vi PheRAce largely upon his own experience ia many lands. Magmatic deposte sate Leaed in uew detail an ace sition ted supergene ensichment Considerable space is devoted to deposits that arse from evaporstion ‘nd seinentation; metamorphism has been asigned place in miner formation, an x chapter on ground water i neued, "Settee that row oul ef date have been eliminated or rowed to pereetage come parisons. Extendal Weatment je not aevorded mctallngiel ad iin- Ing presses under miners} commits "This bok has hen prepared der trying circumstances. Te niin- tion under tranquil eoitiens merged into unsettling prementions af world upheaval and the ino the rapt early stage of wend ent sm, The final stage lve lina pursed under the sts af ‘ar duties, nd indulzence i equtetel for inconsistencies or ovrs that right be revealed. The author is aware of ome shortemings, Under ephemeral wa dees migeral presuetion of various counties has bien ‘tactically until ve sbmormallyineressed, ate normal conditions, therefore, are presented herein, or the materiel presented in his Bole the suthor gratefully ge- novledges the heritage of learning of thnee who have preceded ine tad of Lie eontenporsrie. Hi own thirty-five sere of fil, taach= ing, and torial experiences hae xen dewwn pen Sine fontmatee ave emitted specific acknowledgments lacking in the teat are hee sraterllyaecsnied lis thanks ae also de to Hhoxc who have fel fst permis for ase of sherstons ew Hey, Gas Sinz ie CONTENTS " Parr I. Pusciries axy Puocasses Irtroduetion ‘Brief History ofthe Uso of Minerals and ofthe Development ‘of Reonomie Geology ‘Material of Mineral Deposit and their Formation ‘Materia 10; Formation of Mineral, 2: Stab of Mier, ‘3 Geli Thermometer. 36 ‘Magma, Rocks and Mincral Depts Magnes wid Diferetintion 15; ravatins, 65: Magmas end Mineral Depots, 39 Processes of Forintion of Mineral Deposte 131 Mapmatic Concentration 9.52 Suimation 80; 5 Come tect Mrtamorphiom, 81; 6 Metammatir Relaromen, 25 lon 1302 $8 Mechanica! Concentration, 198: 59 Revd Conentration 21°; 510 Geta and Supiryene Bnet, 243: 511 Metomorpian, 2010 Suman) of Origin of Mie ral Dope, 391 Controls of Mineral Localization ‘inched Contr, 34; Sraigrephic, 306; Phyeal ond Chemeca, $09: Fpncons Hocks, 311; Zonal Datrbuton, S13; Metalgeetie pela onl Prownece, 317 ‘Folding and Faulting of Mineral Deposite Paling, 329; Phin 332 Classifiations of Mineral Deposits Resourec, Intemational Relations, andi Consereation jn ‘Minerals Geology in Propeeting, Exploration, Development, snd ‘Valuation of Mineral Depts ‘Aen, 295; Geophys, 398; Exploration and Development, oe [Extrastion of Metals and MBrale Mining, $8 Min, 406; Salting, 1 18 a“ a a5x coxTENns Par 1 12, The Previous Metals (Gal 417; Seer, $30; Platinum, 472 ‘The Nenfeerowe Male ‘Copper Le! ol Zine, 25; Tin 546; Aluminum, 661 14, trom and Feeralloy Metals Tone 61, Manganese, 378; Nis, $83; Chromo, 88; Iaitcnim, i Tanpten, 5; Vendio, 500 Cobalt 20) ‘Minor Metals and Related Nonmetale “Anlinary, 07 Arvnie, 0: Bera, 005; Bizmuth,e06: ‘asm 8 Magnes, Merny. 8 Radom ant eon 13; Seen aad Tern, i; Taam an Columb, tt Titan, 6742 Zrenoem, 610; Mla ‘Matauuic Manin Devosers Pave UL Clasifeaton of Nontallie Minera 16, ‘The Mineral Fuels ‘Col 2; Petralum and Gon 062 17. Corunie Materials Clay. 084; Feng, 69; Ot, 0 1% Sono ming 1 pe el yea cr mice henselae 2 nna Seri Mane ta i rk ea a Me ley aoe te se as rt Ss Oe forte ioe da ne ice Fan et ged ‘Mitraen 780: Lahn, 781; Stroniam, 732; Miter, Noxsomratic Mista, Danostes a, a7 co so 8 2 88 coxre ns 22 Fenilizer Minerals ota, 28; Nitrates, 205; Phosphates, 78; Limestone and ime, 3 Sapa 8 28. Abrasives and Abrasive Minerale Diamonde, 800; Corvedum, S11; Emery, $12; Garnet, 818; Natural Sites, 8153 Mseafanro, Sts; Manufatord 1 24, Gemstones Diamond, 24; Ruby and Sopp, $2; Emerald ot Ber, 1835; Opal, 89; Other, 83" 25, Gronnd-Water Supphes Tsoex Principles 842; Supp, Sit 8 wa se sotCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Eronomie geology deals with the material of the mineral Kingdom that man wrest from the cath for his nests of life and comfort. ‘The seareh for thetn hs ven rise to vayaees of discovery ant stte- ment of new lands; their ownership hse rested in eomnercal or politcal supeeney, or hs cause strife and war> Tn the quest for these mineral substances Knowledge of tie distribution, character, ‘reurrence, and uses has gradually accumulated, and ths knowledge has let theories reganding their ign. ‘Ths, the snbjrt of mineral Aleposite developed, and ae ch was taught ae one phase of mining 32 {he early mining woboole. A greater attention wu paid Lo the rorks that enclosed the ore depois to deciphering ther eharacter, structure, ‘and origi, and to the land forms developed upon te rocks, the brow Selene of grology gradually row Tulay scone prolayy a sepa- ate branch of geology, as are minerlagy,petrotony, paleontology al See reget eerie eee tat "Tho tate of our mineral indy, which i econ in iptace to agriculture, reste largely upon the functioning of eeanomie cology for continued supply of matiriaks. As C.K. Leth espesce ft Wit the advent of the nde revauion in Fingal entry ag gon thera expiation of earth aaxer 2 a to ses moat for material iia ths short tine, at on ever anclening ec, fain have terre the fndamenal base of insists =I hae Tuned years the produtien of ion hs ceed 1004, f mineral fel 750, and of compe, Oak. ‘The accelerate ofthe at of mineral explatation may be rand fram the lst thatthe werd ba apt more (fis ean inthe ct emt year tan bn all preg tory ‘As the icatale appetite formers as Yen, many sources supply wie, fomeriy were alee areteginng to ek rolls sal Ate dono multi te soes kag to be eae fect Leome poportane ally fever” ‘hie alarming consumption of our mineral resoutees and dhe exhat= tion of known reserves teas that new supplies must be discovered to take Uc place i the industry eto persist unimpaired, With waningryTkopveTion Uiseovery of obvious mineral outerops, search must be directed to the Jess obvious deposits, of which vast numbers must be hidden by the Ubiquitous overburden. Every art of geology inst be employed to this ‘end, and it promises to beeorve the important work of the eecnomie scologst, Tn this eonneetion the petroleun geologist hus already made ‘tn envinble record inthe adaptation of geophysiealinellds and inst ments to the discovery of petroleum, ‘The scope of ceonomie geology inchudes not only metallic ore deporte but the broader Held of nonmetalics, whose value today ix thcee times that ofthe metallic ores. Tn addition, i ineludes th ral appliation of geology to tho uses of man. ‘Thus, it deals with practical problem of the industries and ses, the eeourrenge of sub= surface waters and soils, and the applieation of geologic prineiples to important engineering projects. ‘The construrtin of any large dam, for example, involves questions of the suitability of the foundation rock, of leakage, of subsurface water fox, and of the ebaracter and ecourees of materials that enter into its constriction. ‘The subject of ‘cenomie geology Is related also to geography and economies, singe it fomishes information regarding the geographic distribution and ne sourees of the earth materials that are the foundation of the extractive industries "The early kinship with mining, and metal mining in particular, with whieh economic geology grew up, hs persisted closely, and there is ow a specialned mubdivision of eemomie geology Known a= aning ‘geology, whick deals eapeially withthe problem of oe depos their relation to metal mining and, to some extent, with metallurgy. ‘This relation may be understood better by considering thatthe desired ritals are lacked up in ore minerals, which ae admixed with undesired tnineras oF rock to form ores, anil thei separation involves the art of metallurgy; the extraction of ores from the ground falls within the realm of mining: wl the study of the occurrence, localization, and torigin ofthese ores an their relation to the enelosing ron isthe domain Of mining geokgy. The economic geologist functions eatly in mining ‘operations when he ie ealled upon to deter tnd value of mineral deposits, wl particu pth. In addition, he cooperates with the mining engineer during raining operations in the exploration and development of mineral ‘epost, a nding faulted basics and in other way’ helping to main tain re reserves, and i the proper locaton of mine workings to avoid ‘caving ground. ‘Tn the future he will be called upon more and more to apply geology to mineral fving in districts of waning mines. His Knowledge is sought also by the metalurgst to belp solve problems of ixrkopuerton " ‘ore and metal extraction andl to obigin suitable or mixtures for eonomical seting, ‘Another important sulxivision of economic geolagy is_prtroleun geology. Te deals specifically with the many problems of the lotion, ‘occurrence, migration, anv origin of petroleum and gas. ‘The petroleum geologist is called upon to determine probable eil-containing forms. tions, to unravel thee structure by geolosieal or geophysical meth, ‘and to loate prospecting wells. For this purpose he invokes 4 knowl tage of structural geology, stratigraphy, paleontology, and the oceur= rence of petroleum, ‘These examples indicate the broad seope of economic geology, Sinee it deals with the basie materials underlying the extractive industri, ite problems ave intertwined with those of diverse industries. Teenters into phases of transportation, international trade, and engineering. TC also embraces many intersting scientific problems in ite own field, in ‘which intelletuel eurinsity plays a greater part than utilitarian prob Jems. The problems of the genesis f iferent mineral deposits hole ‘opportunity for mgetcatinael research, Only crtsin pases of the bro field of eonomie geclogy are covered Jn this book, whieh confines itself Iargely to mineral deposit and the Drineples underlying their ceeurrenee and formation. The technology ‘of extraction (onining) and freatment (ore dressing and metallurgy) of the mineral substances are not considered, and little space i given to satisties. Also the geologienl features of other than sinceal deposits is beyond the scope of this book. ‘The mineral substances are not fol lowed far into industry save to indicate thelr uses. OF the great variety of mineral substanees won feom the earth forthe ses oF ma, coal is the mort valuable, fallowel by metallic mineral, petrolew ancl natural gas, al other nonmetallic substances such ae slay and gxpsun. 