Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

Review Problems

12-88 The temperature of air in a duct is measured by a

thermocouple. The radiation effect on the temperature
measurement is to be quantified, and the actual air
temperature is to be determined.
Assumptions The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray.
Properties The emissivity of thermocouple is given to be
=0.6. Thermocouple
Analysis The actual temperature of the air can be Air, Tf Tth = 850 K
determined from = 0.6
Tw = 500 K
th (Tth 4 Tw 4 )
T f = Tth +
h
(0.6)(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(850 K ) 4 (500 K ) 4 ]
= 850 K + = 1111 K
60 W/m 2 C

12-89 The temperature of hot gases in a duct is measured by a thermocouple. The actual temperature of the
gas is to be determined, and compared with that without a radiation shield.
Assumptions The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray.
Properties The emissivity of the thermocouple is given to be =0.7.
Analysis Assuming the area of the shield to be very close to the sensor
of the thermometer, the radiation heat transfer from the sensor is
determined from
(T1 4 T2 4 )
Q rad, from sensor =
1 1
1 + 2 1 Thermocouple
1 2 Air, Tf Tth = 530 K
1 = 0.7
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(530 K ) 4 (380 K ) 4 ]
= Tw = 380 K
1 1 2 = 0.15
1 + 2 1
0.7 0.15
= 257.9 W/m 2
Then the actual temperature of the gas can be determined from a heat transfer balance to be
q conv, to sensor = q conv,from sensor
h(T f Tth ) = 257.9 W/m 2
120 W/m 2 C(T f 530) = 257.9 W/m 2
T f = 532 K

Without the shield the temperature of the gas would be

th (Tth 4 Tw 4 )
T f = Tth +
h
(0.7)(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(530 K ) 4 (380 K ) 4 ]
= 530 K + = 549.2 K
120 W/m 2 C

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 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-90E A sealed electronic box is placed in a vacuum chamber. The highest temperature at which the
surrounding surfaces must be kept if this box is cooled by radiation alone is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3
Convection heat transfer is not considered. 4 Heat transfer from the bottom surface of the box is negligible.
Properties The emissivity of the outer surface of the box is = 0.95.
Tsurr
Analysis The total surface area is

As = 4 (8 1 / 12) + (1 1) = 3.67 ft 2
100 W
Then the temperature of the surrounding surfaces is determined to be 8 in = 0.95
Ts = 130F
Q rad = As (Ts 4 Tsurr 4 ) 12 in
12 in
(100 3.41214 ) Btu/h = (0.95)(3.67 m 2 )(0.1714 10 8 Btu/h.ft 2 R 4 )[(590 R ) 4 Tsurr 4 ]

Tsurr = 503 R = 43F

12-91 A double-walled spherical tank is used to store iced water. The air space between the two walls is
evacuated. The rate of heat transfer to the iced water and the amount of ice that melts a 24-h period are to
be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The D1 = 2.01 m
surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. D2 = 2.04 m
T1 = 0C
T2 = 20C
Properties The emissivities of both surfaces are given to be 1 1 = 0.15
2 = 0.15
= 2 = 0.15.
Analysis (a) Assuming the conduction resistance s of the walls
to be negligible, the rate of heat transfer to the iced water in the
tank is determined to be
Iced
A1 = D1 = (2.01 m) = 12.69 m
2 2 2 water
0C
A1 (T2 4 T1 4 )
Q 12 = 2 Vacuum
1 1 2 D1
+
1 2 D2
(12.69 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(20 + 273 K ) 4 (0 + 273 K ) 4 ]
= 2
1 1 0.15 2.01
+
0.15 0.15 2.04
= 107.4 W
(b) The amount of heat transfer during a 24-hour period is

Q = Q t = (0.1074 kJ/s)(24 3600 s) = 9275 kJ

The amount of ice that melts during this period then becomes
Q 9275 kJ
Q = mhif
m = = = 27.8 kg
hif 333.7 kJ/kg

12-69
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-92 Two concentric spheres which are maintained at uniform temperatures are separated by air at 1 atm
pressure. The rate of heat transfer between the two spheres by natural convection and radiation is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3 Air is an
ideal gas with constant properties.
Properties The emissivities of the surfaces are given to be D2 = 25 cm
1 = 2 = 0.5. The properties of air at 1 atm and the average T2 = 275 K D1 = 15 cm
temperature of (T1+T2)/2 = (350+275)/2 = 312.5 K = 2 = 0.5 T1 = 350 K
39.5C are (Table A-15) 1 = 0.9

k = 0.02658 W/m.C
= 1.697 10 5 m 2 /s
Pr = 0.7256
Lc =5 cm
1
= = 0.0032 K -1
312.5 K
Analysis (a) Noting that Di = D1 and Do = D2 , the characteristic length is
AIR
1 1 1 atm
Lc = ( Do Di ) = (0.25 m 0.15 m) = 0.05 m
2 2
Then

g (T1 T2 ) L3c (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.003200 K -1 )(350 275 K )(0.05 m ) 3

Ra = Pr = (0.7256 ) = 7.415 10 5
2 (1.697 10 5 m 2 /s ) 2

The effective thermal conductivity is

Lc 0.05 m
Fsph = = = 0.005900
4
( Di D o ) ( Di 7 / 5
+ Do 7 / 5 5
) [(0.15 m)(0.25 m)] 4
[(0.15 m) -7/5
+ (0.25 m) -7/5 ]
5

