Research: Science and Education
Chemophobia in the College Classroom:
Extent, Sources, and Student Characteristics
Roberta M. Eddy
Department of Chemistry, Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, PA 15705; rmeddy@grove.iup.edu
Chemophobia (chemistry anxiety) is assumed to exist
in the classroom and thought to be partially responsible for
low student enrollment in chemistry. Chemophobia is also
thought to impede the learning of chemistry because high
levels of anxiety can result in low levels of achievement (1).
Yet knowledge of chemistry is essential for making intelligent
decisions concerning human welfare. Furthermore, critical
thinking and problem-solving skills, necessary in todays
world, can be learned in chemistry laboratory courses. By
learning chemistry and working with chemicals, students may
be better prepared to solve real-world problems.
But what exactly is chemophobia? The literature reveals
no clear definition. The term appears to be used in two
contexts: fear of chemicals (2, 3) and fear of chemistry as a
course (4). However, compared with the research conducted
on mathematics anxiety, very few studies have addressed the
issue of chemistry anxiety (511).
Some findings of the few studies on the chemistry anxi-
ety of college students suggest the following:
1. A psychological treatment designed to reduce chemistry
anxiety significantly lowers levels of chemistry anxiety
and results in higher chemistry grades (9).
2. Students who are successful at learning chemistry ap-
pear to have less anxiety than students who are unsuc-
cessful at learning chemistry (10).
3. A significant gender difference exists at the beginning
of an introductory chemistry course, but this differ-
ence disappears as the course progresses (10).
4. Non-anxious learners who lack ability and able learn-
ers who are highly anxious prefer a highly structured
method of instruction consisting of explicitly stated ob-
jectives, reviews, examples, questions, and feedback (11).
Because so little research has been done on chemistry
anxiety, this study was conducted to provide a better under-
standing of chemophobia at the college level by determining
the following: (i) the extent of chemophobia in the college
classroom, (ii) the factors that contribute to college students
anxieties about learning chemistry and handling chemicals,
and (iii) the characteristics of college students who have anxiety
about learning chemistry and handling chemicals (12). The
results can be used to develop strategies to reduce chemistry
anxiety so that the learning of chemistry may be improved.
Methodology
Instruments
To distinguish chemistry anxiety from mathematics anxi-
ety and the students own natural level of anxiety, three types
of anxiety were measured: chemistry, mathematics, and trait.
Trait anxiety was measured by Spielbergers Trait-Anxiety Scale
(Form Y-2) of the State-Trait-Anxiety Inventory (STAI) (13).
The Trait-Anxiety Scale is a self-evaluation comprising 20
statements that assess how people generally feel. Each state-
514 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 77 No. 4 April 2000 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
ment is given a score of 1 to 4. The overall score is obtained
by adding the scores after adjusting for the reversed scores.
The higher the score, the more anxiety. For male college
students, the mean, standard deviation, and reliability
coefficient as Cronbachs alpha () are 38.30, 9.18, and .90,
respectively. For female college students, the mean is 40.40,
SD is 10.15, and is .91.
Cronbachs alpha (14 ) is a measure of the reliability of a
scale. It is a measure of the internal consistency of scale
itemsthat is, how well they correlate with each other.
Cronbachs alpha can be calculated by the equation (15)
= (k/(k 1)) * [1 (s 2i )/s 2sum] (1)
s 2i
where k is the number of items on the scale, is the variance
for an individual item, and s 2sum is the variance for the sum of
all items. So the closer alpha is to 1, the more reliable the scale.
Math anxiety was measured by the Revised Mathematics
Anxiety Rating Scale (RMARS, x = 56.68, SD = 20.55,
= .98). Plake and Parker (16 ) developed this two-factor,
24-item scale as a shortened version of Richardson and Suinns
(17 ) 98-item Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS).
Factor 1 of RMARS consists of 16 items and is labeled Learn-
ing Mathematics Anxiety. Factor 2, Mathematics Evaluation
Anxiety consists of eight items. Anxiety levels are measured
on a 5-point scale where 1 represents not at all; 2, a little;
3, a fair amount; 4, much; and 5 means very much.
Considering the range of the scale (24 to 120), the mean
represents a moderate amount of anxiety.
A three-factor, 36-item Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating
Scale (DCARS, x = 81.47, SD = 21.31, = .94) was used to
measure the anxiety associated with learning chemistry, being
evaluated in chemistry, and handling chemicals. DCARS
(derived from RMARS) was developed, tested, and used in
previous studies (12). RMARS was used for the development
of DCARS because the definition of chemophobia was assumed
to be analogous to Richardson and Suinns definition of math
anxiety and to the definition of mathophobia, a term used by
Lazarus (18) to describe the phenomenon of math anxiety.
Anxiety levels are measured by DCARS on a 5-level anxi-
ety rating scale where 1 represents not at all; 2, a little bit;
3, moderately; 4, quite a bit; and 5 means extremely
anxious. The range of the scale is from 36 to 180. Thus, the
mean represents a moderate level of chemistry anxiety.
The items for the three factors of DCARS are listed in the
Appendix. Items that were eliminated from the scale after the
pilot study are shown in the Box. These items were elimi-
Items Eliminated from the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating
Scale During the Pilot Study
1. Dissolving a chemical in water.
2. Weighing a chemical on a balance.
3. Reading the word chemical.
4. Watching a teacher handle the chemicals during a
demonstration.
 Research: Science and Education