4 ‘For eave it sty and realy reference, these materials are divided in is book into two parts: mccalifeous epost, sul a© gol, copper: ‘on, or ekel (Part TI); and nonmetallic eubetanece, sucha eal lay, petroleum, oF gemstones (Part IIT). The nvetallferous depesite, oF dre deposits, ae sight forthe metals they contin, which are extracted srnerally in the metalic sate. These deposits are subdivided aecord- Sng tothe individual metals. ‘Typieal examples are deseribed, inorder that their content, ecurrenee, aad origin may bo studied. ‘The non- inetalie or earthy substances onthe other han, are not generally de= simed for their content of metal, but are largely utilized, after suitable processing, in the form in whieh they are extracted. For example lay 4s not mined for ite aluminum eantent nor asbestos fr its magnesium;4 INTRODUCTION but clay is tse ax 9 compound in making porcelain or pottery and sbestos is aed ae the mineral seston, "Their physieal propertcn jore than thei ehemiea, forthe mort part determine thir utilization. Both graphite an diamond, for example, eonss of earbon, but neither is dese for its carbon content. It is thir physical properties that take ane a coveted ge und the other a hats aon ehetiealeresisting stubtance desired for metallurgical rpose. ‘There are s0 many utilized nontetalle substances of such diverse sharaeter and origin that they defy simple elaeeeation. For the pur pose of this book, howewur, they are grouped according to thee ime portant uses, as for example, under mineral Toes, eramie materiale, ‘or metallurgical material, Such an arrangement offer the advantage, Toran intradurtory book, of ssembling mary diversified materials that Ihave common ase under welcknosn wtitasian groups susceptible of ready reference for both the student of geology and the interested reader, ‘The mode of occurrenco and wht coptitutes workable de- Poste ofthese materials willbe described under each group, "Feonomie minceal deposits are geolasie bodies that may bo worked for one or nore minerals oF metals. ‘They are exeoptionsl features, sparsely sealtered inthe rorks or on the earth's surfase; they constitute ‘ony an infinitesnal part of the earths crus, Ext they ste an ime portance far in excess of thee relative volume because of the highly Waluable materials they suppl to national wealth and industry, ‘They have been concentrated in the rocks under peculiar an exreptional eae ditions, whieh wll be our purpore to study, No two mineral deposte fre alike in all rexpeta; nevertheless, certsin broad principles eontol thet formation. To understand properly how a gold vein or elay ‘leposit has been forme ite necessary’ to understand frst the ennai tub of minceal deposit= and the process that operate within and on the ear to fru themn, Consequently, Part T of tie vol Alevoted largely to a general consideration of the prineiples and proe- fess of mineral formation CHAPTER 2 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE USE OF MINERALS AND OF ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGY ANCIENT TIMES: -Reonomic geology probably Id its inception with the ancient ulna tion of mineral products. Long ages must have passed, however, be- fore the early crude knowlege became a craft later to develop into w science. ‘Tho esrlyinecntive forthe aquisition of wach knowledge was undoubtedly mtiltarinn, bt later it sue raised to an inelleetval plane by the Gros philocophers “The fist earth materials used by primitive man were nonmetallic ‘substances — flint, chert, quart, and certain hard snd soft stones such fs quartite, sompstone o Tinestene — sought fr their se fa wespons, Jmplements tensile and for earving. Clay was widely and extensively ‘used fist for pottery and later for breks. Unquestionably olay repre= sents the frst lanproseale minora industry, an istry that hae pre sisted continuously through the ages. Burned elay figures believed to Ihe Auriguacian (90,000 to 29000 B.C.) have been discovered in Moravia, and excellent Paleolithic pottery of the Solutrean period (+1000 B.C.) hs heen found in Beypt. Brick, tie, and elay tablets ‘were extensively used by the Chaldeans, Babylonian, and eatly Eye ans for building Ue cites, fr ivigation, and for writing material, ‘Tho easly Asati and Mtican dvllngs were built with bricke made of clay. Later, blding stones were extensively tse. During the bude Ing of the pyramids (2080-2025 1.C.) this extractive industry must Ihave heen oi grand sale a the Pyramid of Gizc rontains 230,000 Dlocks of stone averaging 24 tons ape, Paleolithic man between 100.000 and 7000 B.C, according to 8. H Bal, wed 18 diferent yavictcs of nommctallie tones —dhaleedony, ‘guar, rock ergeal, serpentine, obsidian, pyrite jasper, eeatite, amber, jiadcite,ealete, amethyst, one forspar. He ako utile ochers or Inineral paints, “At about the tine Neolithic man became acquainted ‘with sole and eopper, he also used nephite,silimanite, and turquois, ‘These nontoetallie materi are most coon substaees that prob bly were found by accident ancl whose quest neither greatly stimilated5 [MIRE HISTORY OF THR Sk OF MINERALS Thuan curiosity nor erested spovielizd knowledge regarding their ‘occurence. They were aceeptel a+ found, and utilized. Exononaie seology had not Yet aticen; it wes the predann stage Eayrs Aa the desine for gemstones and metal beesne more urgent, however, ‘eonoinie geology rubably hae its inception, Pacts of eecurrenee ‘rere noted and rene era theories of origin were evolved; expedi= tions were organized for the dirovery and exploitation of deposits, snd ownership and barter of thee substances beraie an important part fof the ic ofthe people. even more important relatively thm i is today. Acconting to S. H. Ball, the use of gemstones snd the mining of them reac high art anon the early Egyptians, Bablonians, Assyrians, fd Indians. Gemstone were greatly priatdand living or dead, the Feyotian wae bederked vith jewels, whieh attained important sige nificance among.» people obseseil with mystcinm. In presdynastic times (+5400 B.C.) twas the color rather than the substance that the Egyptian priaed wnct, ‘The bun eraftenen erated pleasing eolor sehemes, tilling the azure ofthe laps lazuli, the red of the carnelian, the purple of the amethyst, the green of the malachite, the yellow of the jasper, and the blue of the trquois He also used agate, beryl chalcedony, and garnet and shape ab poised hard stone, producing fot only ovoid bt whe faceted beads AMT these stones except lap, according to Ball, have come from Egypt itself. Even in those emote times there nnst have en intemationa barter, since the Taps wae probubly obtained from Afghanistan, some 2400 miles away: (Other stones ate known to have appeared, according to Ball, such si ony in the 2 Dymtsty anurite an jade nthe Ml rymasty and iver i the 6th Dynasty (2625-2475 B.C). The stele of Nebona (18th Dynasty) read: "T have constersted numerous gifts in the teauple of mi’ father Osiris in sver in gold in Inpis lazuli in eopper fd in precious stones.” (Ball) Late, under Greek infuence in the titne of the Prolomios sews ether stones were introduced, inluding sone Indian gems, sch sapyie, secon, nd topaz “The oliest form of rong was for gens and devorative stones, and for over 200) years the Bbartobs dispatched expeditions including ‘engineers ant prospectors tothe Sinai Penineala for turqusis, and int the Sudan, Bal identifies = the fist economic geologit. the Fr Captain Haroets, who abn 2000 B.C, le an expedition to inal and after 3 mathe! prospeting discover and extracted large quantities of turguois. ‘The aneient Beyptians (from 1925 B.C.) sank hundreds of Grech, and Related Coleare shaft for emeralds on the Eayptian cost ofthe Re Sea ertain work- lings are said to have been 00 fect de and sficiently Tare to permit, 400 men to work ata time therein, (Ball) ‘The first metals used were probably gathered ae native metal from streams by primitive man, Gold is presumed to have been used before ‘capper, and eopper is eonsider by spine to have been discovered 180) years B.C; ertaaly copper vas knowa tothe Egyptians i 12,000 8. and was widely used in Europe about 4000 B.C. Strabo tells us that in the country of Saones, where is Colehis, the winter torrents bring ‘down gokl which the barbarians eoleet in troughs piered with holes ‘nd lined with feors.”” Hence the legend of the Golden Flee. Sueh flecces, hung onthe trees to dry so thatthe fine gold might be beaten out fof them, spurred Jason and the Angonants in the ship Argo to seek Golden Flees near the sore ofthe Buxine. ‘This ste east record ‘of pacer gold shining al a pote expression of an early mining adven= ture, yen today somevbat similar methods are uiized to extract fine placer gold in South America. ‘At the ancient mines of Cassandra, Greve, which Sagui estimates ‘tohave been mined from shout 2500 to 356 B.C, the skill extraction ‘of the goldelver ores was bused pon «knowledge oftheir localization tthe intoreections of Rss, torand whieh times weve run below the fxidized zones. Also, the complications of faulting wre suleentle ‘understood to trace the displaced end of a lode beyond an important elt. A bogioning had teen tone fn understanding the oecurrouce af ‘A knowledge ofthe occurrence of ores andthe beginning of curiosity regarding their genesis is shown iu the writings ofthe Greek aan Roman Dhilowophers. Herodotus (4847-125 B.C.) told of the oveurrence of sold in quarts veins in the Krist district, Gree, late hy Diodorus. Theophrastus (372-287 1.C.), a pupil of his Book of Stonce, the fist mineralogy text, decribed 16 minerals, grouped as metals, stones, and earths. Strabo, writing in AD. 19, ays in reference to alluvial mining ia Spsin: “ Gold is not only dug from mines, but Hkewieeolleeted; sand containing gold being wacked down by the rivers and torrents - at the presi day more golds produced by washing than by diggingit from the mines.” (H.C. Ham= iiton and W. Fulroner) Many deverptions of ore oveurrenees in Spain are given in Plin’s elaborate telinienl descriptions, He also tells ue that Hannibal had silver mine, named the Bacbulo, in eouth- ‘em Spain, in a mountain that had been penetrated 1200 paces. Pliny said it yielded 300 pounds of silver daily. The produetion of silvers lead ores was an important industry in Attien sta remote period, thes [BRIE HISTORY OF "HE UAE OF AMLNERALA famous mines of Laurium having been worked lng before the days of “Xenophon, who wrote a report upon them in 09 BC ‘The aneents ete nore than 2000 sats one of whieh ie SS feet deep, and Jocations drove an accurate knowledge of the currehee of fips A Netspace ee ils tenes ae aeons Goong Ayo e 21, Petea am sgatne of Aro. (Prom ian Adana) ‘Throughout the Dark Ages litle appears to have been added to the knowledge of the early phitsophers exe by Avicenna (080-1027), the Arabian translator of Aristotle, who grouped minerals as Stones Sulphur minerals, Metals, aod Soldt (Crock), this definitely recogni: Jing the sulphide group of minerals (COMMENCEMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC ERAS ‘The first reasonable theory of ore senesis wa formulate by Goonsine Agrivola (Baer) (141585). Hum in Sasone amidst the mines oF SEVENTINNTIE AND KIGHTEEVTIL CENTURIES ° the Rragsbirge, he became « keen observer of minerals and # earful teconler (Fig. 21). Although some of his views were fantati, he showed in his De Re Metallica that odes orginted by deposition of ‘minerals in *canales "(fissure from eirulating underground waters Targely of surfuce origin, that had become heated within the eaeth and had dissolved the minerals feom the rocks. He made a clear distine- tion between homoyencous minerals (minerals) snl heteropeneous min ‘rae (rocks); the former he divided Sato Bartha, Salt, Gemstones, Metals and Other minerals. He also classifed vee deposits genetieally into veins (vena profonds), Is, stock, an stsingers. Prieto Arie ‘ola, most writers thought chat Ides were forme al the same time as the earth, but he recogaiatd clearly that they were of different age from tho enclosing rorks, as he states: “10 say that hes are of the sume age as the earth sself the opinion of the vulgne'” (De Re Metalica, 1386). This knowlege of cuath rater led hina tobe the firstto refute vigorously the eficuey of the forked hazel stick commonly used at that time in attempting 10 find metals and water. He made accurate observations on the weathering of rocks and the surface de- composition of metallic slide ores, Many of hie careful obaervac tons ate qusintly ported by intersting woodeuts (Fig, 22), ‘Agvieola's writings are amens the most exginaconeibutions tothe study of ore genesis. They were a market advance in scientife thought fad istuoneed greatly the thought of later wetes Contributions of the Sevententh and Eighteenth Centuries Although knovlege of minerals and rocks must fave continued (0 ‘accumulate inthe extraordinary mining atmexpliere of the Eragebinse fant the Harz Mountains, Witle information was recorded from the ime of Agrcala to that of Desearts, whose Principia Philosophae wee ublshed in 1644. Hie conception of the earth asa cooled star with 4 bot interior ed em to suet that the ore minerals were driven Tipwarl from a cep micalferous shell I interior heat inthe form 3 exhaltions nd resurgent surface waters, a be deposited lode= in the fissures of the outer stony erst. ‘This conception is ekanly the forerunner of tone of Use ideas held today. In the eighteenth eentury, the accumulated factual knowledge far= ther incited human curiosity as to the genesis of ore material. Under