1/ 4
Pr
k eff = 0.74 k ( Fsph Ra ) 1 / 4
0 . 861 + Pr

[(0.00590)(7.415 10 )]
1/ 4
0.7256 1/ 4
= 0.74(0.02658 W/m.C)
5
= 1315 W/m.C
0.861 + 0.7256

Then the rate of heat transfer between the spheres becomes

D D (0.15 m )(0.25 m )
Q = k eff i o (Ti To ) = (0.1315 W/m.C)
(350 275)K = 23.3 W
Lc (0.05 m )
(b) The rate of heat transfer by radiation is determined from

A1 = D1 2 = (0.15 m) 2 = 0.0707 m 2
A1 (T2 4 T1 4 ) (0.0707 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(350 K ) 4 (275 K ) 4 ]
Q 12 = 2
= 2
= 32.3 W
1 1 2 D1 1 1 0.9 0.15
+ +
1 2 D2 0 .9 0.9 0.25

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 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-93 A solar collector is considered. The absorber plate and the glass cover are maintained at uniform
temperatures, and are separated by air. The rate of heat loss from the absorber plate by natural convection
and radiation is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The Absorber plate
surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3 Air is an ideal gas with T1 = 80C
constant properties. 1 = 0.8
Solar
Properties The emissivities of surfaces are given to be 1 = 0.9 radiation
for glass and 2 = 0.8 for the absorber plate. The properties of
air at 1 atm and the average temperature of (T1+T2)/2 =
(80+32)/2 = 56C are (Table A-15)
1.5 m
k = 0.02779 W/m.C
L = 3 cm
= 1.857 10 5 m 2 /s
Glass cover, Insulation
Pr = 0.7212 = 20
T2 = 32C
1 1 2 = 0.9
= = = 0.003040 K -1
Tf (56 + 273)K

Analysis For = 0 , we have horizontal rectangular enclosure. The

characteristic length in this case is the distance between the two
glasses Lc = L = 0.03 m Then,

g (T1 T2 ) L3 (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.00304 K -1 )(80 32 K )(0.03 m ) 3

Ra = Pr = 5
(0.7212 ) = 8.083 10 4
2
(1.857 10 2
m /s ) 2

As = H W = (1.5 m)(3 m) = 4.5 m 2

+ +
1708 1708(sin 1.8 ) 1.6 (Ra cos ) 1 / 3
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 1 + 1
Ra cos Ra cos 18

[ ]
+ +
1708[sin(1.8 20)]1.6 (8.083 10 4 ) cos(20)
1/ 3
1708
= 1 + 1.44 1 1 + 1
(8.083 10 ) cos(20) (8.083 10 ) cos(20)
4 4
18
= 3.747
T T (80 32)C
Q = kNuAs 1 2 = (0.02779 W/m.C)(3.747)(4.5 m 2 ) = 750 W
L 0.03 m
Neglecting the end effects, the rate of heat transfer by radiation is determined from
A (T1 4 T2 4 ) (4.5 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(80 + 273 K ) 4 (32 + 273 K ) 4 ]
Q rad = s = = 1289 W
1 1 1 1
+ 1 + 1
1 2 0 .8 0 .9
Discussion The rates of heat loss by natural convection for the horizontal and vertical cases would be as
follows (Note that the Ra number remains the same):
Horizontal:
+ + + +
1708 Ra 1 / 3 1708 (8.083 10 4 ) 1 / 3
Nu = 1 + 1.44 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 . 44 1
8.083 10 4 + 1 = 3.812
Ra 18 18
T T (80 32)C
Q = kNuAs 1 2 = (0.02779 W/m.C)(3.812)(6 m 2 ) = 1017 W
L 0.03 m
Vertical:

12-71
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer
0.3 0.3
H 2m
Nu = 0.42 Ra 1 / 4 Pr 0.012 = 0.42(8.083 10 4 ) 1 / 4 (0.7212) 0.012 = 2.001
L 0.03 m
T T (80 32)C
Q = kNuAs 1 2 = (0.02779 W/m.C)(2.001)(6 m 2 ) = 534 W
L 0.03 m

12-72
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-94E The circulating pump of a solar collector that consists of a horizontal tube and its glass cover fails.
The equilibrium temperature of the tube is to be determined.
30 Btu/h.ft
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The
tube and its cover are isothermal. 3 Air is an ideal gas. 4
T = 75F
The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray for infrared Tsky = 60F Plastic cover,
radiation. 5 The glass cover is transparent to solar radiation. 2 = 0.9, T2

Properties The properties of air should be evaluated at the

average temperature. But we do not know the exit Water
D2 =5 in
temperature of the air in the duct, and thus we cannot
determine the bulk fluid and glass cover temperatures at this
point, and thus we cannot evaluate the average Air space
temperatures. Therefore, we will assume the glass 0.5 atm
Aluminum tube
temperature to be 85F, and use properties at an anticipated D1 =2.5 in, T1
average temperature of (75+85)/2 =80F (Table A-15E), 1 = 0.9
Pr = 0.7290
k = 0.01481 Btu/h ft F 1 1
= =
= 0.6110 ft /h = 1.697 10 ft / s
2 -4 2
Tave 540 R
Analysis We have a horizontal cylindrical enclosure filled with air at 0.5 atm pressure. The problem
involves heat transfer from the aluminum tube to the glass cover and from the outer surface of the glass
cover to the surrounding ambient air. When steady operation is reached, these two heat transfer rates must
equal the rate of heat gain. That is,
Q tube-glass = Q glass-ambient = Q solar gain = 30 Btu/h (per foot of tube)

