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( {2 )
r 1+i 1+ i2
{i = . That is, = i.
b {2
Real To work effectively with powers and roots of complex numbers, it is helpful to use a polar
a 0 axis representation for complex numbers, as shown in Figure 8.6. Specifically, if a + bi is a
nonzero complex number, then let 0 be the angle from the positive x-axis to the radial line
passing through the point (a, b) and let r be the modulus of a + bi. So,
Complex Number: a + bi
Rectangular Form: (a, b) a = r cos , b = r sin , and r = { a 2 + b2
Polar Form: (r, )
and you have a + bi = (r cos ) + (r sin )i from which the following polar form of a
complex number is obtained.
Definition of Polar Form The polar form of the nonzero complex number z = a + bi is given by
of a Complex Number z = r(cos + i sin )
where a = r cos , b = r sin , r = {a 2 + b2, and tan = b/a. The number r is
the
modulus of z and 0 is the argument of z.
484 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES
Because there are infinitely many choices for the argument, the polar form of a complex
number is not unique. Normally, the values of 0 that lie between and are used, though
on occasion it is convenient to use other values. The value of 0 that satisfies the inequality
< Principal argument
is called the principal argument and is denoted by Arg(z). Two nonzero complex numbers
in polar form are equal if and only if they have the same modulus and the same principal
argument.
Solution (a) Because a = 1 and b = 1, then r 2 = 1 2 + (1)2 = 2, which implies that r = {2.
From a = r cos and b = r sin ,
a 1 {2 b 1 {2
cos = = = and sin = = = .
r {2 2 r {2 2
So, = /4 and
[ ( 4 ) + i sin( 4 )].
z = {2 cos
(b) Because a = 2 and b = 3, then r 2 = 2 2 + 32 = 13, which implies that r = {13. So,
a 2 b 3
cos = = and sin = =
r {13 r {13
2 ) ( 2 )]
= {13 [cos(0.98) + i sin(0.98)].
(c) Because a = 0 and b = 1, it follows that r = 1 = /2, so
and
(
z = 1 cos
2
+ i sin ).
2
The polar forms derived in parts (a), (b), and (c) are depicted graphically in Figure 8.7.
SECTION 8.3 POLAR FORM AND DEMOIVRES THEOREM 485
Figure 8.7
Imaginary Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis axis
4
z = 2 + 3i z=i
3 1
Real 2
axis
1 1
z=1i Real
Real
2 axis
axis
(c) z = 1 cos + i sin
1 2
(a) z = 2 cos 4 + i sin 4
[ ( ) ( )] (b) z = 13[cos(0.98) ( 2 2 )
+ i sin(0.98)]
[ ( 3) + i sin( 3)]
z = 8 cos
Solution Because cos( /3) = 1/2 and sin( /3) = {3/2, you can obtain the standard form
]
1 {3
= 4 4{3i.
2 2
The polar form adapts nicely to multiplication and division of complex numbers.
Suppose you are given two complex numbers in polar form
z1 = r1(cos 1+ i sin 1) and z2 = r2(cos 2+ i sin ).
2
and
sin( 1 + 2 ) = sin 1 cos 2+ cos
1 sin 2
you have
z1z2 = r1r2[cos( 1 + 2 ) + i sin( 1 + 2)].
This establishes the first part of the following theorem. The proof of the second part is left
to you. (See Exercise 63.)
486 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES
z1 r1
z2 = r2 [cos( 1 ) + i sin( 1 )], z2 G 0 Quotient
2 2
This theorem says that to multiply two complex numbers in polar form, multiply moduli
and add arguments, and to divide two complex numbers, divide moduli and subtract argu-
ments. (See Figure 8.8.)
Figure 8.8
Imaginary Imaginary
axis axis
z1z2 z2 z1 z2
1 + 2 r r2 r1 z1
2 z2
r1r 2 2 r1 z1 r2
r1 1 2
1 1 2
Real Real
axis axis
REMARK: Try performing the multiplication and division in Example 3 using the stan-
dard forms
5{2 5{2 {3 1
i and z2 =
z1 = + 2 + i.