the stimulus of inpiring leaders, bypotbesos of origin burst forth, whieh atthe end of the century Ted to vigorous ceutroversiss. Most of these theories emanated from the German mining dite, ut the Swedes also made carly contsibutions, Becher (1708) and Henkel (725) attributed the origin of ore eins the action on stony materis of ‘vapors arising from “fermentation” in the bowels of the earth,0 MIRE HISTORY OF TNE Us OF ANNEAL ‘Henke’ en of transmutation" had in it the gem of modern metas romatism. Tn 1749 Zimmermann also anticipated the idea of meta- somatie replacement awhen he ascribe the ergin of los to the tame formation of rorks into metallic minerals and veintones, by the netion ‘of solutions that entered through innumerable small rents and other ‘openings in the racks. ‘This idea had in it also suggestion of the ‘iq 28 Medical mice empining the gma, (Url, Dee Metta) subsequent lateral-serction hypothesis. ‘To Van Appel (1749) belongs the enuit of having sown that veins were largely the Bling of faut fissures whose formation pected the eircalation of the ore-depasiting solutions, “His ideas, however, eeaped attention for a longtime LLehtnan, in 1753, explained thatthe upward branehing of veing indie ‘ate! deposition frou exhalations and Vapors that emanated from the furth’s Interior and rose through the erst lke sap rising from the oats into the branches of w trae (se frentepere). Such were the theories of the origin of mince deposits prior to 1756, SUVENTRENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 11 In that year an event occurred which profoundly affected the subue- ‘quent development of eonomie geology. The famous Mining Academy of Freberg, Germany, was founded inthe midst of the varied mineral ‘deposits ofthe Eragebirge. It famed teachers conducted excuri study the nearby ores an enclosing rocks; extensive mineral co were made and studied in the Academy. Scholars flocked to study under its master. Here the newer geology flourished, and for over a feentury and a quarter its teachings in ore deposits influenced world ‘thought. ‘Threughout most of the eighteenth century the prevalent view was ‘that mineral deposits were formed by exhalations from the earth terior that brought up the metals from depth and deposited them in fesues, or by substitution of rork matter. Lassns, however, in 1780, following Delius (1770) and Gerhard (1781), explained ore solutions as diflsed ascending water that dissolved scattered grains of metals from the rocks through whieh it passed. Thus, most ofthe germs of theories of mineral depoits had been considered, oven if unseientiially, before the controversial tine of Hutton and Werner, ‘When Abraham Gottlieb Wemer (Fig, 28) (1749-1807) became the professor of mineralogy and geology at the Freiberg Mining Academy jn 177S he discarded the theories of an interior sauree for the metals sand became an insistent advocate ofthe theory that anneal veins were formed by descending percolating water, devived from the primeval ‘univeral ocaa, from whi, according to his views, not only ecimente but all the jgncous and metamorphie rocks were precipitated. These waters, he thought, descended from above into fissures and there de= posited the vein mterals by ehemieal precipitation, Hs stimalating personality and fiery letares eased stents from all Europe to flock to him an to return as zealous disciples to defend his Neptunist views, ‘His thought then dominsted in all matters relating to ore genesis, par= ticularly after the publication, in 1791, of his elasie treatise om the ‘origin of veins. Werner's enthusiastic letures perhaps carried com ‘vietion to is hearers more by his personality and oratory than by the soundness of his facts, Tn one sense his Iendorship retarded the ade ‘yancement of thought rganding minces! genesis, but atthe same time his dogmatic statements aroused vigorous opposition and thus stimn- lated wider consideration of other ideas, of whieh tho most noteworthy ‘was the Phutonist or Vnlesnist school headed by Hutton. Hutton (bom in 1726), s quiet Seotelinan, averse to publishing, was ‘s careful observer and investigator, athe Theory of the Barth (1788) Ie first defined the true origin of plutonio and metamorphie rock, and Ie proponents waged bitter controversy with the Neptunist schol,2 BRIEF IMSTORY OF THE USE OF MINERALS ution also spptied his theory ofthe magnatie origin of igneous nicks to all mineral deposits, He claimed that ore minerals were not sake ble in water but were igneous injections. Tn the words of his advoente, Playfair (1802), “The materials which Sill the mineral veins were relted by heat an fore injected into the elfte and fissures of the strata.” Hatton's obvervations were confined largely to rocks rather Mp _fpbet Bee a “) ‘han veins, and with Werner i was the reverse, Hutton's correct come ‘lions ofthe origin of igneous rks nae hit go too fae in ate all veins to melted injections and isearing water w= possible agent, Werner: coreetconchsons reganing the of veins made him go too far in aseibing granites an basalts to water Aeporition, The Plutonists won ont with respect to the socks; the Neptunists prevailed with respect to the dominance of water in the formation of mineral veins, although, owing to the disgepute of Werner’ ho water a he formation, NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CETUS 13 ks, his ideas regarding ares were overlooked for some “The Ninctcenth and Twentieth Centuries ‘The Plotonist and Neptunist controverryqiiekrned obkerentions regarding the oreurrenre of winerals and rocks, am many data, pate ticularly regandin Hutton’: igneous ine iotion theory of mineral veins wa quickly forgotten, The eatiynine= teenth eentury waiters reverted to the pre-Wemer ideas of mineral formation by exhalatione from the interior of the earth, recognising more, however, the significance of water in the formation of veins Graduslly, water of igncous derivation ws considered to play the Smportant role. This view recived confirmation by the work of Neeker (1822) who, believing thatthe intrusions generated the vein materiale, dlemonstrated the love relationship, in various regions, tween igneous rocks and mineral dep ‘The connection of the mineralforming solutions with magmas was given further emphasis by the French geologists Daub, Seheerer, and Fie ce Beaumont. The briliant Daubrée ittodieed the frst experi rental methors ito the study of mineral deposit, In 2881 le peor diced artificial eassiterite (tinstone) from stannous chloride and n= ferred that vapors oF minevalizr= containing water, Sorin, andl boron generated at depth had deporited the tin ores and associated minerals Sehicerer in 1847, following Serope, who eoncluded that magmatic water played a part in the formation of igneos rocks, stated clearly that water was an important constituent of granite megmae and that mineral seine were formed hy exudation: of aq solutions fom sganite intrusions ‘A few months later an important paper by Elie de Beaumont ap- peared, which Thomas Crook stated was perhaps the " most important v wens, becaine available fund inflentiad paper ever published on the theory of ore depenit, lie de Beaumont right well be ealled the father of our madern thought fon the formation of mineral depasits, He was the dst to show that ‘most mineral deposits must be egarded as just one phase of igneous Activity. He recognized that water vapor was an esential feature in voleanie netivity and the metalifeo veins were formed as inerusta- tions upon the walls of flsures from hot waters of igneous origin, He Aistingtished these veins frem dikes injected in @ molten condition, Te cited occurrences of regregations of magnetite and chromite in base Jgneons rocks, which he considered hai erytalized ont during the eonl- ing of the intrusive, Ele de. Beaumont thus recognized eleuriy4 nh HISTORY OF THE USE OW MINERATS the igneous aflation of many types of mineral deposits — that some were forme! se eegrogations diving erystaliation of Ue magma ‘and that others were formed from hot aqueous emanations that seeped Upward from the izncous intrusion, Esentially similar views are held today, but for meny years the elear statements of Elie de Beaumont were overlook "The conticting opinions of thew times were carefully weighed by ‘Von Cotta, whose excellent treaties on ore deposits appented from Freie ‘erin 1859 (in English in 1870) and remained « standard text on maine cra eposits for two decades. He prevented enneice information rex fading the content, character, and structural and textul features of fnineral deposits and eareful deseriptions of the outstanding mineral districts, He exemined judcioly the various theories of mineral fenesis and coreetly eonthided that no-one theory wae applenble to all deposits, In ie concluding observations he remarks (Prime's ‘ranelation, 1870) “Thus the formation of les shows itself to be ‘very manifold; and appears to have always stood in some conntetion with neighboring .. eruptions of jgneons rocks. ‘The les] reaction of the igneous interior uf the ear create fscues, freed igneous Aid mnosee into many’ of the same, cause geseous emanations and sublimations in others; and in addition, during long pevids of time impelled the eieulation of heated water, which seed, disolvng at one point and again deporting the dissolve substances at another, dite alvin new enes in thir stead, ‘The whole proces isnot confined ta ‘ay particular geologial period, or any particular locality." Such statements might well be & part of a modern textbook. Ie shows Cleasly that most mineral deposits were the produets of dep-seated igneous action, He recognized not only « definite acoal arrangement ‘of minerals dependent upon temperature and pressure conditions of ‘lposition bat alo certain superteial changes imposed upon mineral ‘posits by weathering, Von Cota’ balance treatise exerted prox found influence upon the subject of exnomie geology, [\ trend back toward the Hlutlon views of & ttaght igneous origin for mineral deposits Seta be noted in the setings of Fournet (1844, 1836) and Bet (1801), who considered dha veiw and many mnineral deposits were the reel of an igneous injection nto Bares ina malta state, and were tus ore magmas, to wse the term later proposed by Spurr (1923). Belt, however, beiesed that water played a part in Delping to lower the temperatare of the “liquefaction ” (fusions) of sich nina as quart, Ts the meantine thee views of hydrothermal and igncour action in NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES 6 ‘the formation of mineral deposits were party lost sight of daring the advocacy of another startling hypothesis ofthe origin of eres ‘The ealier assumptions of Delius, Gerhard, and Lasius, that water percolating throng tne rock had dissolve out eettain ingredients and Afterward precipitated them in fsures, wae later taken up by Bisco (1847) and put forward a « rescned theory of lateral serstion by ‘waters of metcorio origin. This theory seas supported by data regard ing the dissemination of lode minerals in superficial rocks and their significance in ore genesis. Somevtat similar ideas were advanced in Amories by T, terry Huntin 1801 and in Enaland by J. Philips in 1875, but they were advocated in an eatreue fora in Gertany in 1882 bby Sandherger, who sought to establish two facta: (1) thatthe gangue ‘of ore veins corresponded with the wal orks; and (2) that traces ofthe Iheavy metals orcurred in the wall rocks, Metvorie waters were sup= posed to searel out these ingredients from the surrounding wall rocks ‘and deposit thom inthe Bosures.