The heat transfer surface area of the glass cover is

Ao = Aglass = (D oW ) = (5 / 12 ft )(1 ft) = 1.309 ft 2 (per foot of tube)

To determine the Rayleigh number, we need to know the surface temperature of the glass, which is not
available. Therefore, solution will require a trial-and-error approach. Assuming the glass cover temperature
to be 85F, the Rayleigh number, the Nusselt number, the convection heat transfer coefficient, and the rate
of natural convection heat transfer from the glass cover to the ambient air are determined to be
g (To T ) Do3
Ra Do = Pr
2

(32.2 ft/s 2 )[1 /(540 R)](85 75 R )(5 / 12 ft ) 3
= (0.7290) = 1.092 10 6
(1.675 10 4 ft 2 /s ) 2

2 2
0.387 Ra 1/6 0.387(1.092 10 6 ) 1 / 6
Nu = 0.6 + D
= +
[ ] [ ]
0 . 6
1 + (0.559 / Pr ) 9 / 16 8 / 27
1 + (0.559 / 0.7290 ) 9 / 16 8 / 27

= 14.95
k 0.01481 Btu/h ft F
ho = Nu = (14.95) = 0.5315 Btu/h ft 2 F
D0 5 / 12 ft
Q = h A (T T ) = (0.5315 Btu/h ft 2 F)(1.309 ft 2 )(85 75)F = 6.96 Btu/h
o ,conv o o o
Also,
Q o, rad = o Ao (To4 Tsky
4
)
[
= (0.9)(0.1714 10 8 Btu/h ft 2 R 4 )(1.309 ft 2 ) (545 R) 4 (535 R) 4 ]
= 30.5 Btu/h
Then the total rate of heat loss from the glass cover becomes

Q o, total = Q o,conv + Q o, rad = 7.0 + 30.5 = 37.5 Btu/h

12-73
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

which is more than 30 Btu/h. Therefore, the assumed temperature of 85F for the glass cover is high.
Repeating the calculations with lower temperatures (including the evaluation of properties), the glass cover
temperature corresponding to 30 Btu/h is determined to be 81.5F.
The temperature of the aluminum tube is determined in a similar manner using the natural
convection and radiation relations for two horizontal concentric cylinders. The characteristic length in this
case is the distance between the two cylinders, which is

Lc = ( D o Di ) / 2 = (5 2.5) / 2 = 1.25 in = 1.25/12 ft

Also,
Ai = Atube = (Di W ) = (2.5 / 12 ft )(1 ft) = 0.6545 ft 2 (per foot of tube)

We start the calculations by assuming the tube temperature to be 118.5F, and thus an average temperature
of (81.5+118.5)/2 = 100F=640 R. Using properties at 100F,
g (Ti To ) L3 (32.2 ft/s 2 )[1 /(640 R)](118.5 81.5 R )(1.25 / 12 ft ) 3
Ra L = Pr = (0.726 ) = 1.334 10 4
2 (1.809 10 4 ft 2 /s ) 2
The effective thermal conductivity is
[ln( D / Di )] 4 [ln(5 / 2.5)] 4
Fcyc = 3 3 / o5 = = 0.1466
Lc ( Di + Do3 / 5 ) 5 (1.25/12 ft) 3 [(2.5 / 12 ft) -3/5 + (5 / 12 ft) -3/5 ] 5
1/ 4
Pr
k eff = 0.386 k ( Fcyc Ra L ) 1 / 4
0.861 + Pr
0.726
= 0.386(0.01529 Btu/h ft F) (0.1466 1.334 10 )
4 1/ 4
0.861 + 0.726
= 0.03227 Btu/h ft F

Then the rate of heat transfer between the cylinders by convection becomes
2k eff 2 (0.03227 Btu/h ft F)
Q i , conv = (Ti To ) = (118.5 81.5)F = 10.8 Btu/h
ln( Do / Di ) ln(5/2.5)
Also,

Q i , rad =
Ai (Ti 4 To4 )
=
[ ]
(0.1714 10 8 Btu/h ft 2 R 4 )(0.6545 ft 2 ) (578.5 R) 4 (541.5 R) 4
= 25.0 Btu/h
1 1 o Di 1 1 0.9 2.5 in
+ +
i o Do 0 .9 0.9 5 in

Then the total rate of heat loss from the glass cover becomes

Q i , total = Q i ,conv + Q i , rad = 10.8 + 25.0 = 35.8 Btu/h

which is more than 30 Btu/h. Therefore, the assumed temperature of 118.5F for the tube is high. By trying
other values, the tube temperature corresponding to 30 Btu/h is determined to be 113.2F. Therefore, the
tube will reach an equilibrium temperature of 113.2F when the pump fails.