nated because more than 70% of the participants selected Results and Discussion
level 1 (not at all anxious). These items show situations that
apparently are not associated with much chemistry anxiety Reliability Analysis
in this college student sample. DCARS, Trait-Anxiety, RMARS, and the three subscales
of DCARS all had high reliability (Table 1). Scale means and
Subjects standard deviations were comparable to previously reported
A questionnaire containing the DCARS, RMARS, Trait- values.
Anxiety Scale, and demographic questions was administered
at the end of the first class of the Fall 1996 semester to 480 Correlation Analysis
college students who were taking an introductory chemistry Bivariate correlation analysis with 2-tailed significance
course at Indiana University of Pennsylvania (IUP). The at p .05 resulted in significant correlation coefficients (SPSS
students were 45 Chemistry majors (24 men, 21 women) p = 0.000) between all the anxiety scales and subscales for
and 435 Allied Health majors (127 men, 306 women, and 2 chemistry, mathematics, and trait. Although the correlation
who did not identify their gender). Eight interviews were con- between chemistry anxiety and trait anxiety is significant
ducted with volunteers who professed to have high anxiety (.33), it is not strong. This suggests that there really is some-
about learning chemistry and handling chemicals. thing unique about chemistry that makes students anxious.
About 12,000 undergraduate and 2,000 graduate students Table 2 displays the significant correlation coefficients between
are enrolled at IUP, which is located in a rural setting in south- the scales and subscales for chemistry anxiety and the scales
western Pennsylvania. The average SAT/ACT 25th75th per- for math and trait anxiety.
centile scores of enrolled students are 9701140. Twenty-six The squared correlation coefficients between chemistry
percent of enrolled freshmen graduated in the top 10% of anxiety, math anxiety, and trait anxiety determined the percent
their high school class (19). of variance that was explained by these variables and the
percent overlap of the con-
Data Analysis structs. This enabled a sche- Chemistry Math
Data analysis was performed by SPSS with p .05 for matic representation of the anxiety anxiety
all statistical tests (i.e., 95% confidence limits) except in the relationship between chem- 53%
cases where p had to be adjusted for multiple tests on the istry anxiety, math anxiety,
same data. and trait anxiety to be drawn 10%
11%
The following types of analyses were performed: reliability (Fig. 1). The relationship be-
analysis of all scales and subscales; factor analysis of the chem- Trait
tween chemistry and math anxiety
istry anxiety scale to see if the same three factors emerged as anxiety is much stronger
in previous studies and to determine the percent of variance than the relationship be-
explained by the three factors; frequency analysis; correlation tween chemistry anxiety Figure 1. Schematic representation
analysis; t-tests for paired samples; and two-way ANOVAs. and trait anxiety and the re- of the relationships among chemis-
The 4-level Trait-Anxiety Scale was adjusted to correspond lationship between math try anxiety, math anxiety, and trait
to a 5-level scale before correlation analysis. anxiety and trait anxiety. anxiety.