- Davie in his Iter comprelensive study of underground waters (1887) concluded that hot waters were the Tnost important agent in the formation of mineral deposits and that ‘these waters, forthe most part, Were Hot mignnatie but were meteoric waters that had become hated in depth and had sisen again. ‘These ‘were the views of Hunt and Phillips, and likewise later of &F, Emmons, ‘who in 1886 explained the orzin of the or deposits of Leadville, Clo- ‘aul, by eurluce water that hud leached mctallie igriente from the neighboring rocks. Similar views were elaborated in 1991 by C. Rt Van Hise, who concluded that magmatic waters played s minor vole and that most mineral deposits reculed from su ters that ed d= scended to depths where they became heated, dissolved metals from the ooks, and rose again to deposit thelr metalic content in fsures oF other openitige —a ezeulation resembling that of a hotater beating system, ‘There then followed animated diseusions on the respective mets ofthe descenvioniet, asecnsionet, al lateral sceretionet theories ‘The supporters of lateral secretion, however, lost ground rapidly under the attacks of Steer (1879), Patera (1888), Posepng (1898), Do Lavmnay (1803), and others, who vontended that the mineral nb stances were aot disolved from the surrounding rosks by meteoric waters but rather were deposited there by ascending hot waters that Inad carried the materials up from the dieprsested sourees Both Potepny and De Launay, following the earier ideas of Elie de Besu- mont, sought «source forthe metals and waters in deep-seated exuptive ‘orks or still deeper sourees in the baryephere. They were hotaeater6 BRIEF HISTORY OF TH scenshonsts, although P poy clearly distinguished certain types of ‘vnter inthe vedo ome. ‘The vigorous dineusions that followed the presentation of Podepng’s lasical paper in Chicago in 1808 directed attention once more tothe lose astoeation between mineral deposits sid igneats rors, and for mineralzing solutions was urged by J. F. Kemp 1 Lindgren (1001), W. H, West (1908), and other, ‘whose ideas became rather generally accepted Tithe meantime J HL Vogt of Norway ld been laying the fours tions of cur present-day cenceptions of the oFigin of mineral deposit, Starting fr the Meas of Fieee Beasmont,hedelved further, wing Piiyscalemieal principles, nto the wouree of ascending hot minrale Ting solutions, On the basis of earful fel studios of moanetite, chromite nickel, pyrthotite, and pyrite he eoneided hat such sub= stances were igness injoetione of material derived from their gnenis source by processes of naunatie diferentiation (1895). He also eon ‘chided that the hot oninealizing waters were Hikes Tnagmatie difleentiaion. This he finked, sore ear ‘csr, the processes of petrology and ore formation and recognized Innginati differentiation asx noes of ore formation that gave rset (1) ore segrgations or injetione: (2) minerabzing gases and vapors tnd (2) hot miberaliting waters. Tn recent years these proeeses have hom elaborated, clarified and experimental verified by the work of sch investigators ae J.P. Kemp, Waldemar Lindgren, V Goldaeinidt and particularly by the able members of the Geophysical Laboratory ‘ofthe Carnegie Tnetitate of Wachington. Sue euneeptions ae thea fgencrally current today to explain the origin of moet primary mineral Alposits Tt romgnined, however, as wae printed out by Von Cota Jong ago, that there are mung’ types of miveral deposit, whieh have lee formed by diferent process “The most resent eanteibuton to the teri of the genesis of mineral ‘lposits isthe extreme magmatic view of J. B, Spur (1925) who, fle lowing the earlier conceptions of Thomas Belt (1861), postulates that many or mort one depots have rete fear the injection snd rapid freesing of highly concentrated matic resus, for which Ie prox pone the ferns * ore magna” and vein dike.” Spurr ewe ae, However, not generally ancepted, nd tho len of agate waters bole Almost undispnted say today. ‘The advance in the study of ore deposits ha in large part centered around the development of theories of engi, sinee each new theory ‘quckened feld observation drcted to prove or disprove it. Conse SELECTED REFERENCES 7 quently,» great mags of material rearing the eharuetr, distribution, fd localization of mineral deposits as accumulated ‘A review of the development of ideas concerning the genesis of mi ‘ral deposits is enlightening to the student, because it presents the ble fround of the current prevailing ideas anil diselows that most of them Ihave been advanced in previous generations and that at preset we are Iai elaborating upon ot amplifying ear eoneetions [SELECTED REFERENCES ON DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC inary of the Theory of Ove Depo: Tun Ci ‘Ths Mun-and Ca, Tandon, 135. An intrnag i, btorel te. ‘Seady of Ore Dopo FM. yen. Alen Unwin, London, 1928, Cha. eI Be sommary of some ety wrt Man aed Metin Ts le Rock. McG Hl, Now York, WO Sten ts of goer noel inert Migoral Noe om Gem Mining. S. 1 as. Hoon, Gook 2668-75, 1 ‘The move hough tetment of a jet “The Binh and Devlopnert of the Grape Scene, FD. Aso Willa 14 Wil, Balfenre, 108 Chap9, an choice treatment deg th prentaceethcenary developmen of de Ph Arar eH" ee | pace Br Gee egal het cl ieee cong Byer 2 wath. Hinory ofthe Stody of Ore Mineral Hats Tuowsos. Au. Mineral 2:15~‘cuaPTER 3 MATERIALS OF MINERAL DEPOSITS AND THEIR FORMATION Mineral deposits, whether metaliferous or nonmctalic, ate c= ‘unulations or contentions of one or mare wsefuleubstanes that tte for the most part sparsely distibuled ‘They are mostly extrauely are in jeu toeks and ay be absent from sedimentary rocks. A fee deposits, however emsist of nee ‘ations of comin rorksnusking minerals such bs fespar oF me, "The elueote that enter into the materials of mineral deposits hae ten derived cither from the rocks of the carte outer enist-oF ftom molten bodies (ogi) that have ctoled to frm igneous teks. Originaly, of course, all the clementeexeept those that my Have persisted from the primitive almmpbere were derived fom magne oF igneois rocks of the outer rocky sell of the earth. Of he St knwen plants, only 8 according t CAr4® had Wallet fre prevent In the earth's cust Ho amounts execding 1 perentyaad 05 percent ofthe cath ter erst_(10 mies dep) is made up of the following 13 clement: axygen, eileen, alu seri, potasiom, magnesium, ti num, gold, slvr, copper, lead, zine, tin, nickel, and ether. Tt is the eeur that gelogle processes of concentration are neceseary to collet thse difuee elements into workable mineral depois, and He ‘ill be our purpose to etudy some of thee exceptional and intresting rece "The minerals that constitute the bile of the earths crue are alg fox in number, Over 1400 mineral species are knowns abot of thee are rockrinlcng tnnerals, of which only 29 are common ones About 200 are elnsset te evonomie minerals, The remainder come toostly from mineral dept ‘The abundance of the commen mine tale that conatitate the Lule of the eats crust may be seen from Table 1, ine there is eonsberable dlfereace fa the constitution of male MATERIALS OF SMETALLIFENOUS DErOSITS 10 Wierous and nonmetallic deposit, and he terminology ws i dier- tent for each, the materials of the two willbe considered separately ‘TALE 1 ono Monmsia or Remrte Core oe Paacenr Metallfrous deporte represent, in general, eatreme concent tions of formerly difuse metale. ‘The desired metals are generally chemically bound with other elemints to form ore mincale These in turn are commonly interspersed with worthless mineral oF zoek attr, called gmgue, The mixture of cre minerals and ganzue eon stitutes ore, whieh generally Ie enclosed in country tock, Some reallferom deposits, however, may Ne upon the surface and this ‘te not enclosed within country toek. ‘Ore Mineral. An ore mineral fs one that nay be awed obtain one or tore metals, Mont of thet are mle minerals, sues ae felens, whit is mined for its lead. A few aze nonmetallic minerals, Sich s malsehite, haurite, or ceruste, ore minerals of eopper, fluminim, and Jead, ‘The ore minerals oor neal, of hich gol and platinum seo examples, cr ae combinations of Ue elas with sulpus, arsenic, eaygen, silicon, or other elements Combinations are the most comnon, tal maybe extracted Irom several diferent ore mine ‘here ae seweral ore minerals of copper, sue as hale cecil, borite chuleoyprite, cuprite, native copper, and) maluehite;» DMATEIUALS OF MINERAL DEBOSETS ‘ne or more ofthese may ooeu? in an individ! deposit. Alo, wore than one metal nay” he obtained fou a single ore miner; stannis, for example, yikls both eoppet and si. AR individis) ore posit, er my yk arera els f foeno mln ‘The metals of commerce are derived from many metal inatone. Most of the workls gull has cone from native fk comseqentiy te semoval from odieed uinrsle ie relatively Staple process, and ered no serine problems of extraction, even {o the ancients, Silver, on the othe hand, is deriv not only fom the naive metal but also from combinations wi sulphur and ote laments. This is alsa trae of copper, iad, tne, ad most of the ter metal. ‘The vast quali’ ffm ted in indstry abt ost entirely from combinations with oxygen.” Tis frm ath ple combinations that the human r1eo hae been supplied with eared moctale for over 2000 years Tn addition, there are more ‘complex tetallc combinations that yikl considerable quantities of the common metals as wll a= many of the minor meta (Ore minerals are also clawed prinary or Aypagrne, and. gre= nitary or supepene."The former were deposited daring the original ‘or pete of wetallination; the ltt are alteration pwfte Of the former at a eoule of weathering or other surfed process resulting from descending surface waters, The (em primey ba ‘so been eed to designate the earliest of a nequenee of ore mine 4s contrasted with later tulnersl of the same sequence, whieh some titers have called seoondary. ‘This gave vise to some eonfison, and {o avoid this, Ransome proposed the terms Aypogeme and ype gene. Primary and Iypogiae are generally consider! ayn ne but iypogene. asthe worl injiie, ndrates formation by ascending folutions. li iypogene minerals are meecearily primary, but all Drimary ore minerals are not hypogene; simentars Iematite, for ample, i of primary depots but hie not been formed from ‘ascending solutions. Sinilary, confusion has arisen with the we Gf the wond secondary, which i liminatd by the beter term pore gem. ‘Somme of the important ore minora of several of the metals are Iisted In Table 2 GGangue Minerals, Gangue minerals are the asovated nota lic materials of deposit. "They may Uv ialrodueed miners or nelsing fork, and are usually diearded in the treatment of th oe ‘The gangue, in esterary sige, includes only nonmetal cals, but in technical usage tines alo some metalic mipralsy fick a2 pyrite, which are usally diseurded a wortles. Certain fone: aniveas ee eae ene ee Bee eee ea 3/3 am es fe eae Kran x ie ar Comper [Raine nner z |e 3 |. | Zhe 21 3 aa g|. 