12-74
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-95 A double-pane window consists of two sheets of glass separated by an air space. The rates of heat
transfer through the window by natural convection and radiation are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are
opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific
heats. 4 Heat transfer through the window is one-dimensional and the
Air
edge effects are negligible. Q
Properties The emissivities of glass surfaces are given to be 1 = 2 =
0.9. The properties of air at 0.3 atm and the average temperature of
(T1+T2)/2 = (15+5)/2 = 10C are (Table A-15) 15C 5C
L = 5 cm
k = 0.02439 W/m.C
= 1atm / 0.3 = 1.426 10 5 /0.3 = 4.753 10 5 m 2 /s
Pr = 0.7336 H=2m
1
= = 0.003534 K -1
(10 + 273) K
Analysis The characteristic length in this case is the distance between the glasses, Lc = L = 0.05 m

g (T1 T2 ) L3 (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.003534 K -1 )(15 5)K (0.05 m ) 3

Ra = Pr = 5
(0.7336 ) = 1.918 10 4
2
(4.753 10 2
m /s ) 2

1 / 9 1 / 9
H 2
Nu = 0.197 Ra 1 / 4 = 0.197(1.918 10 4 ) 1 / 4 = 1.539
L 0.05

As = (2 m )(3 m ) = 6 m 2

Then the rate of heat transfer by natural convection becomes

T T (15 5)C
Q conv = kNuAs 1 2 = (0.02439 W/m.C)(1.539)(6 m 2 ) = 45.0 W
L 0.05 m
The rate of heat transfer by radiation is determined from
A (T1 4 T2 4 )
Q rad = s
1 1
+ 1
1 2
(6 m )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(15 + 273 K ) 4 (5 + 273 K ) 4 ]
2
=
1 1
+ 1
0 .9 0 .9
= 252 W
Then the rate of total heat transfer becomes

Q total = Q conv + Q rad = 45 + 252 = 297 W

Discussion Note that heat transfer through the window is mostly by radiation.

12-75
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-96 A simple solar collector is built by placing a clear plastic tube around a garden hose. The rate of heat
loss from the water in the hose by natural convection and radiation is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3 Air is an
ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties The emissivities of surfaces are given to be 1 = 2 = 0.9. The properties of air are at 1 atm and
the film temperature of (Ts+T)/2 = (40+25)/2 = 32.5C are (Table A-15)
k = 0.02607 W/m.C
= 1.632 10 5 m 2 /s T = 25C
Tsky = 15C Plastic cover,
Pr = 0.7275 2 = 0.9, T2 =40C
1
= = 0.003273 K -1
(32.5 + 273) K Water
D2 =6 cm
Analysis Under steady conditions, the heat transfer rate
from the water in the hose equals to the rate of heat loss Air space
from the clear plastic tube to the surroundings by natural
Garden hose
convection and radiation. The characteristic length in this
D1 =2 cm, T1
case is the diameter of the plastic tube, 1 = 0.9
Lc = D plastic = D 2 = 0.06 m .

g (T s T ) D 23 (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.003273 K -1 )(40 25)K (0.06 m ) 3

Ra = Pr = (0.7275) = 2.842 10 5
2 (1.632 10 5 m 2 /s ) 2
2 2
0.387 Ra 1/6 0.387(2.842 10 5 ) 1 / 6
Nu = 0.6 + D
= + 8 / 27
= 10.30
[ ] [ ]
0 . 6
1 + (0.559 / Pr ) 9 / 16 1 + (0.559 / 0.7241) 9 / 16
8 / 27

k 0.02607 W/m.C
h= Nu = (10.30) = 4.475 W/m 2 .C
D2 0.06 m
A plastic = A2 = D 2 L = (0.06 m)(1 m) = 0.1885 m 2

Then the rate of heat transfer from the outer surface by natural convection becomes

Q conv = hA2 (Ts T ) = (4.475 W/m 2 .C)(0.1885 m 2 )(40 25)C = 12.7 W

The rate of heat transfer by radiation from the outer surface is determined from

Q rad = A2 (Ts 4 Tsky 4 )

= (0.90)(0.1885 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(40 + 273 K ) 4 (15 + 273 K) 4 ]
= 26.2 W
Finally,

Q total ,loss = 12.7 + 26.2 = 38.9 W

Discussion Note that heat transfer is mostly by radiation.

12-76
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-97 A solar collector consists of a horizontal copper tube enclosed in a concentric thin glass tube. The
annular space between the copper and the glass tubes is filled with air at 1 atm. The rate of heat loss from
the collector by natural convection and radiation is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3 Air is an
ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Properties The emissivities of surfaces are given to be 1 = 0.85 for the tube surface and 2 = 0.9 for glass
cover. The properties of air at 1 atm and the average temperature of (T1+T2)/2 = (60+40)/2 = 50C are
(Table A-15)
Plastic cover,
k = 0.02735 W/m.C T2 = 40C
= 1.798 10 5 m 2 /s 2 = 0.9

Pr = 0.7228 Water
1 D2 =9 cm
= = 0.003096 K -1
(50 + 273) K
Air space
Analysis The characteristic length in this case is
Copper tube
1 1
Lc = ( D 2 D1 ) = (0.09 m - 0.05 m) = 0.02 m D1 =5 cm, T1 = 60C
2 2 1 = 0.85
g (T1 T2 ) L3c (9.81 m/s 2 )(0.003096 K -1 )(60 40)K (0.02 m ) 3
Ra = Pr = (0.7228) = 10,850
2 (1.798 10 5 m 2 /s ) 2
The effective thermal conductivity is
[ln( Do / Di )]4 [ln(0.09 / 0.05)]4
Fcyl = = = 0.1303
L3c ( Di 3 / 5 + Do 3 / 5 ) 5 [
(0.02 m) 3 (0.09 m) -3/5 + (0.05 m) -3/5 ]
5

