cos n + i sin n ).

EXAMPLE 4 Raising a Complex Number to an Integer Power

Find (1 + {3i) and write the result in standard form.


12

Solution First convert to polar form. For 1 + {3i,


{3
r = {(1)2 + ({3 )2 = 2 and tan = = {3
1
which implies that = 2 /3.
1 + {3i = 2 cos (
2 So,
+ i sin
2
.

3 3 )
By DeMoivres Theorem,
(1 + {3i)12 = 2 cos [(
2 2
+ i sin

)]
12

3 3
[cos
12(2 ) 12(2 )
= 212
3
+ i sin
3 ]
488 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

= 4096(cos 8 + i sin 8 )

= 4096[1 + i (0)] = 4096.

Recall that a consequence of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is that a polynomial


of degree n has n zeros in the complex number system. So, a polynomial like
p(x) = x6 1 has six zeros, and in this case you can find the six zeros by factoring and
using the quadratic formula.

x6 1 = (x3 1)(x3 + 1) = (x 1)(x 2 + x + 1)(x + 1)(x 2 x + 1)


Consequently, the zeros are

x = 1, 1 {3i, and 1 {3i


x= 2 x= 2 .

Each of these numbers is called a sixth root of 1. In general, the nth root of a complex
number is defined as follows.

Definition of nth Root of The complex number w = a + bi is an nth root of the complex number z if
a Complex Number z = wn = (a + bi)n .

DeMoivres Theorem is useful in determining roots of complex numbers. To see how this
is done, let w be an nth root of z, where

w = s(cos + i sin ) z = r(cos + i cos ).


and
Then, by DeMoivres Theorem you have wn = sn(cos n + i sin n ), and because w n = z,
it follows that

sn (cos n + i sin n ) = r(cos + i sin ).


Now, because the right and left sides of this equation represent equal complex numbers, you
can equate moduli to obtain sn = r which implies that s = { n r and equate principal

arguments to conclude that and n must differ by a multiple of 2 . Note that r is a


positive real number and so s = { n r is also a positive real number. Consequently, for some

integer k, n = + 2 k, which implies that


+2k
= .
n
Finally, substituting this value for into the polar form of w produces the result stated in
the following theorem.
SECTION 8.3 POLAR FORM AND DEMOIVRES THEOREM 489

Theorem 8.6 For any positive integer n, the complex number

n th Roots of a Complex z = r (cos + i sin )


Number has exactly n distinct roots. These n roots are given by

[ ( ) + i sin( )]
+2k +2k
{
n r cos
n n
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.

Figure 8.9 REMARK: Note that when k exceeds n 1, the roots begin to repeat. For instance, if
Imaginary
axis
k = n, the angle is
+ 2n
= +2
n n
2
n n which yields the same value for the sine and cosine as k = 0.
r 2
n Real
axis The formula for the nth roots of a complex number has a nice geometric interpretation,
as shown in Figure 8.9. Note that because the nth roots all have the same modulus (length)
{n r, they will lie on a circle of radius {
n r with center at the origin. Furthermore, the n roots

are equally spaced along the circle, because successive nth roots have arguments that differ
nth Roots of a Complex Number by 2 /n.
You have already found the sixth roots of 1 by factoring and the quadratic formula. Try
solving the same problem using Theorem 8.6 to see if you get the roots shown in Figure
8.10. When Theorem 8.6 is applied to the real number 1, the nth roots are given a special
namethe nth roots of unity.
Figure 8.10
Imaginary
axis
1 + 3i 1+ 3 i
2 2 2 2

1 1 Real
axis

1 3i 1 3 i
2 2 2 2
6th Roots of Unity
490 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

EXAMPLE 5 Finding the nth Roots of a Complex Number


Determine the fourth roots of i.

Solution In polar form, you can write i as

i = 1 cos( 2
+ i sin )
2
so that r = 1, = /2. /2
[ (
Then, 2k
by applying Theorem 8.6, you have
i1/4 = { + i sin /2 + 2k
4 1 cos +

4 4 4 4
) ( )]
(8 + 2 ) + i sin(8 + 2 ).
k k
= cos

Setting k = 0, 1, 2, and 3 you obtain the four roots

z1 = cos + i sin
8 8
5 5
z 2 = cos + i sin
8 8
9 9
z3 = cos + i sin
8 8
13 13
z4 = cos + i sin
8 8
as shown in Figure 8.11.

REMARK: In Figure 8.11 note that when each of the four angles, /8, 5 /8, 9 /8, and
13 /8 is multiplied by 4, the result is of the form ( /2) + 2k .