t-Tests for Paired Samples

Table 1. Results for the Chemistr y Anxiety (DCARS), Three t-tests for paired samples were performed with
Math, and Trait Anxiety Scales two-tail significance at p .016 after p .05 was adjusted
Scale Cron- for multiple tests. The results showed that the mean anxiety
Scale
Scale N SD bachs
Mean
(avg.)
levels for the three subscales of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety
Rating Scale were all significantly different from each other
Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale 475 2.30 0.61 .95
Factor 1, Learning-Chemistry Anxiety 477 1.91 0.29 .93 (SPSS p = 0.000 in all cases). The order from highest to lowest
Factor 2, Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety 479 3.20 0.31 .91 mean anxiety level was Chemistry Evaluation (x = 3.20), Han-
Factor 3, Handling-Chemicals Anxiety 477 2.15 0.33 .89 dling Chemicals (x = 2.14), and Learning Chemistry (x = 1.91).
Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale 447 2.26 0.57 .95
Trait Anxiety 451 1.96 0.27 .89 Sources (Activities, Aspects of the Course)
That Contribute Most to Chemistry Anxiety
Frequency analysis by SPSS ranking survey items by item
Table 2. Significant Correlation Coefficients between means of the DCARS data and analysis of the interview data
the Scales and Subscales revealed the sources that are associated with the highest anxiety
Scale or Subscale
Learning Chemistry Handling
RMARS
Trait for learning chemistry, being evaluated in chemistry, and
Chemistry Evaluation Chemicals Anxiety handling chemicals. The results of frequency analysis for each
DCARS .92 .81 .75 .73 .33 subscale are listed in Table 3. The sources that contribute most
Learning Chemistry .65 .58 .71 .28 to Learning-Chemistry Anxiety and to Handling-Chemicals
Chemistry Evaluation .37 .68 .28 Anxiety are associated with mean anxiety levels between a
Handling Chemicals .41 .26 little bit and moderately anxious, whereas the sources that
RMARS .31 contribute most to Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety are asso-
Note: 2-Tailed bivariate correlation analysis at p .05; SPSS ciated with mean anxiety levels between moderately and quite
p = 0.000 in all cases. a bit anxious.

JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu Vol. 77 No. 4 April 2000 Journal of Chemical Education 515

 Research: Science and Education

Interviews with the high-anxiety students showed that Table 3. Sources Associated with Highest Anxiety for
math, answering questions in class, chemistry in general, the Chemistr y Anxiety Subscales
fast pace, and no relation to life contributed most to their Mean Anxiety
Source
Learning-Chemistry anxiety. Chemistry tests (both short-answer Level (SD)
essay and multiple choice) and not knowing what type of LEARNING CHEMISTRY
test to expect contributed most to their Chemistry-Evaluation Being told how to interpret chemical equations 2.48 (1.13)
anxiety. Sources that contributed most to their Handling- Reading a formula in chemistry 2.42 (1.05)
Chemicals anxiety were lighting the Bunsen burner, fire,
Reading and interpreting graphs or charts that
unstructured labs, acid burns, explosions, and getting chemi- 2.28 (1.01)
show the results of a chemistry experiment
cals on skin.
Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin working
The interview data about acid burns and getting chemicals 2.10 (0.96)
on a homework assignment
on skin agree with the conclusions that can be drawn from
Signing up for a chemistry course 2.05 (1.15)
the rating-scale data. The rest of the interview data suggest
CHEMISTRY EVALUATION
additional aspects that contribute to chemistry anxiety.
The finding that unstructured labs contribute to chemis- Taking a final exam in a chemistry course 3.75 (1.29)
try anxiety implies that inquiry-based learning of chemistry Waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which
3.52 (1.15)
may result in high anxiety for students who feel more com- you expected to do well
fortable with step-by-step procedures and knowledge of what Taking a quiz in a chemistry course 3.22 (1.21)
to observe, what is happening, and why it is happening. Being given a homework assignment of many
3.21 (1.25)
difficult problems due the next chemistry class
Who Is Afraid of Chemistry? Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test 3.20 (1.16)
Two-way ANOVA results, with p .05, revealed that HANDLING CHEMICALS
women had significantly higher mean anxiety levels than men Getting chemicals on your hands 2.57 (1.22)
on the whole chemistry anxiety scale (SPSS p = 0.000) and Spilling a chemical 2.50 (1.01)
on each of the subscales: Learning-Chemistry (SPSS p = .009); Working with unknown chemicals 2.45 (1.15)
Chemistry-Evaluation (SPSS p = 0.000); and Handling-
Working with acids 2.34 (1.15)
Chemicals (SPSS p = .002). The finding of a significant
Mixing chemical reagents 2.30 (1.09)
gender effect at the beginning of a chemistry course supports
Westerback and Primaveras reported finding (10). Figure 2
shows this significant gender effect.
There was also a significant main effect for chemistry
experience (SPSS p = .006). Students with low chemistry
experience (two or fewer chemistry courses taken in high
school and college) had significantly higher chemistry anxiety
than students with high chemistry experience (more than two
chemistry courses taken in high school and college). The
mean chemistry anxiety level for the students with low chem-
istry experience was 2.34, whereas the mean for the students
with high chemistry experience was 2.17.
Two-way ANOVA results showed no significant main
effects for type of major (SPSS p = .105) or for math experience
(SPSS p = .619). The Chemistry majors statistically had as
much chemistry anxiety as the Allied Health majors, and the Figure 2. Significant gender effect. Women had significantly higher
students with high math experience (more than five high mean anxiety levels than men on the whole chemistry anxiety scale
school and college math courses) had as much chemistry anxi- and on each of the subscales.
ety as the students with low math experience (five or fewer
high school and college math courses). Furthermore, the results
showed no significant interactions between (i) gender and chemistry course. Since these students had not been successful
type of major (SPSS p = .861), (ii) gender and chemistry in chemistry before, their anxiety levels may have been high.
experience (SPSS p = .967), and (iii) gender and math ex- The interview data suggest a possible reason for increased
perience (SPSS p = .366). math experience not being related to lower chemistry anxiety.
A possible explanation for no significant difference in Perhaps the students cannot relate the math to the chemistry
the chemistry anxiety levels of the Chemistry majors and the regardless of how much math experience they have. Support
Allied Health majors is that the group of chemistry majors for this suggestion is evident in the following statements made
included pre-professional students who were in pre-medicine, by two female Allied Health majorsone with low math
pre-physical therapy, pre-dental, pre-veterinary, or pre-optom- experience, the other with high math experience. The woman
etry programs. Medical fields are highly competitive. Since with a weak background in math said, I cant put the chemical
success in chemistry is very influential regarding continuance properties and the math together. The woman with a strong
in these pre-professional programs, student anxiety about background in math said, The fractions I see in chemistry
chemistry may be high. Another possible explanation is that class, like in the factor-label conversion problemsI never
some of the chemistry majors were repeating the introductory had this before in other math classes.