1/ 4
Pr
k eff = 0.386 k ( Fcyl Ra ) 1 / 4
0 . 861 + Pr
1/ 4
0.7228 [(0.1303)(10,850)]1 / 4
= 0.386(0.02735 W/m.C) = 0.05321 W/m.C
0.861 + 0.7228
Then the rate of heat transfer between the cylinders becomes
2k eff 2 (0.05321 W/m.C)
Q conv = (Ti To ) = (60 40)C = 11.4 W (Eq. 1)
ln( Do / Di ) ln(0.09 / 0.05)

The rate of heat transfer by radiation is determined from

A (T1 4 T2 4 )
Q rad = 1
1 1 2 D1
+
1 2 D 2
(0.1571 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(60 + 273 K ) 4 (40 + 273 K ) 4 ]
=
1 1 0 .9 5
+
0.85 0 .9 9
= 13.4 W
Finally,

Q total ,loss = 11.4 + 13.4 = 24.8 W (per m length)

12-77
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-98 A cylindrical furnace with specified top and bottom surface temperatures and specified heat transfer
rate at the bottom surface is considered. The temperature of the side surface and the net rates of heat
transfer between the top and the bottom surfaces, and between the bottom and the side surfaces are to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3
Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivities of the top, bottom, and side surfaces are 0.70, 0.50, and 0.40, respectively.
Analysis We consider the top surface to be surface 1, the bottom
surface to be surface 2, and the side surface to be surface 3. This
system is a three-surface enclosure. The view factor from surface 1 to T1 = 500 K
1 = 0.70
surface 2 is determined from
r1 = 0.6 m
L 1 .2
= =2
r 0 .6
F12 = 0.17 (Fig. 12-7) h = 1.2 m
r 0 .6
= = 0 .5 T3 = ?
L 1 .2 3 = 0.40
The surface areas are
A1 = A2 = D 2 / 4 = (1.2 m ) 2 / 4 = 1.131 m 2 T2 = 650 K
A3 = DL = (1.2 m )(1.2 m ) = 4.524 m 2 2 = 0.50
r2 = 0.6 m
Then other view factors are determined to be
F12 = F21 = 0.17
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1
0 + 0.17 + F13 = 1
F13 = 0.83 (summation rule), F23 = F13 = 0.83
A1F13 = A3F31 (1.131)(0.83) = (4.524 ) F31 F31 = 0.21 (reciprocity rule), F32 = F31 = 0.21
We now apply Eq. 12-35 to each surface
1 1
T1 4 = J 1 + [F12 ( J 1 J 2 ) + F13 ( J 1 J 3 )]
1
Surface 1:
1 0.70
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(500 K ) 4 = J 1 + [0.17( J 1 J 2 ) + 0.83( J 1 J 3 )]
0.70
1 2
T2 4 = J 2 + [F21 ( J 2 J 1 ) + F23 ( J 2 J 3 )]
2
Surface 2:
1 0.50
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(500 K ) 4 = J 2 + [0.17( J 2 J 1 ) + 0.83( J 2 J 3 )]
0.50
1 3
T3 4 = J 3 + [F31 ( J 3 J 1 ) + F32 ( J 3 J 2 )]
3
Surface 3:
1 0.40
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 .K 4 )T3 4 = J 3 + [0.21( J 1 J 2 ) + 0.21( J 1 J 3 )]
0.40
We now apply Eq. 12-34 to surface 2
Q 2 = A2 [F21 ( J 2 J 1 ) + F23 ( J 2 J 3 )] = (1.131 m 2 )[0.17( J 2 J 1 ) + 0.83( J 2 J 3 )]
Solving the above four equations, we find
T3 = 631 K , J 1 = 4974 W/m 2 , J 2 = 8883 W/m 2 , J 3 = 8193 W/m 2
The rate of heat transfer between the bottom and the top surface is
Q 21 = A2 F21 ( J 2 J 1 ) = (1.131 m 2 )(0.17)(8883 4974)W/m 2 = 751.6 W
The rate of heat transfer between the bottom and the side surface is
Q 23 = A2 F23 ( J 2 J 3 ) = (1.131 m 2 )(0.83)(8883 8197)W/m 2 = 644.0 W
Discussion The sum of these two heat transfer rates are 751.6 + 644 = 1395.6 W, which is practically equal
to 1400 W heat supply rate from surface 2. This must be satisfied to maintain the surfaces at the specified
temperatures under steady operation. Note that the difference is due to round-off error.