12 z) 2 2\3 Ble2 SIATEUALS OF SIINERAL DEnOSETS lzangue materials, however, may at times be ealleted as by-product and utilized. For example, rork angie maybe wid for road ‘uotal"; ducrspar for Mux! quarts for abrasive or concrete; pyrite for sulphur; and limestone for fertilizer or fux. Some gangue min- frals considered worthle= today may prove of value tomorow, The gungue, even though worthless, may so influence the method oF ‘of teatinent that it determines the valve of the ore. anve of the common gangue minerals are listed in Table 3 ase oF Como Gasove Mavens a ‘Composition | Primary | Supenene exile | Que so. Saher aes | 05 Baws. | A052 Tamotite Teeito. catemntn | Caste cco. Dabo {Caae0oy Suerte iecos Bhcotnwite | COs Sulptes | ite ass Cpe Cs0p4 0 es x Gum x Rote Satiog x Chote x Min | ik ter os rea | Pir cars Be | Apatite (carrouroa, |X Prite Fee % x Maret ra | Prac Pe x Ancoopyte | Pek’ ee Ore. The tern # ly used to design that i nine. i eregation of axe =a feangue from sehich one oF more metals may be extracted at a prot "To be ore, mineral rnin therefore, be payable, and this involves eonomie consilerations ac well we geologic. Obviously a body of valueless pyzziotite devoid of gold would not be ore, even though one 2 Dyrthotit isa metallic mineral, and body of pyrite containing gli ‘ay oF may not be ore, depending upon the amount of gold present ‘and whether the value of the recoverable gold ix greater than the eat of extraction, ‘The question of profit depends upon the smount and price of the “iveial snd upon the cost of mining, testing, transporting, and mar Keeting the protuct. This in turn depends in part upon the geo- graphic location of the deposit. A high-grade hematite body. lo- fated in Aretie Americe, for example, would not be iron ore because the cost of ite extraction and transportation would be greater than ‘the value of the ion. However, should transportation and » nearby ‘market be available in the future, such material would become one. Likewise, increased ficiency and lower cost of metallurgical tech nique or mining practice may enable present worthless material to De clase ns ore inthe future. Also, new uses may transform worth- Jes materiale into valuable ore, as was the ease when the extended tase of aluminum made large bauxite deposits of economic impor nce, and alist overnight the discovery that beryliuin makes a fatigue-rescting alloy with copper hae changed beryl fom mine ceralogial curity to & miueh-sought, value mineral ‘What is or is not ore may also depend upon the gangue or upon minor constituents. Certain materials maybe profitably worked for their metalli content only if some part of the gangue ean be il- Sued; the profitable operation of one Canadian sopper deposit de- pends upon the sale of pyrite gangue for its sulphur content. The presonce of small quantities of bismuth, cadmium, of arsenie may take otherwise valuuble deposits of lead, zine, or copper worthless, ‘The relative proportions of ore minerals and gangue vary enor= amously. In average ores, gangue greatly predominate: Tt i eat to smelt valueless gungue in onder to obtain the enclowed metal; so it is eustomary to subject the ores to oredreesing processes (milling) ‘whereby the ore minerals are eoneentrated and the waste gangie Aisearded. Thus, from 5 to 30 tone of erude ore wil yield 1 ton of ‘concentrates containing most of the metallic content of the original Jot. This is then smelted for ite metallic content, thereby saving the cost of treating the 4 to 29 tone of discarded gangue. For example, ' gold-eapper ore contains $600 worth of metal per ton and freight and smelting changes are $600 per ton, there would be no profit in tsnelting the crude ore, but if € were concentrated 10 to 1 (the ratio ff concentration), then there would be fecght and sielting charges for only 1 ton of concentrates instead of for 10 tons of or, equiva Tent to about 60 cents per ton of original ore, Consequently, thea MATERIALS OW MINERAL DEPOSCTS rato of concentration, or the preporton of ore minerals to gangoe,. fs of vital importance in detertionng whether a waterial i of; tha angus may thus play fully a= important w part a= the ore minerals "The arnount of morallifernie minreale present aricsgretly in ores fof dierent totals aan sso in ore of Ue satne metals High-grade Fron orte muy const of 100 perwent hematite; copper ares Tne from a fey percent to 75 percent of mealliferous minerals, Howe With tow pertentages beng Coneentsted, and those with higher pers fentages eing sacited dicetly. Ta onteast, gold ores may cant onky an infinitesimal amount of gold. For example, the Alaska, Juneau gold mine has een ning with profit ores that contain only ‘000016 ferecnt of gold. ‘The mnmnt of neta that mist be presen to eomsttite ore obiowlyepemis pen the pine nf the soe Daring pends of low el per, onl one wit « metalic content higher Gham normal eae be clawed as ore, Covercky, arth the oent inereteed pee of eld auch material that previously could tbe mine is now good gol or. “Aurocined Meals in Ores. Cree may yl a single meta (spl coves) or several ttle. (conipler_ ors). (nes thet are generally ‘worked for only @ single metal ar those of iron, aluminum, ehro- nium, tin, mereny, molybdenum, twngsten, and seme oes of copper Gold ‘ome anay yield only gol, It silver ie 8 common associate Much gol, however, in extrte a & bysprodiet from other orem (mee that commonly yiel cither two or tee metal are aoe of sold, silver, copper, lend, sine, nickel, cobalt, antiaony. nd mane feat. Some temples ofes my yield four or five metals sue as fepper-gikdaiNeread,-silver-leal-sine-eoppee-god, Unvsilver-tade sine, oF nickoleopper-gold-patiaum. Meng minor motals are wot ‘won diretly frm the ores hitare obtained ae by-pneats fom ares of other metals during smelting or refining operations. "This ie true of azenie, bimith, cadmium, selenium, and others Where precons metals sccumpsny’ base metals, ta presence tay make fond ore of olherwive uneeouonie materia Some of the eomiton aseeintions of rctal in ome are: gold amd “Slver; silver and lead; Jed and ine; lea tio, ae copper; copper ‘and gold irom and manganese; iron nd titans; niekel and eopper; ‘iskel an cobalt chromium and platinum; and tin and tungsten “Tenor of Ores. ‘The most impartant feature in the determination ‘of what ie ore ix he metal wontent ar tenor This depends ale ‘pan the price af the metal and obviously varies enormously with, rer of illerent oven with ove ofthe same rita. Sie Bon of on abt eal in ale to ewo-titds of an once of gl MATHUALS OF NONMITALLIC DEDOSITS % ic elear thatthe higher th price of the metal, the lower the metalic femtent necessary in the oe, and vieo vorsa. ‘Thus, a ton of iron ore ust contain around 40 to 50 percent of iron, whereas a ton of gold ore need contain only 1/1000 of 1 percent of gold. No upper Init is imposed on the tenor of ore—the ricer, the beter. ‘The lower limit, however, is fixed by economic conrderatione and varice ‘cording 10 the characer and sizeof & deposit, its leation, the price ‘of the meta, and the cost of ite extraction, Identical material may ho gual ore in one locality and worthler i another ‘The tenor of ores of the eemmoner metal, als thie pre-war prices and nits, are given in Tuble 4 TABLE 4 ao tre g oyepee Seonoee ee SP iee # a snd gasen, The tera" oe” is nol generally applied wich subs nets they are reereed to by the name of the substance Itself, for examplo, en, azbestn o ptrleon, Nether x the ter “ore pict eres tee eee aia et cee at to denote the worthless rteralalthong it i= more generally calledPa MATERIALS OF MINERAL DEPOSITS ineo_nonmetalic materia are, in general, common substances, it pice is correspondingly low as compared with metals. Except 4 few substances, such as gemstones, the deposits const pred inantly or entizcly af the weful material; there i ite oF no waste, ‘Coal ancl gypstin deposits consist entirely of the desired materials feldepar, bait, or fuorspar deposits include considerable waste that tus be remaved by “processing.” Gemstones, asbestos, or graphite sxenorally eostitute only small part of the deposit and taust be eon cexntrated, ‘The nonmetallic materials consist of « vast array of substances utilized in-moern civilization, These include fuel, rocks, earthy. materials, sands, salts, minerals of pegmatite dikes, and many other ‘onmnetalies sales asbestos, gypsum, Morspar, mies, barite, er hte, and sulphur, ‘The asvelaied gangue of waste consists marty of enclosing rook, oF parts of thé nonmetallic products themselves that are discarded as unit for use because of shysical or elemical Aefeets. The separation of the two, ealed procesing,” consis of Ihand-orting, simple mechanical coneentextion, of washing. Since stocking, of involved metalhirgieal treatment, ie unneorsary, the ‘termination of what is eeonoinie material i not ao dependent upon the associated gangue as in the ease of ore, Rather, its dependent ‘non the price and the physical and chemical properties of the rode ets themselves. A octal is just a metal, but ely, for example, to he Usable must meet definite specifications reganding plasticity, epe- cite gravity, fusbility, shrinkage, and tensile strength, Ts value ‘lepers amore upon its physical than ite chemical properties, ad not all clay fulfills the requirements. Different requirements exit for feach nonmetallic product, Consequently the properties that de- {ermine the commercial ise of nonmetallic produets are mutitudinows ‘compared with the few that determine ore pmoduets are not-generally sttocnted in groups, ie mvial ih ores, Some common assocations ate: petroleuny ‘and gus; potash, sll, and aypsum: feldspar and iniea; and soaps sank tale DETERMINATION OF MATERIALS ‘The materials that make up mineral deposits ean, forthe most part, tie determin visually. However, for more exact determination, precio methods are neecsary, such as esaving, homies! anclysee, roscopie examinstin, X-ray examination, spelroscopie examina- tion, or physic FORMATION OF MINERALS AND MINERAL PRODUCTS 27 In ores the metallic content, of the” dested comstitnents is de= ‘termined usually by fire or by wet (chemical) assaying, ani the results are expressel in the unite given in Table & As this method cxpresses only the metallic content, without regard to. the. min fralogical constituents, a supplemental mieroseopie examination of thin sections and poled ope surfaces is ually desirable oF nee “sary to reveal the identity of the minerals and their relation to eh, ‘ter. Tmporiant minute metaliferous constituents ean thus be detected. Partial or complete chemical analyses ate sometimes ade in order to detennine the quantities of other ingredients, pare ticularly those that affect tho motalungieal treatment, Thus, for smelting it ie necessary to know the proportions of the exes of sie ‘om, eam, magnesinn, av iron in omer that ooreeet proportions fof fixes may’ be add to the ofe or concentrates, Also, the quanti- tics of harmful ingredients, such as arsenic, are determined by ‘chemical analyses. Rarely ‘minute quantities of rare elements are determined spectroscopiealy. ‘In nonmetallic product, the materials are determined by: eemical _physieal tests, viual inepestion, or micrwenpic exam tion, Occasionally, for such fine materials aa clays, X-ray examina tions are employed. Different methods are employed for liflerent products, ‘Thus, physical characters, such as stength, grain sie, hardness, specie gravity, plasticity, fusiility, and electrical con- ductivity, are determined for such materials as building stones, sand, lays, abrasives, mica, or asbestos. On the other hand, partial analyses are necessary for such materials ae fuels, fertiiars, haute ements, magnesite, or line. But for such substances as gemstones, tuoling slates, quartr, or barite, generally visual inspection alone js newesury, Micreccopie examinations supplement the. other teste ‘THE FORMATION OF MINERALS AND MINERAL PRODUCTS ‘An understanding of mineral deposite neesasitater a knowledge of the manner in which the constituents have heen formed. Much in formation has accumulated in recent years reganling the conditions of formation, partieularly: temperature and pressure, Tn conse- ‘quence, the stvly of minerals has taken on a now and wider geologies! Significance in that the presence of certain minerals may supply Alefnite information as to temperature, presume, or ehemiesl chat fcter of the mineralising agencics, whieh thus wid in deciphering the Grign of the deposits that eontain them. For example, the presences DINTERIALS OF MINERAL DEPOSETS ‘of isometric chaleite nan ore deposit sof interest nol because of| its physieal properties but because i indlentes formation at moderate temperatures ad is therefore of ypogene rather than the vsust supergene origin, ‘Avi isthe intent to consider here the formation only of those mi frals that are of economic importanes the following diseusion deals with the formation of the materials uf mineral deposits and ot with the deposits themselves “Temperatre and Pressure ‘Tie formation of a mineral generally indicates a cange from a roobile to a solid state, Ax ost minerals have been presitatal from solution, ether liga OF gawous, enperature abl rear Day importa roles Changes in temperatuy aft the slubiity of materiale ia slic tion, and therefore tite pechtation Tn gener, dereare of tem erature up to certain pointe promote peCpiaton Tem agieais foliticns oF magmas, ‘The ore soluble alte wil tend to lay in ‘ohn longer and be precipitated later than the Tess soluble, therey™ “plying