516 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 77 No. 4 April 2000 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu


Summary
Because a convenience sample was used for this study,
the results can not be generalized to the entire population
of college students. However, for the students in this study,
the results indicate that chemophobia does exist in the college
classroom at an average level of anxiety between a little
bit and moderate. In view of the national recognition of
math anxiety and the many strategies implemented to deal
with this problem, perhaps it is time that these programs
be modified to include ways of dealing with chemophobia.
The presence of this anxiety in our students could be a
contributing factor in the overall poor performance of high
school students in science compared to that of students in
other nations.
This material was presented at the 213th National
Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Division of
Chemical Education, San Francisco, CA, April 1997, and the
National Science Teachers Association Eastern Regional
Convention, Pittsburgh PA, October 1997.
Acknowledgment
I am very grateful to Krys Kaniasty for his expert guidance.
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JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu Vol. 77 No. 4 April 2000 Journal of Chemical Education
Research: Science and Education
Appendix: Items for Factors 1, 2, and 3
of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale
Factor 1. Learning-Chemistry Anxiety
1. Reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the
results of a chemistry experiment.
2. Starting a new chapter in a chemistry book.
3. Reading a formula in chemistry.
4. Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin working on a
homework assignment.
5. Watching a teacher work a chemistry problem on the
blackboard.
6. Walking into a chemistry class.
7. Being told how to interpret chemical equations.
8. Signing up for a chemistry course.
9. Listening to a lecture on chemicals.
10. Having to use the tables in a chemistry book.
11. Looking through the pages in a chemistry text.
12. Reading the word chemistry.
13. Walking on campus and thinking about a chemistry
course.
14. Walking on campus and thinking about chemistry lab.
15. Buying a chemistry textbook.
16. Listening to another student explain a chemical reaction.
17. Listening to a lecture in a chemistry class.
Factor 2. Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety
1. Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such as If
x = grams of hydrogen and y = total grams of water pro-
duced, calculate the number of grams of oxygen that re-
acted with the hydrogen.
2. Waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you
expected to do well.
3. Being given a pop quiz in a chemistry class.
4. Taking an examination (quiz) in a chemistry course.
5. Getting ready to study for a chemistry test.
6. Being given a homework assignment of many difficult
problems which is due the next chemistry class meeting.
7. Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test.
8. Taking an examination (final) in a chemistry course.
9. Thinking about an upcoming chemistry test one day be-
fore.
Factor 3. Handling-Chemicals Anxiety
1. Spilling a chemical.
2. Listening to another student describe an accident in the
chemistry lab.
3. Being told how to handle the chemicals for the labora-
tory experiment.
4. Working with acids in the lab.
5. Getting chemicals on your hands during the experiment.
6. Breathing the air in the chemistry laboratory.
7. Working with a chemical whose identity you dont know.
8. Mixing chemical reagents in the laboratory.
9. Heating a chemical in the Bunsen Burner flame.
10. Walking into a chemistry laboratory.
517