2 6 6
DeMoivres Theorem
The final topic in this section involves procedures for finding powers and roots of complex
numbers. Repeated use of multiplication in the polar form yields
z = r(cos + i sin )
z2 = r(cos + i sin ) r (cos + i sin ) = r 2(cos 2 + i sin 2 )
z3 = r(cos + i sin ) r 2(cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r3(cos 3 + i sin 3 ).
Similarly,
z4 = r4(cos 4 + i sin 4 )
z 5 = r 5(cos 5 + i sin 5 ).
This pattern leads to the following important theorem, named after the French mathemati-
cian Abraham DeMoivre (16671754). You are asked to prove this theorem in Chapter
Review Exercise 71.
3 3 )
By DeMoivres Theorem,
(1 + {3i)12 = 2 cos [(
2 2
+ i sin
)]
12
3 3
[cos
12(2 ) 12(2 )
= 212
3
+ i sin
3 ]
488 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES
= 4096(cos 8 + i sin 8 )
Each of these numbers is called a sixth root of 1. In general, the nth root of a complex
number is defined as follows.
Definition of nth Root of The complex number w = a + bi is an nth root of the complex number z if
a Complex Number z = wn = (a + bi)n .
DeMoivres Theorem is useful in determining roots of complex numbers. To see how this
is done, let w be an nth root of z, where
[ ( ) + i sin( )]
+2k +2k
{
n r cos
n n
where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
Figure 8.9 REMARK: Note that when k exceeds n 1, the roots begin to repeat. For instance, if
Imaginary
axis
k = n, the angle is
+ 2n
= +2
n n
2
n n which yields the same value for the sine and cosine as k = 0.
r 2
n Real
axis The formula for the nth roots of a complex number has a nice geometric interpretation,
as shown in Figure 8.9. Note that because the nth roots all have the same modulus (length)
{n r, they will lie on a circle of radius {
n r with center at the origin. Furthermore, the n roots
are equally spaced along the circle, because successive nth roots have arguments that differ
nth Roots of a Complex Number by 2 /n.
You have already found the sixth roots of 1 by factoring and the quadratic formula. Try
solving the same problem using Theorem 8.6 to see if you get the roots shown in Figure
8.10. When Theorem 8.6 is applied to the real number 1, the nth roots are given a special
namethe nth roots of unity.
Figure 8.10
Imaginary
axis
1 + 3i 1+ 3 i
2 2 2 2
1 1 Real
axis
1 3i 1 3 i
2 2 2 2
6th Roots of Unity
490 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES
i = 1 cos( 2
+ i sin )
2
so that r = 1, = /2. /2
[ (
Then, 2k
by applying Theorem 8.6, you have
i1/4 = { + i sin /2 + 2k
4 1 cos +
4 4 4 4
) ( )]
(8 + 2 ) + i sin(8 + 2 ).
k k
= cos
z1 = cos + i sin
8 8
5 5
z 2 = cos + i sin
8 8
9 9
z3 = cos + i sin
8 8
13 13
z4 = cos + i sin
8 8
as shown in Figure 8.11.
REMARK: In Figure 8.11 note that when each of the four angles, /8, 5 /8, 9 /8, and
13 /8 is multiplied by 4, the result is of the form ( /2) + 2k .
Figure 8.11
Imaginary
axis
cos 5 + i sin 5
8 8
cos + i sin
8 8
Real
axis
cos 9 + i sin 9
8 8
cos 13 + i sin 13
8 8
SECTION 8.3 EXERCISES 491
[( )][3 (
2
)]
1 2
3. Imaginary 4. 30. 3 cos + i sin cos + i sin
Imaginary 3
axis axis 3 3 3
1 + 3i
31. 2[cos(2 /3) + i sin(2 /3)]
3 3
2 4[cos(2 /9) + i sin(2 /9)]
6 1
Real 2
axis cos(5 /3) + i sin(5 /3)
6 5 3 2 1 32.
cos + i sin
2 Real
3 axis 12[cos( /3) + i sin( /3)]
1 1 2 33.