12-78
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-99 A cylindrical furnace with specified top and bottom surface temperatures and specified heat transfer
rate at the bottom surface is considered. The emissivity of the top surface and the net rates of heat transfer
between the top and the bottom surfaces, and between the bottom and the side surfaces are to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3
Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivity of the bottom surface is 0.90. 3m
Analysis We consider the top surface to be surface 1, the base surface to T1 = 700 K
be surface 2, and the side surface to be surface 3. This system is a three- 1 = ?
surface enclosure. The view factor from the base to the top surface of the
cube is F12 = 0.2 . The view factor from the base or the top to the side
surfaces is determined by applying the summation rule to be T3 = 450 K
3 = 1
F11 + F12 + F13 = 1
F13 = 1 F12 = 1 0.2 = 0.8
since the base surface is flat and thus F11 = 0 . Other view factors are
T2 = 950 K
F21 = F12 = 0.20, F23 = F13 = 0.80, F31 = F32 = 0.20 2 = 0.90

We now apply Eq. 9-35 to each surface

1 1
T1 4 = J 1 + [F12 ( J 1 J 2 ) + F13 ( J 1 J 3 )]
1
Surface 1:
1 1
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(700 K ) 4 = J 1 + [0.20( J 1 J 2 ) + 0.80( J 1 J 3 )]
1

1 2
T2 4 = J 2 + [F21 ( J 2 J 1 ) + F23 ( J 2 J 3 )]
2
Surface 2:
1 0.90
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(950 K ) 4 = J 2 + [0.20( J 2 J 1 ) + 0.80( J 2 J 3 )]
0.90
T3 4 = J 3
Surface 3:
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 .K 4 )(450 K ) 4 = J 3
We now apply Eq. 9-34 to surface 2
Q 2 = A2 [F21 ( J 2 J 1 ) + F23 ( J 2 J 3 )] = (9 m 2 )[0.20( J 2 J 1 ) + 0.80( J 2 J 3 )]
Solving the above four equations, we find
1 = 0.44, J 1 = 11,736 W/m 2 , J 2 = 41,985 W/m 2 , J 3 = 2325 W/m 2
The rate of heat transfer between the bottom and the top surface is
A1 = A2 = (3 m ) 2 = 9 m 2

Q 21 = A2 F21 ( J 2 J 1 ) = (9 m 2 )(0.20)(41,985 11,736) W/m 2 = 54.4 kW

The rate of heat transfer between the bottom and the side surface is
A3 = 4 A1 = 4(9 m 2 ) = 36 m 2

Q 23 = A2 F23 ( J 2 J 3 ) = (9 m 2 )(0.8)(41,985 2325) W/m 2 = 285.6 kW

Discussion The sum of these two heat transfer rates are 54.4 + 285.6 = 340 kW, which is equal to 340 kW
heat supply rate from surface 2.

12-79
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-100 A thin aluminum sheet is placed between two very large parallel plates that are maintained at
uniform temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the plates and the temperature of the
radiation shield are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3
Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivities of surfaces are given to be 1 = 0.8, 2 = 0.9, and 3 = 0.12.
Analysis The net rate of radiation heat transfer with a
thin aluminum shield per unit area of the plates is

(T1 4 T2 4 )
Q 12,one shield = T1 = 750 K
1 1 1 1 1 = 0.8
+ 1 + + 1

1 2 3,1 3, 2
Radiation shield
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(750 K ) 4 (550 K ) 4 ] T2 = 550 K
= 3 = 0.12
1 1 1 1 2 = 0.9
+ 1 + + 1
0 . 8 0 . 9 0 . 12 0 . 12
= 748.9 W/m 2
The equilibrium temperature of the radiation shield is determined from

(T1 4 T3 4 )
Q 13 =
1 1
+ 1

1 3
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(750 K ) 4 T3 4 ]
748.9 W/m 2 =
T3 = 671.3 K
1 1
+ 1
0.8 0.12

12-80
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-101 Two thin radiation shields are placed between two large parallel plates that are maintained at
uniform temperatures. The net rate of radiation heat transfer between the plates with and without the shields,
and the temperatures of radiation shields are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist 2 The surfaces are opaque, diffuse, and gray. 3
Convection heat transfer is not considered.
Properties The emissivities of surfaces are given to be 1 = 0.6, 2 = 0.7, 3 = 0.10, and 4 = 0.15.
Analysis The net rate of radiation heat transfer without
the shields per unit area of the plates is

(T1 4 T2 4 ) T1 = 600 K
Q 12, no shield =
1 1 1 = 0.6
+ 1
1 2
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(600 K ) 4 (300 K ) 4 ]
= 3 = 0.10
1 1
+ 1
0 .6 0 .7
= 3288 W/m 2 4 = 0.15
The net rate of radiation heat transfer with two thin T2 = 300 K
radiation shields per unit area of the plates is 2 = 0.7
(T1 4 T2 4 )
Q 12, two shields =
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 1 + + 1 + + 1
1 2 3 3 4 4
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(600 K ) 4 (300 K ) 4 ]
=
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 1 + + 1 + + 1
0.6 0.7 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.15
= 206 W/m 2
The equilibrium temperatures of the radiation shields are determined from

(T1 4 T3 4 )
Q 13 =
1 1
+ 1

1 3
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[(600 K ) 4 T3 4 ]
206 W/m 2 =
T3 = 549 K
1 1
+ 1
0.6 0.10

(T4 4 T2 4 )
Q 42 =
1 1
+ 1
4 2
(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[T4 4 (300 K ) 4 ]
206 W/m 2 =
T4 = 429 K
1 1
+ 1
0.15 0.7