Figure 8.11
Imaginary
axis
cos 5 + i sin 5
8 8

cos + i sin
8 8
Real
axis

cos 9 + i sin 9
8 8
cos 13 + i sin 13
8 8
SECTION 8.3 EXERCISES 491

SECTION 8.3 EXERCISES


In Exercises 14, express the complex number in polar form. 25. 7(cos 0 + i sin 26. 6(cos + i sin )
0)
1. Imaginary 2. Imaginary In Exercises 2734, perform the indicated operation and leave the
axis axis result in polar form.
3i
[( )][4(cos 6 + i sin 6)]
Real 3
1 axis 27. 3 cos + i sin
2 3 3
[
2 3
1 28. cos + i sin 6 cos + i sin
4( )][ ( )]
1
Real 2 2 4 4
2 2 2i axis
1 1
29. [0.5(cos + i sin )] [ 0.5(cos[ ] + i sin[ ])]

[( )][3 (
2
)]
1 2
3. Imaginary 4. 30. 3 cos + i sin cos + i sin
Imaginary 3
axis axis 3 3 3
1 + 3i
31. 2[cos(2 /3) + i sin(2 /3)]
3 3
2 4[cos(2 /9) + i sin(2 /9)]
6 1
Real 2
axis cos(5 /3) + i sin(5 /3)
6 5 3 2 1 32.
cos + i sin
2 Real
3 axis 12[cos( /3) + i sin( /3)]
1 1 2 33.
3[cos( /6) + i sin( /6)]
In Exercises 516, represent the complex number graphically, and
34. 9[cos(3 /4) + i sin(3 /4)]
give the polar form of the number. (Use the principle argument.)
5. 2 2i 5[cos( /4) + i sin( /4)]
6. {3 + i
7. 2(1 + {3 i ) 8. 2 ({3 i ) In Exercises 3544, use DeMoivres Theorem to find the indicated
5

9. 6i 10. 4 powers of the given complex number. Express the result in standard
form.
11. 7 12. 2i
13. 1 + 6i 14. 2{2 i 35. (1 + i)4 36. (2 + 2i)6
15. 3 i 16. 4 + 2i 37. ( 1 + i) 10 38. ({3 + i ) 7
3
3

39. (1 {3i )
In Exercises 1726, represent the complex number graphically, and
[(
40. 5 cos )]
+ i sin
)]
9 9
[3(cos 5 42. (cos 5
give the standard form of the number.
3 3
(
4)
17. 2 cos + i sin 18. 5 cos + i sin 41. 5 4 5 10
+ i sin 6 + i sin
)
6 4

3
( 2
5
2 )5 3 7
4
7
4
43. 2 cos 44.
5 cos 3 + i sin 3
8 4
+ i sin

19. (cos 3
+ i sin
3 ) 20.
(cos 4
+ i sin
4
) [( 2 2)] [( 2 2 )]
2 4
In Exercises 4556, (a) use DeMoivres Theorem to find the
21. 3.75 cos ( + i sin ) 22. (
8 cos + i sin ) indicated roots, (b) represent each of the roots graphically, and

( )
4 4
(
6 6 (c) express each of the roots in standard form.
5 5
24. 6 cos + i sin 45. Square roots: 16 cos + i sin
4 cos 3 + i sin 3
)
23.
( 2 2 ) 6 6 3 3
492 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES

46. Square roots: 9 cos( 2


+ i sin
2
66. Show that the negative of z = r(cos + i sin ) is

3 3) z = r[cos( + ) + i sin( + )].


( 4 4

3)
47. Fourth roots: 16 cos + i sin 67. Writing

48.
5
3
Fifth roots: 32(cos + i sin
5 (
iz, and z/i in the complex plane. 6 6 )
(a) Let z = r(cos + i sin ) = 2 cos + i sin . Sketch z,

6 6)
(b) What is the geometric effect of multiplying a complex
49. Square roots: 25i 50. Fourth roots: 625i number z by i ? What is the geometric effect of dividing
z by i ?
51. Cube roots: 125 3i)
2 (1 + {
68. Calculus Recall that the Maclaurin series for e x, sin x, and
cos x are
52. Cube roots: 4{2 (1 i)
x 2 x3 x 4
53. Cube roots: 8 54. Fourth roots: i
ex = 1 + x + + + +...
2! 3! 4!
55. Fourth roots: 1 56. Cube roots: 1000 x 3 x5 x 7
sin x = x + +...
In Exercises 5762, find all the solutions to the equation and repre- 3! 5! 7!
sent your solutions graphically. 2 4 6
cos x = 1 x + x x + . . . .
57. x 4 i = 0 58. x 3 + 1 = 0 2! 4! 6!
59. x 5 + 243 = 0 60. x 4 81 = 0 (a) Substitute x = i into the series for ex and show that
3 4
61. x + 64i = 0 62. x + i = 0 ei = cos + i sin .
63. Given two complex numbers z 1 = r1(cos 1 + i sin 1) and (b) Show that any complex number z = a + bi can be
z 2 = r2(cos 2 + i sin 2) with z 2 G 0 prove that expressed in polar form as z = rei .
z 1 r1 i i

z = r [cos( 1 2) + i sin( 1 2)].


(c) Prove that if z = re , then z = re .
2 2
(d) Prove the amazing formula ei = 1.
64. Show that the complex conjugate of z = r(cos + i sin ) is

z = r [cos( ) + i sin( )].


65. Use the polar form of z and z in Exercise 64 to find each of
the following.
(a) zz (b) z/z, z G 0

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