3[cos( /6) + i sin( /6)]
In Exercises 516, represent the complex number graphically, and
34. 9[cos(3 /4) + i sin(3 /4)]
give the polar form of the number. (Use the principle argument.)
5. 2 2i 5[cos( /4) + i sin( /4)]
6. {3 + i
7. 2(1 + {3 i ) 8. 2 ({3 i ) In Exercises 3544, use DeMoivres Theorem to find the indicated
5
9. 6i 10. 4 powers of the given complex number. Express the result in standard
form.
11. 7 12. 2i
13. 1 + 6i 14. 2{2 i 35. (1 + i)4 36. (2 + 2i)6
15. 3 i 16. 4 + 2i 37. ( 1 + i) 10 38. ({3 + i ) 7
3
3
39. (1 {3i )
In Exercises 1726, represent the complex number graphically, and
[(
40. 5 cos )]
+ i sin
)]
9 9
[3(cos 5 42. (cos 5
give the standard form of the number.
3 3
(
4)
17. 2 cos + i sin 18. 5 cos + i sin 41. 5 4 5 10
+ i sin 6 + i sin
)
6 4
3
( 2
5
2 )5 3 7
4
7
4
43. 2 cos 44.
5 cos 3 + i sin 3
8 4
+ i sin
19. (cos 3
+ i sin
3 ) 20.
(cos 4
+ i sin
4
) [( 2 2)] [( 2 2 )]
2 4
In Exercises 4556, (a) use DeMoivres Theorem to find the
21. 3.75 cos ( + i sin ) 22. (
8 cos + i sin ) indicated roots, (b) represent each of the roots graphically, and
( )
4 4
(
6 6 (c) express each of the roots in standard form.
5 5
24. 6 cos + i sin 45. Square roots: 16 cos + i sin
4 cos 3 + i sin 3
)
23.
( 2 2 ) 6 6 3 3
492 CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX VECTOR SPACES
3)
47. Fourth roots: 16 cos + i sin 67. Writing
48.
5
3
Fifth roots: 32(cos + i sin
5 (
iz, and z/i in the complex plane. 6 6 )
(a) Let z = r(cos + i sin ) = 2 cos + i sin . Sketch z,
6 6)
(b) What is the geometric effect of multiplying a complex
49. Square roots: 25i 50. Fourth roots: 625i number z by i ? What is the geometric effect of dividing
z by i ?
51. Cube roots: 125 3i)
2 (1 + {
68. Calculus Recall that the Maclaurin series for e x, sin x, and
cos x are
52. Cube roots: 4{2 (1 i)
x 2 x3 x 4
53. Cube roots: 8 54. Fourth roots: i
ex = 1 + x + + + +...
2! 3! 4!
55. Fourth roots: 1 56. Cube roots: 1000 x 3 x5 x 7
sin x = x + +...
In Exercises 5762, find all the solutions to the equation and repre- 3! 5! 7!
sent your solutions graphically. 2 4 6
cos x = 1 x + x x + . . . .
57. x 4 i = 0 58. x 3 + 1 = 0 2! 4! 6!
59. x 5 + 243 = 0 60. x 4 81 = 0 (a) Substitute x = i into the series for ex and show that
3 4
61. x + 64i = 0 62. x + i = 0 ei = cos + i sin .
63. Given two complex numbers z 1 = r1(cos 1 + i sin 1) and (b) Show that any complex number z = a + bi can be
z 2 = r2(cos 2 + i sin 2) with z 2 G 0 prove that expressed in polar form as z = rei .
z 1 r1 i i