12-81
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-102 Combustion gases flow inside a tube in a boiler. The rates of heat transfer by convection and
radiation and the rate of evaporation of water are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The inner surfaces of the duct are smooth. 3
Combustion gases are assumed to have the properties of air, which is an ideal gas with constant properties.
Properties The properties of air at 1200 K = 927C and 1 atm are (Table A-15)

= 0.2944 kg/m 3 C p = 1173 J/kg.C

k = 0.07574 W/m.C Pr = 0.7221
Ts = 105C
= 1.586 10 -5 2
m /s
Analysis (a) The Reynolds number is D = 15 cm

Vm D (3 m/s)(0.15 m) Combustion
Re = = = 28,373 gases, 1 atm
1.586 10 5 m 2 /s
Ti = 1200 K
which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is 3 m/s
turbulent and the entry lengths in this case are roughly
L h Lt 10 D = 10(0.15 m) = 1.5 m
which is much shorter than the total length of the duct. Therefore, we can assume fully developed turbulent
flow in the entire duct, and determine the Nusselt number from
hDh
Nu = = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.3 = 0.023(28,373)0.8 (0.7221)0.3 = 76.14
k
Heat transfer coefficient is
k 0.07574 W/m.C
h= Nu = (76.14) = 38.45 W/m 2 .C
D 0.15 m
Next we determine the exit temperature of air

A = DL = (0.15 m)(6 m) = 2.827 m 2

Ac = D 2 / 4 = (0.15 m) 2 /4 = 0.01767 m 2
m = VAc = (0.2944 kg/m 3 )(3 m/s)(0.01767 m 2 ) = 0.01561 kg/s
( 38.45 )( 2.827 )

hA /( m C p )
Te = Ts (Ts Ti )e = 105 (105 927)e ( 0.01561)(1173)
= 107.2C

Then the rate of heat transfer by convection becomes

Q conv = m C p (Ti Te ) = (0.01561 kg/s)(1173 J/kg.C)(927 107.2)C = 15,010 W

Next, we determine the emissivity of combustion gases. First, the mean beam length for an infinite circular
cylinder is, from Table 12-4,
L = 0.95(0.15 m) = 0.1425 m
Then,
Pc L = (0.08 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.0114 m atm = 0.037 ft atm
Pw L = (0.16 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.0228 m atm = 0.075 ft atm

The emissivities of CO2 and H2O corresponding to these values at the average gas temperature of
Tg=(Tg+Tg)/2 = (927+107.2)/2 = 517.1C = 790 K and 1atm are, from Fig. 12-36,
c , 1 atm = 0.055 and w, 1 atm = 0.062

Both CO2 and H2O are present in the same mixture, and we need to correct for the overlap of emission
bands. The emissivity correction factor at T = Tg = 800 K is, from Fig. 12-38,

12-82
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

Pc L + Pw L = 0.037 + 0.075 = 0.112

Pw
=
0.16
= 0.67 = 0 . 0
Pw + Pc 0.16 + 0.08

Then the effective emissivity of the combustion gases becomes

g = C c c, 1 atm + C w w, 1 atm = 1 0.055 + 1 0.062 0.0 = 0.117

Note that the pressure correction factor is 1 for both gases since the total pressure is 1 atm. For a source
temperature of Ts = 105C = 378 K, the absorptivity of the gas is again determined using the emissivity
charts as follows:
Ts 378 K
Pc L = (0.08 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.00545 m atm = 0.018 ft atm
Tg 790 K
Ts 378 K
Pw L = (0.16 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.0109 m atm = 0.036 ft atm
Tg 790 K

The emissivities of CO2 and H2O corresponding to these values at a temperature of Ts = 378 K and 1atm
are, from Fig. 12-36,
c , 1 atm = 0.037 and w, 1 atm = 0.062

Then the absorptivities of CO2 and H2O become

0.65
Tg 790 K
0.65
c = C c
c , 1 atm = (1) (0.037) = 0.0597
Ts 378 K
0.45
Tg 790 K
0.45
w = C w
w, 1 atm = (1) (0.062) = 0.0864
Ts 378 K

Also = , but the emissivity correction factor is to be evaluated from Fig. 12-38 at T = Ts = 378 K
instead of Tg = 790 K. We use the chart for 400 K. At Pw/(Pw+ Pc) = 0.67 and PcL +PwL = 0.112 we read
= 0.0. Then the absorptivity of the combustion gases becomes
g = c + w = 0.0597 + 0.0864 0.0 = 0.146

The emissivity of the inner surface s of the tubes is 0.9. Then the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the
combustion gases to the walls of the tube becomes
+1
Q rad = s As ( g T g4 g Ts4 )
2
0 .9 + 1
= (2.827 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[0.117(790 K ) 4 0.146(378 K ) 4 ]
2
= 6486 W
(b) The heat of vaporization of water at 1 atm is 2257 kJ/kg (Table A-9). Then rate of evaporation of water
becomes