one explain of te equeees of eral a miner pms ant ninera xing. Alo, neal once precited may’ be Fedisolve afd tereipitated. "Van Holl laws slaw Mat for Prespiation from solitons in chink several reactions may” take Pike, that one ots whieh is alened by the grates evan of Ia.” elition generally Snvclves abortion of laa, sbd pecac tion, cvlution of at Changes in presare are lao ingortant,skbough lew eflesive than tempertare In promoting prevptation Te tncrene ‘of prosare promates soy anal erese of presi wiht tecare whe solitons ten hea promnes precptalion base insolation ae very sete (a elange of prewtre. Far example, aston iid, hel in eater by paste promotes the folubity of ealeam earbonatc, ad ie release under lessened pret re eats proiitetion of eam carbonate. Takeniv, the expe ff aes from magmatic fide under decreasing presse promotes esiitation eee eerie ‘The constituents of mineral deposits are formed in the di ways ducised teow. Temperstore, presure, and water play” aa Finjrtant part inthe deposition of the vast majority of mineral MODES OF FORMATION a Cepstallzation from Magmas. Since «' magna is « molten silicate solution, crystallization Com it follows the sani laws ax with an Aqueous solution. When « magma cools and the saturation point of the solution is excenlod for any given mineral, that mineral will xystalic, provided the tempurature for a given presure is below the fusion point of the mizeral. Thus, from ereaia magmas, eo ‘omic minerals such as apatite, magnetite, of elvomite have formed by exystallzation. ‘The conpleated prucescs involve are disensed in Chapter 51, Sublimation. The let of igncove activity may cane the voat ination of certain substances that Inter are deposited a= subi around voleanir vents, fumarole, or shallow introsions, Reactione Between gases may al be involved, Native eulphur is not an une ‘ominon exblimate. “Disillaion. Some geologists conser that petroleum and natural gas have bien formed by slow distillation of organo material de- Dosited with marine sedinents, Braporstion and Siperaaraton. Sets in solution are precpie fated wen evaporation of the slvent brings about stperatiration, 4 for exatple, in the formation of salt deposte by evaporation of Drines. Other familiar extmples are the formation in mins, throwgh ‘evaporation, of eBlorescences of ephates of copper, ion, tne, mage nesiun, calcium, and other asks, Indeed, extensive depts of cop per ofes have hen formed in this manner in Chile, and evaporation alco wa effective informing the many’ minerals that coustitute the ‘alu nitrace deposit of Chile Reaction of Gaver with Other Gases, Liquide, or Solids. Ipnoot activity is companied by the release of Vast quanttio of guacoge fmanations that contain aman eleients and compounds fan mineral deposits, Zies found among the fumarolie inerustations of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smoke= lee qutatities of magnetite, Also base-metal sulphides, fhiores, borates, sulphur, molybdenite tnd other inerals, "The metab clearly had boen brought yp in the ‘vapor phase sner no Bn eoltion had st any time been setive, and Use deposition serulted from reactions between diferent gases sad vapors. For example, native sulphur and bematite may be fanned At high temperatures arconding to the following reactions: 21,8 + 80; e238 + 21,0; FeCl, + SHO = Fru0, + 6HCI. This cone ‘lusive demonstration that gascons emanations are efertive transport= fs of minerals ie enlightening in connection with the origin of mineral Aeposit ‘Chases al react with Fide ta form minerals, both at high and at~ MATERIALS OF MINERAL DETOSITS _normal terperstares, The familiar precipitation of eappee sulphide by Thyigen sulphide fom euprie sulphate mine waters Is an example ‘Mame important sil are reactions between gaseous emanations and solide Uae yield a variety of high-temperature minerals, such, Tor fasmple, asthe nisl acsiblage of euntact-netarorpie ates, aides, and sulpies formed hy the aetion of magmatic ema nations upon earbonate reeks, Reaction of Ligude with Ligude and Solide, ‘The large volume of tnagatie Buide given off by consolidating itrwsives caries vast ‘quantities of mineral matter in solution, “These solutions ae, of Teome, liquid and ate responsible for the formation of most of the Imaterials of mineral deporte. In their accent they may mect sur face waters of diferent composition, or they may intermingle with, ther magmatic solutions. When to. such intermingling. liquide “Contain common ions, precipitation of minerals of sii soit ‘sues according to Neri law, which states that the solubility of ‘valle lereased bythe presence in solution of another mall that has & common ion, For example, the solubility of smituonite or siderite in anturated solution it decreased by the pesenes of ence in eoltion, and tiie presipitation results, Wells eowed that i an alkaline siphide i adel in exes to a solution containing ion at fopper, both metal are completely precipitated. Many superzene tninerals of the oxidiaed zone, and likewise presuoubly iany lipo zene winerale, are formed inthis manner Tntermingling of diferent solutions may also cause precipitation of ‘minerals by-nalueGon. Bischof carly experiment showed that a sealed. mixture of sim sulphate and ferris earbonate. yielded pyrite The relucing action of organie matter in precipitating gold ‘ver, conper, ant other mineral well kno, Ransome anggrsts that the ore constituents of the Goldfield ee Pest are gio a ne Mla (aa rele that oridsed scar the wirlace to subphufie oxy whic (ied fer elated downward to ningle with the uprising currents; and that the prevpitation af dhe richest ores took place in the tone here the to solutions mingled, and as a eoneenuence of such tingling.” Acidification ofan alkaline sulphide solution by sulpurie eld prox ipitates sulphides of heavy metals, a¢ was demonstrated by Groit. fa concentrated mineral saution ix dihted by gsound water inetals carted as complexes are released and precipitation enue, ‘Many other resetions between solutions to produce precipitation ‘of minerals are too well Known in chenistry to tee! farther dis REACTION OF LIQUIDS WITH LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS 31 Resetions between solutions and sos are probebly the most im- portant natural process in the formation of both bypogene and supergene miners. Hypogene and supergene waters are contin fuely in eontaet with rorks and minerals; reactions take place Lore and ange minerale are precipitate, Several reations are volved, namely, metasomatisin or replacement, relative solubility, reduction or oxidation, dirt deposition, estalytie aeton, adsorption, ‘hemieal complexes, and other. Metavomation ot seplacement is « commen process whetsby new ‘minerals take the place of former ones (see Chap. 54). familiar iustration of this ie the resetion of conper sulpate, formed during the weathering af enpper sulphide deposits, apm Kmestone country rock by whieh copper earbiate replaces the alin easbonate Similarly in supergene suite enrichment. when vopper spate Feaets with pyrite capper slphide replaces ium sulphide (ate Chap. 510). ‘The eonstituents of many valluale primary’ snineral depoite fare formol as result of seactions heteen mineralising elution: find rocks “The relative solubility of solid and solute determines the procpita- tion of many minerals from solution. For example, if a eapper eul- phate solution mects spalerite, which is more soluble, copper sul- hide will be depasted atthe expense of the ‘morphic elle inthe outer part of Ut halo. Limestone and dolosite fre rerystalized to marble; rarhnacens linparities may fom fuphite: sandstone may le converted quataite: shakes ave ean- verted tn hornfel Simple yeeystallization alone i ot commen: tetera recombination of the rork constituents alsp takes place at the sane fine. Reerysaliztion alone generally inlieates ik eon {ot aetion, or signifies the outer zope of alteration, where the meta morphism was fecble Recombination, Where the invaded ek consist of move than one mineral, ax in the ease of impure limestones and dolomite, diferent constituents may reeombine to form composnds that are more abl under the ehanged conditions. For exannple, original minerals AB avd CD inay reeombine to AC and BD. Siilarly, in ax impure Timsstone consisting of ealeinm exenonate, mugnesiva and ian ear bonate,quarte and clay, ealehum oxide and qusitz may recombine to form the mineral wellastonite; ealeium, magnesim, and sles, to form tremobte, or by the ation of iron, etiolite or ealeium exide, lumina, to form grosolarite gamet. These examples ‘present simple recombinations ino stable minerals unde the im ‘posed conditions of high temperature and presure. Hest isthe dom- inating factor in tee formation ‘Accesiont from Magma. With sition of materials from the ‘magma, the thinerals AD and CD tay become ACK and BDY, the accessions being represented inthis cace by X and Y. ‘Thus, in addi- tion, epiote, atploles, pytoxenes, veuviante, and ofber minerals ray’ form, representing tecnnbination= of constituents already pres feat with those alded from the magn. Alco, nomerons are minerale ‘are formed, and these result almost ently from accessions from the ‘magi many minerals with constituents foreign to the invaded rosks, fand the mimerous ore minerals give abundant testimony of note- ‘worthy additions to the comet zone om the magma, These added fomatituents may combine wth parts of the reck mineral already ‘present, as explained aboce, or they may be deposited drety as nex ‘minerals eormpared entirely of added material, sich ae ehaleopsrite ‘or ephaleite. ‘The aetssons comsnt ehiely of heavy metals, sen,St PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF MINERAL, DKFOSEIS| sulphur, boron, eerie, fri, potasiam, magnesia, and seme ox Volume Changes. Litigrn, in ie else wor on the enmtaet metamorphic deposits at Moret, Ariaons, bas shown that vast quantities of material hav berm ade to and subeucted frm, the Snvaved rocks. He shows th all the CaO in 1 of of CaCO, was converted to andra gat the vue woul! become 140 ot, of 8 Yulume neretee of nearly oneal, bat che Holl velatone shove mo Yolime change, "Therefore he eonhades that for every bie meter (of the alierd Kimestones 46) yg of CaO a 1,10 kg of COy have een rated avy, ahd 1390 of SiO, sul 1480 kg of Fez0, have nen ade, ‘These astonishing igures of 18 toon of material r= moved and 28 tone adied por cubic meter atest to the vigorous Imlolssle transfer of material and the quant of aecessione daring fontact metamorphism. Audional quantities of uxtalie minerals tree ake intend ‘Stages of Formation. Contact metarnephist apparent commences sorely after intrusion and continics until wll afer emmolidaton of the outer part af the intrsive. Tn general, the fiestas, whieh ie one of heat comnts of rersstalization stil rvembinaion with fr witht aeceions fran the main This gives rise to many of Ue aiicaten Mognetite and emalite form with the sTiates and Tater than then, but Uiey asneraliy prove the formation of the sulphides, athoigh Butler found magnetite later than chuleyite in Utah, ‘The sulphides mocly form later than the sifeate and tries A coun onder i pite and arenopyrite followed by Fmtatite, molyscnte spare, ehaleopsite, ealen, an supa fills lis” Tn sone ples, however, the super form cantenipo Faneoury with the sient, but the older idea thatthe seats, ‘ies, and super were formed sinultaneosty no longer sci to ho, and icesive stages of development have generally been noted. "The rages of development, however, eeem 10 vary cone= ‘ably wih lflerent magn, ‘Mode and Taming of Transfer. ‘The rerstallzation and part.of the recombination way have been adhered by beat alone immediately ffter the inrwsion. ‘The main tratfer of oaterials by nngmate Fuk, however, inst ave oe ata itr pid, after the free ing ofthe hil sone of the serve and di the aesurlation of the Tstmagoa in whieh the wiverliers ere bring concentrate “Opinion i moh yet unaninoge in regan tthe mode of trnaer of the mogmalie materials.” Te ie shown in Chapter 