Q + Q rad (15,010 + 6486) W

Q conv + Q rad = m evap h fg
m evap = conv = = 0.0644 kg/s
h fg 333.7 10 3 J/kg

12-83
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

12-103 Combustion gases flow inside a tube in a boiler. The rates of heat transfer by convection and
radiation and the rate of evaporation of water are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The inner surfaces of the duct are smooth. 3
Combustion gases are assumed to have the properties of air, which is an ideal gas with constant properties.
Properties The properties of air at 1200 K = 927C and 3 atm are (Table A-15)
= 0.2944 kg/m 3 C p = 1173 J/kg.C
k = 0.07574 W/m.C Pr = 0.7221
Ts = 105C
= (1.586 10 -5 m 2 /s)/3
= 0.5287 10 -5 m 2 /s D = 15 cm
Analysis (a) The Reynolds number is
Combustion
V D (3 m/s)(0.15 m) gases, 3 atm
Re = m = = 85,114
0.5287 10 5 m 2 /s Ti = 1200 K
which is greater than 10,000. Therefore, the flow is 3 m/s
turbulent and the entry lengths in this case are roughly
L h Lt 10 D = 10(0.15 m) = 1.5 m
which is much shorter than the total length of the duct. Therefore, we can assume fully developed turbulent
flow in the entire duct, and determine the Nusselt number from
hDh
Nu = = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.3 = 0.023(85,114)0.8 (0.7221)0.3 = 183.4
k
Heat transfer coefficient is
k 0.07574 W/m.C
h = Nu = (183.4) = 92.59 W/m 2 .C
D 0.15 m
Next we determine the exit temperature of air
A = DL = (0.15 m)(6 m) = 2.827 m 2
Ac = D 2 / 4 = (0.15 m) 2 /4 = 0.01767 m 2
m = VAc = (0.2944 kg/m 3 )(3 m/s)(0.01767 m 2 ) = 0.01561 kg/s
( 92.59 )( 2.827 )

hA /( m C p )
Te = Ts (Ts Ti )e = 105 (105 927)e ( 0.01561)(1173)
= 105.0C
Then the rate of heat transfer by convection becomes
Qconv = m C (T T ) = (0.01561 kg/s)(1173 J/kg.C)(927 105.0)C = 15,050 W
p i e

Next, we determine the emissivity of combustion gases. First, the mean beam length for an infinite circular
cylinder is, from Table 12-4,
L = 0.95(0.15 m) = 0.1425 m
Pc L = (0.08 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.0114 m atm = 0.037 ft atm
Then,
Pw L = (0.16 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.0228 m atm = 0.075 ft atm
The emissivities of CO2 and H2O corresponding to these values at the average gas temperature of
Tg=(Tg+Tg)/2 = (927+105)/2 = 516C = 790 K and 1atm are, from Fig. 12-36,
c , 1 atm = 0.055 and w, 1 atm = 0.062
These are the base emissivity values at 1 atm, and they need to be corrected for the 3 atm total pressure.
Noting that (Pw+P)/2 = (0.16+3)/2 = 1.58 atm, the pressure correction factors are, from Fig. 12-37,
Cc = 1.5 and Cw = 1.8
Both CO2 and H2O are present in the same mixture, and we need to correct for the overlap of emission
bands. The emissivity correction factor at T = Tg = 800 K is, from Fig. 12-38,
Pc L + Pw L = 0.037 + 0.075 = 0.112

Pw
=
0.16
= 0.67 = 0 . 0
Pw + Pc 0.16 + 0.08

12-84
 Chapter 12 Radiation Heat Transfer

Then the effective emissivity of the combustion gases becomes

g = C c c, 1 atm + C w w, 1 atm = 1.5 0.055 + 1.8 0.062 0.0 = 0.194
For a source temperature of Ts = 105C = 378 K, the absorptivity of the gas is again determined using the
emissivity charts as follows:
T 378 K
Pc L s = (0.08 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.00545 m atm = 0.018 ft atm
Tg 790 K
Ts 378 K
Pw L = (0.16 atm)(0.1425 m) = 0.0109 m atm = 0.036 ft atm
Tg 790 K
The emissivities of CO2 and H2O corresponding to these values at a temperature of Ts = 378 K and 1atm
are, from Fig. 12-36,
c , 1 atm = 0.037 and w, 1 atm = 0.062
Then the absorptivities of CO2 and H2O become
0.65
Tg 790 K
0.65
c = C c
c , 1 atm = (1.5) (0.037) = 0.0896
Ts 378 K
0.45
Tg 0.45
w = C w w, 1 atm = (1.8) 790 K (0.062) = 0.1555
378 K
Ts
Also = , but the emissivity correction factor is to be evaluated from Fig. 12-38 at T = Ts = 378 K
instead of Tg = 790 K. We use the chart for 400 K. At Pw/(Pw+ Pc) = 0.67 and PcL +PwL = 0.112 we read
= 0.0. Then the absorptivity of the combustion gases becomes
g = c + w = 0.0896 + 0.1555 0.0 = 0.245
The emissivity of the inner surfaces of the tubes is 0.9. Then the net rate of radiation heat transfer from the
combustion gases to the walls of the tube becomes
+1
Q rad = s As ( g T g4 g Ts4 )
2
0 .9 + 1
= (2.827 m 2 )(5.67 10 8 W/m 2 K 4 )[0.194(790 K ) 4 0.245(378 K ) 4 ]
2
= 10,745 W
(b) The heat of vaporization of water at 1 atm is 2257 kJ/kg (Table A-9). Then rate of evaporation of water
becomes
Q + Q rad (15,050 + 10,745) W
Q conv + Q rad = m evap h fg
m evap = conv = = 0.0773 kg/s
h fg 333.7 10 3 J/kg

12-104 .. 12-106 Design and Essay Problems

12-85