4 that gasenoe froanatens ean ati do ronson material outa Som sgt, [RRLVTION To aNTRESHVES a Fenner as eonsluded that they ae te agents best adapted to cop- stating one materis from masa and to transporting the ote ward and further tha jewmatlytic procs are eapable of pr ducing important contact mctanatienTogerao and Morey have tore recently demonstrated he cectivents of gaesove water i transporting sien If the precure x sich that a vapor phase formed, high-temperature gascauserunations are to be expected id [paeuuatlyte processes will prevail. Ifo vapor pas an be forme, Iagmtic fide may emanate ax high-tepersture nde andthe famtaet melaeomatisn su accompanying mineral depoiion my be Dredd by them. Hickok eoncluded thatthe magnetite are of the (Gorarall depts war fore. Corn Ieuble tht enanated fn the adjacent intrusive, and Graton has lately advoested thatthe ore fide eave the magi ax Ide. Unfortunatly there are no exteria to estab conclusively if mineral daponits ave been seal ee posted from gasenie emanations, To the pst it has generally born fonsiered that euntaet-metanorphie ore deposits have been, forme from gnu entanatins. Kk exidene, however, cates that Alpe ave ben n Tome gud etanatons have operated i the later phases of their formation, Relation to Inrsives CContset metamorphism that ives rise to mineral deposit doesnot oceur indiscriminately with all magnus, Tt ie eetieted exesively to ntnisive magmas, i appears to depend pen the compton of the agi, and i related to he si an deh of formation of the intrusive body. "Estrrve bodice may produce a fte baking, hardening, or other elect atthe contact bat never sineral deposit ‘Composiion of Trisive. lng widespread cantata morphic efeets my be produced by mages of wide variation in composition, thoes thot yi tuner dept are mcetly slit one ft intermediate eompositon, sich ax quarts minnaonte, momzonite, fsranoivite, oF quarts dite, Highly iii rock, such ae nora franite, rarely yield mineral deposte, Neither are contact-meta- ‘morphie deposits found with witabasie rocks, and only rarely’ with basie rks, Two nated examples of such deposits in basi rocks are Aeposite with quarts diese at Cornwall, Pa, and with a white sabbro at Hedley, British Columbia. ‘The luck of eontaetameae ‘morphe dopeits round the great asle Bushveld Tenens Conplee fof South Afska i noteworthy, especialy singe ao muy ore deposits fare included within the atrsive85 PROCESSES OF FORMATION OF AHINERAL, DEROSITS ‘Tho reason wy contact-nctamorphie deposte are produced. fom silicic rather than from basic intstes ts probshly becetse the a ‘material asa high content of water, whens the basi i rlliely fry. Schwartz has show that greenstone in. Minnesota develope Inydrove minerale where intred hy granite and nonhydrows mine fale where intr Dy gabbro, inviting thatthe gabbro was d= ficient in water. Sinee water in ungun isthe ehie! collector abd transporter of metal low content im basi rocks probably secounts fon che pauclty of eontaet-netamoephie depts naselated with base intrusive ‘Siac and Foem of Tnerusive, Most contact-inetanorphic deposits are associat with stocks, batholtie, and intraive bodies al sige sine; they ane rately associate with Ieclithe and large als ad af haem fron sal sills an ikes,Intisive bies whose flanks dip tently proce wider sones of contact metanorphien than the with Meeply dipping Hanke Also, thowe whowe roots are leegular in form fand are marked ly eupolae atd roo! pendants give tie to extensive ones of pronounced contact metamorphisn. Depth of Intrusion. ‘The depth of intrusion appears to be an fae portant factor in the formation of eontae-untamorphie deposits, bee ‘cause deposits are found only with rocks of granu sroundmass, ‘whieh indicates relatively slow couing at coneierable depth, The Absence of deposits with rocks of glassy atid aphaniie texture, ite Aicative of rapid cating st shallow depts, shoms that neresifaee anitone age not favorable to the formation of ontaetsmetamorphie Aeposts, probably because of rapid bea of Ue sagenatie emanations ‘at blow depth, “Tho actual dpi of comolidation of granular intsives ie only inypericetly Known. Most of them have probably erytallized at pths greater than 5000 fect. At Philisbur, Mont, the depth Was 650 Tet, Bigger showed that sear Oslo, Norway, some ine frusives had erystalzed st depths of less chan 3300 fet; Barell ‘oncluded that at Marysville, Men, the batho had reached within “1000 fect of the surface, ant sie depths were seertaincl for the intrusives ansorited with contact-netamrphie deposits in Utah and New Mexico. The oftquoted shallow dep of 1,000 ft for the ontaetometamorphie magnetite deposits of Cornwall, Pa, has lately Ten shown toe neo “Alteration of Fave. Tn ener the ints sel es boon tle affected daring coutact metamorphism, Reruly ite marine may be fo aliered te to obscuo the eanot boundary between sntrasive end ltered inte ork. Fpidot, the chief mineral formed in the i RELATION 10 INVADED ROCKS a traive, presumably results from the” absorption of CaQ) and CO. released from the invaded rock. Less commonly garnet, venuviaite, Chlovite, diopside, and other minerae oerur. Serctzation of the Intratve is common; this, however ie probably an after efet caused by later emanations of hot waters thrsh the froren magne of the intrusive. Relation to Invade Rocks ‘The charueter and extent of the alteration of the invaded rocks depend upon heir composition and in part upon then truce CCeriain rocks are more suseptible than others sad eabibit exten sffets; some are only slightly changed Relation to Composition. Carbonate rocks ate the ones most affected by intrusion of magia. Pure limestone and dolomite readily re- ‘eryatalize and reenmbine with intrest elements, Impure earbane te rotks are affected even more, since such impurities 2s sien, lumina, end ftom are ingredients available to enter into new rams Pinatione with carbonate toleules, ‘The entire rock adjacent tothe Intrusive may be converted to a mass of garnet rock, silicates, and Sandstones are but litle aeted, They reerysalie to quartate ‘and may contain sparse eentact-metamorphie minesl= Shales an slates are baked and hardened, or sltcred to horafels, severally with andeliite, ilimanite, and stanelite. "The degree of feration vats sith their purty, bring greatest with carbonate varieties The argllecons rocke seldom contain inportant aninera Aeporit, Tvaded ignoous reeks are not known to contain contact-meta morphic deposit Their sliht alteration ic most pronounced if their ‘composition ie markedly unlike that of the Intrusive. For exam, ante intauded by granodiorte changes very litle; ut bate igneous rocks, such as gabbro, are most altered ‘Likerise, the moetamorphie reeks are oneongenial for ore and ‘undergo litle change. “This ie espevally true of the erytaline tiats, whose continents have already been metamorphosed tot fle that are stable urvder onditions of fairly high presure and ‘temperature, Ta getral then, the rocks most susceptible to contact metamorphism forthe formation of ore deposit are the sceSS PROCESS OF FOINETION OF MINERAL DEFOE Relation vo Structure. The structure ofthe invade rocks, and ful, fafoet tho extent and posiion of the qoniset-nctanorphie zane ‘Where sedimentary bods dip into the intrusive, ae in Fi 5, good ‘app channelways are provided for eseaping emte tions io contra tthe blanketng fer across the ‘re depts are apt to be larger nd more Aistribnted yp the Mia, 55. Relation of contartntamorhie dip than aero resi ant ow dept eh) yay that eater ute swan an upward from the Intrusive serve as thronigh channelways that concentrate al conduct the emanations far frm the intrusive and cage the auetaaorp isnt sand msnerlization intl frm, Resting Mineral Deposite ‘The mineral deposits that result from contact metamorphism cone stitute w distinctive elasscharacterine by an nian! asenblage of fro and gangue minerals, They eantbate mterially to the wont rmineral production sad supply many of the tncemivon mineral produits, "The deposite generally consist of two oe sore dtton- nected bodies. They are meeily small as compared ith“ porphyry Cippers” or sedimentary deposit. ‘They are vexatious depts to texplot beowsve of thei relatively stall sine, their capris a ‘tion within the autute of contact metaromphisn, and thelr abrupt terminations. Like the setteral plums in plum pudding, they are diicult 10 And; they exhibit Tew “siqnboarde” pointing to thelr previo, end eotly exploration and develapment are netenary to tscover and outline them, Their development mist be undertaken ‘with eatin, andthe cpm atendant on mining mach oonoe trated aden rich adies Frequently gives way aie to Appointment upon the sudden teminstion of the ore boy sition. The or bis oeeue within the contact anrele ad moaly within a hundred yards or so of the intrusive contact. Ih ver, been note that several deposits, sue as that of Mackay, {Pig 50), le onthe outer or linstone side ofthe contact aural ‘They are generally satteraiergularly aroun the eamtaet bat, tend tbe concentrated tipon the side of the intrasive that has the enter dip. TF the dip of the intrusive lw, the deposit may Be & ‘TEXIURE OF CONTACT METAMORPIMG DEPOSITS 89 onsderable distance horizontally feuin the contact and till be re tively lose to it. Roof pendants (Fig. 5) and large inelsions are pecially favorable Tori, ae xt White Knob, Mabe, Where prom inent faults extend outwatl fur the entaet, depesite may be azn slong then: and exten 200 feet sure irom the contact, This Ix 6. Coa stn of conta stamens depute at Macha, Habe (per mpg 8 Cat i) the ease at Bisbee, Avie, aul Knop! decribes contaet-metamorphie Alposits at Roeheser, Nev, along s faut zane atu distance of 200 fost fom the intros, Form and Size. Contact mtamorphie deposits are notably iveaular in outline. They iaay have shuost any sbape, Generally they are ore or lex equiimensonal, bt ramifying tongues ney project out tard slong bedding planes, joints, or fsates,enbeneing the iret larity of outline. "Those more irgular in shape ovear chiefly in ‘thick bee of Tinestane, Raley tabular baie are forme where Aeposite are aligned along the contact for sistance, oF along fault somes, oF where they lave been formed by sletive roplarement of Individual susceptible limestone beds. Just why certain bers prove ‘nore congenial to ore formation than others uncertain, Tn general, contact-metamorphie.deponits are of coroparatively smal sie, wiih dimensions of 100 to 400 fet, an eontn Som few tens of thousands to @ few hundreds of thousands of tone of ore; & few deposte contain several million toe. ‘Teseure. Commonly th ores are coer ia texture, containing Inrge ceryeale or clasts of ergata, Fes of the minerals exept game Show crystal outlines, and even gamet often appesrs tn sagaeike masses of irvgular outline. Columnar and radiating minerals mayROCESS OF FORSLATION oF MINERAL DEFOAITs how crystal faces several inches in length; caleite ie gene aren grains, Magnetite may oteue in buneies comprar of large tine of sbapelese outline. ‘The ividual mineral apes tbe Slowey interieked; open space ie rare. Crasifieation and banding ee abeent, but orbielar strarcser have been not The metal sninerals, except pyrite, lack exystal outlines Th some eases howesrs, ns iy para of the depts of Hanover [New Meseo, the minerals ave extrely fine grained abd the ath a inky appessunce,resubling dense horufls the individual grains 1 the Intinatele adie) gang and metallic rlneals cannot be Hitinguicbed by’ the naked “Mineralogy. The outstanding foature of the mincralegy i the di tinetive gage minerals characteris of high-temperature oration “Ths incite srmnarite ani ancraite sures, holenbersite, hastings- ite, tremolite, aetinolle, wollastenite, epidote, olste, venmwante ‘atte, diopride, forsterite, anorthite, abite, forte, chlorite, and nica urta and carbonates are generally present. Tn addition, Silleates containing Ue winrar, such at lournalive, sxe ‘eapolte Indwigit, chondrite, and topes, sre present "Phe oto minerals cont of eds, native minerals nd elphides, sven, at sul alla, Th oxides are represented by sung, iImenite, hematite (speculate), corundun, and spinels. Maguetite ie particularly abundant, Graphite, gol, and_plativam represent the native mineral, but the let (wo ate tare, ‘The sulphides const thie of base-netal sulphides. Sulphoarsnides and satinenides ate env, as are the telluride, Tn aditon,sehelite and wolframita Ones Foner ‘Mineral depeils formed Ly contact metamorphism fnctede the ine rl intel on page eee ere eee eee ee ee Mineral Depositn, Wsisnsian Tans. MoGrw-Hil, New York, 1 Chap ‘Sone Otsvaons om Conte Metamurphie Depo, Hts Par oon. “Get 10.8500 TDs Pointd genre vom nd Me wren Git tre Di, Arvnas Wonca Lesnar. Gea Sa, Taper In" Oxistanng wot on cote mctamrpiom, prey Croat of let om gts credo CONTACT METAMORPHIC ORES 1 ‘Tore oF Mons. Deroare Fon Costner Miers wart re ‘Guzr Conertcoer Mixenats ax Fars sane of Depot i Mage teste creel eee ‘a rN. Ben; Bat tale nese | Chatorvite wd bore wats | Meee and Bit, An Bing ‘rte, pretense | Ua Cane Mae ‘penton eso” | ly, evo San, Kor ine Slee teat, n> | Waere, Boe Lo abs et sion, ignite, and wok | Magiales, 8. Mes; Tayo etary opp atde| County, Call cs clita woth neem | Prat, Pind Sac ‘adacty pyrite | "Dawe Hahad Ya ‘Tunmies —| cate a ine apie | Mil Ci, News Iago Cams, edie 3g | Gus Fitri A Mayen | abot pte) Yell Auta, Ang, ‘orcas Ge. Gngite | Grphite and ntact tes | Aino NW. /Chy Cony, ‘ins keh, bee at | isin emmy met |i Sis ay, maka ese re ora are ee amy |g nd orn, | Ving Pei Ton : os a Geien | Camo et mein ge | rel, Ys Ct, Som ‘Cota Mtnmorone im Kenning. VM. Gauecnaemn. 011, Ch ‘ltr of contr? metomarp Ore Depa at the Comat of ure Rea and Limenone, J.P. Ke oom Gea 25358144, snd U.S, Con Soe Pro PaO, 0 Conice Memorghion st Bigham, Ugh Cul Sie Nol 30-80-04 Conact Mecmorphic Tanewen Depts of the Used Stat, PL, ks wal Sewanee U.S Gol Serr Ball 2812 Iron Ove Depts at Cormva Pa. W. 0. Hicton, Bown, Grol 2:60.25, Ser ec vst re ite abe$2 YROCISSES OF FoRAEATION OF MINEE 5:4 METASOMATIC REPLACEMENT etasomatie ceplaceneat, or sinply replacement, as iti generally called, the nes important proves: in the emplneemcat of epigenetic miner dferil, or (howe frm later thin the Tock enclosing er This the dominating povess of inineral deposition in the bypetheral ‘and mesothermal deport, and important in the epithermal group of Linvezen's elasfestion; the ore minerals of ecntact-metamorie Aeporite have been forms slmost estily by th provers Likewise it the controling prove of deposition ineapergene sulphide enile tent and domites a Ue formation of most other supergene nineeal ‘lposits, Tn ado, t plas the major role in the extensive rock slteration that aocomanies test epigenetie metalation, Replacement may be defn « pores of essentially imltaneous apillarysultion and deposition hy hich nee mineral i aubstieted for one or moer earlier foie winerals. ‘The press, however, not so supe athe defititon plies, as wll be shown later. By meant ff replacement wond ty be trneformed to silica (petrfiontion), a Single mineral nay tse the ple of snother, reli ‘te [pseudomorps), ar& large body of solid ore may take the place ff an equal volume of fork. Ths, many mineral deposits originate, ‘The replacing mineral (etisomse) need not have a commie fn with the replaced substance. The replacing minerals are carried sohte tion ated the replaced subatnnces ere cared ase in soliton; His an open eet, not a ele one Teplacoment. was eset rocgnised Sn. explanation of mineral peculomorphic, porteulary where the peeudemorph exhibited a dig oste ergetal form of an carer unbke mineral, Nawaana inteoe ‘luce the wom metasonatnm, meaning a chang of body, to desig hate the procs. noi was caguely tealied ae mode of ep tment of mineral fates by: Zimmermann, who in 174D ascribed the Crgin of les to the transformation of rocks into metallic minerals fd venstones by the aeion of sulin that entered esi smal rents and other openings in the sors Hints ae toile aplication ta oe formation were subsequent made from time to tine, but only in the beginning of the Treen Century was eplacerent alized to be & lage-rale eos of ote formation. Huge bois of massive sulphide ote completely enclosed within iestone were early thought to be the Aline of old slation ‘avos In linmetone. But, with the growing knowledge of the efletive= fest sil extent of replacement, end partienaely of writen for It recognition, He wis realize thik sel bodies haloes formed by "THE PROCESS OF REPLACEMENT cS replacement, As knowladge of this ¢¢pe of deposit has inereas, epeeilly in Ameria, many deposits formerly Hoeht to hive ergs nated by diferent proceses are now asenbed to replacement, Fxen ‘many formerly thought t be iqncous Injevtons ae nos” eoneluively eeoaniaed ae replacement deposits. Likewise 10 this group now be Jong many’ deposits that formerly were thousht to havo been fissure Filings and inprezmations of work pars. In the ease of superavne slide enrichment the supersene slpies were formerly thousht to Thave been merely deprive as oaings on eaeie sie, and om eeently has it become generally known that ey are deste on by replacement of earlier sulphies, ‘The Process of Replacement Tt mineralixing solutions encounter niverals that are unstable in their presence, substitution may take place and replacement ensues ‘The eashange is practiellysinullancots and the revlling body nay ceupy: the same volume and may retain The Hentiea! strate of ‘the orginal boy. ‘Mode of Interchange: 1, in Iviek wall, ach brik wore removed ‘one Hy one and a sileer brick of sinilar ses eubsttne for ene, the fend result wonld hoa wall of the some size and fori, even ta the tminatiae of brick pattern, save that it woul be eomperd of silver instead of clay. ‘This is how replarenent pmecee exert that the Parts interchanged are ifnitesinally small-—of meleula or atomic Han. Conscquently, the shape, size, seta, and feture may? be faithfully preserved even Ialow the visible naguieations of the inleroseope. TE the replacement were mokeue by: mole, simple eens! ‘equation woul express the interline, seh ae MoS + C180, ~ C8 + Mas, Here, dense sovelite replaces les dense sphalerte, ad a wnt ‘volume of sphalerte yields «smaller vokine of elite, with cose ‘quent shrinkage. Sueh interhange, however, takes place only with Troe-groing eryatals oF in inoeren naterals wliere pease ie alse. Extended observations show that replacment i rigid rocks is not attended hy chanar in volume eubie cemlinsir of sphalerto oF talete is replace by a eubie ventineter of covelite or galena. This 4s the tow of equal volumes, ‘The caleulable shrinkage, acelin to the chemical reactions, does not orcur. It follows from the law ofSL pnocessns oF FoRLWHIOS OF aUEELAL D ‘qual votumns that excess eavllite or galena is deposited to male up for the shrinkage thot would ensue if denser eovellte oF gana te: placed lighter ephalerite or caliteavvonfing tothe exstornary ebeme ical reactions. Therefore, in volune for volume replacementy the interchange is not moleeule for moet, 4 single erytal of pyrite, for example, may ent aeros” and replace some hallsdoren lieent rok minéral which proves further that volume for vokime repluce= tent ctatat be expretsnd by any single chetiad etion, Tt has hea sepeatel demonstrated by lanye-eale field relation, by crystal ‘mowonnomhs, and hy aneroscopie observations that replacement is ‘ietntely a volte for volume ioteretange. Consevently, ominarye halaneed chemical equations do ot express what actually happens i ‘lame for vohume replacement, aad the eftquoted equations oust ti comsiderot only aa indeating the trad an ond products of the ‘eshange, Tho powers ie not ae yet folly unlertod ‘Proceduce of Substiiton. Althtgh the proredare of sbettaton inperteety Known, certain features aze teognized. The simul reas interchange mnt be by Infinite partes of maeeular oF ‘tome sige, ‘The growing mineral ie in sharp contact with the van fishing substance; tween them there must be w thin ln of lution that supplies the replacing materiale and removes the replaced sub> ances." In the case of liquide eh a flm will be supersaturated, fueilitating reartion, The rate of reaetion wil depend upon the rate of supply of new material snd. the readies of removal of the dise ulved material, ‘The instant that space i mae available by sole tion, some ofthe replacing miseral wil scparace out irom the super saturated fn, ‘Tis, the metarome wil comtinuourly advance ‘gnst the hoe and grow at is expense. Tn thi te growth pressure cf the inpinging rystals wll also faelitae solution of the hoet and Sunltaneous deposition of the metasone, "The replacing minerals thus preeat a constantly advancing froat against the hest as Tong a= the supply of ew rnaterial and disposal of dissolved material keeps w. ‘Where soliton is supplied to a center, such as ork pore, growt may proceed outward in sll directions frum the center, giving ise ‘thor to dserete,shapelese grains, or to erytals with well-developed faces in sharp eantact with the enesing Host Tn this manner i0= luted, doubly terminated ezystals may stow at the expense of Hime sone or other rock. Tt i dvious that such erystale could aot have Ihe fore by fling of pre-existing cavities with shapee coining tenetly withthe eryrals, ‘Therefore, itis concluded that they must have been forme by replacement, and such fated, doubly terme ENTRY AND EXIT OF SOLITION % nated eryetals are rightly considered diagnostic of replacement. Naturally, minerals with ‘high power of erystallization, such as urna, areenopysive, or pyvite, arw the ones that mact eomnonly sscume euldral forms. Ifthe supply of material to fed a. given yal ceases for any reason, oir ninerals may euntinue to deposit At its marvin, andl eventually earlier fonwest cubedeal minerals wil he oneloe within Inter replacement minerals, ‘Thos, pyrite erystale fre comin within eopper,lead-rine, at ather orcs, This explans- tion may alko aceount for the interesting * polar” pyrite cubes af Ducktown, Tenn.; fringes of chalcopyrite at opposite pyrite faces probably are due to greater ense of replacement at theer ede Enury and Exit of Solotion. IRephnetment involves the noeesity of ‘continuing supple of new msierial und removal of the dissalved raterial. How dovs the new material amive atthe point of depoie tion? This question Iocomes more pointed in the case of un une fractured pyrite cube that is undersoing replacement by compact elaleorite ftom the ouside toward the center, by means of Tiuil solution at narinal temperature and pressure, Fist, the faces of the fue are replaced, #33" toa pth sof one-quarter of ie diameter ‘Then, the replacing copper must penetrate dense layer of ehaleorte Sn onler to arrive atthe interior front of replacrment, ard the dlise lve iron ftom the pyrite must exeape through the samme layer of fompact ehaleocite. ‘The eheleorite may havo no determinable pore space. Obviowly, the nereseary quantity of solo cannot flow bodily through the dense chaleoite layer ion is probably the answer. ‘This is the movement of mole cules in 4 solution from s point of supply Ww & point of deposition cx from a place of higher to one of lower concentration. Particles of ‘lecular size can move through a layer where a boty How of sole tion eould/not, ut difuson is known to be execedingly slow ani to act only over short distanes. Therefor, it eannot be a means of {transporting large quantities of replacing substances over long dise tanoes it incompetent by itself to build up large mineral deposit However, itis an effective process for supplying and removing the oduris and by-products of replacement over the short distances st the actual front of replacement, whereas voluminous moving slutions ould not gain ente. "To keep up the supply of new materials ob the front, fasures, chat nelway', ani permeable bede serve as che main Treight Hoes, nl tinute fracture, cleavage planes, nd pore paces further distribute ‘hem to the places whore diffsion may dlliver them to the font line of deposition. ‘The tens of millions of tons of introduced mater