From Segmentation To Fragmentation

European Journal of Marketing
From segmentation to fragmentation: Markets and marketing strategy in the postmodern era
A. Fuat Firat Clifford J. Shultz II
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From
From segmentation to segmentation to
fragmentation fragmentation
Markets and marketing strategy in the

postmodern era 183
A. Fuat Firat and Clifford J. Shultz II

Faculty of Marketing, Arizona State University West, School of
Management, Phoenix, USA
Introduction
There have been several philosophical debates in the history of marketing
thought about the disciplines mission and role within business and society.
Among these debates are science versus art, the extent to which the marketing
concept should be broadened, and the recent debates on method and philosophy.
From them emerged and continue to emerge new directions and challenges for
marketing and marketers. Of course, these debates are (were) usually spurred
by social forces or evolving business conditions that inspire(d) the need for
fresh thinking. One of the most compelling forces today would appear to be the
advent of postmodernism. As a new perspective, which has been very effective
in the arts and humanities (Foster, 1985; Kaplan, 1987; Stephanson, 1988), as
well as in architecture (Jencks, 1987), postmodernism seems likely to make, and
by some accounts is already making (Gitlin, 1989; Habermas, 1983; Hutcheon,
1988; Jameson, 1992), an impact on contemporary culture, generally, and
consumer culture, specifically. This impact has not been lost on marketing
scholars, many of whom have begun to examine postmodernism within the
context of their discipline (Brown, 1993a, 1993b; Firat, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993;
Firat and Venkatesh, 1993, 1995; Firat et al., 1993, 1994; Ogilvy, 1990; Sherry,
1991; van Raaij, 1993; Venkatesh, 1989, 1992). Moreover, subsumed under the
impact of postmodernism across institutions is the belief that postmodernism
may also considerably affect the way that marketing organizations will need to
conduct business into the next century. Indeed, the modus operandi for
marketers in a postmodern era may be business as unusual. Consequently,
there may be a need for traditional marketing management practitioners to
reassess their assumptions about markets and the strategies they use to create
competitive advantage and to capture market share.
Contributions by marketing scholars have generally focused on the implicit
impact of postmodernism on marketing (Brown, 1993a, 1993b; Firat, 1992; van
Raaij, 1993), yet our review of the literature led us to conclude that the
implications of postmodernism for strategic marketing have received little if
any attention from marketing scholars. Our objective, then, is to expand the European Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 31 No. 3/4, 1997, pp. 183-207.
discussion of postmodernisms impact on the discipline of marketing and, more MCB University Press, 0309-0566
European specifically, to suggest strategic contingencies for marketing managers and
Journal research opportunities for marketing and consumer research scholars.
of Marketing
The expanding influence of postmodernism
31,3/4 Postmodernism, for a time considered to be a fad by some members of almost
all academic disciplines, could prove to be a serious contender as a new
184 perspective from which to view and to act in the world, generally, and the
business world, specifically (see Brown, 1993b). This premiss clearly has far-
reaching implications for marketing managers. Despite its academic and
popular adversaries (see Bhaskar, 1991; Eagleton, 1990; Habermas, 1983; Hill,
1993), postmodernist insights and ideas seem to be commanding growing
attention and creating serious interest across many disciplines, including
architecture (Frampton 1983; Jencks, 1987), art (Levin, 1988; Wallis, 1984),
philosophy (Derrida, 1982; Lyotard, 1984; Madison, 1988), literary criticism

(Jameson, 1992; Wilson, 1989), womens studies (Nicholson, 1990) and history
(Winders, 1991). Although marketing and consumer research disciplines have
been relatively slow to recognize the impacts and existence of postmodernism
as compared to sociology (Bauman, 1992), political science (Angus and Jhally,
1989; Aronowitz, 1988), and even the management discipline (Bergquist, 1993),
recently postmodernist implications have begun to be explored by marketing
scholars (as previously cited). In marketing, these implications may be more
than practical, operational, or even theoretical. They may, by some accounts
(Firat and Venkatesh, 1995), result in substantial redefinition of the character
and the role of the field. For example, an articulation of postmodernist insights
for marketing and the consumers of a possibly postmodern era may suggest
that some of the most central tenets and/or principles of marketing e.g. the
marketing concept be re-thought and modified extensively. The purpose of
this paper is to explore these practitioner relevant implications, especially as
they pertain to segmentation and positioning, two of the most central and
strategic concepts in marketing management (Kotler, 1991).
Segmentation and positioning have been singled out because they are
cornerstones of marketing management, yet emerging trends would suggest
traditional conceptions of either may not be as meaningful or satisfactory as
once thought, if we hope to understand or explain emerging market conditions.
Therefore, marketers may need to develop different conceptions and
approaches to segmentation and positioning if they wish to achieve marketing
objectives. The aforementioned literature implies the need for transformation(s)
in how we view markets. That is, if and when postmodern changes (further)
entrench themselves in our societies, no clear or specific recommendations have
been promulgated that will enable practitioners to respond to the concomitant
marketing challenges. We intend to recommend proactive strategies and
frameworks for marketers interested in successfully responding to those
challenges.
To accomplish this task we shall refer to the framework developed by Firat
and Venkatesh (1993), taking into consideration the extensions to this
framework offered by van Raaij (1993) and Brown (1993a, 1993b). These From
authors have provided insights into the complex and at times confusing segmentation to
discussions on the meaning and domain of postmodernist discourse and culture fragmentation
in order to discern the connections and mutual influences between
postmodernism and marketing. In this vein, each paper has proposed several
connections between postmodernism and, for example, marketing and
advertising practices, which demonstrate the postmodernist tendencies of 185
marketing, especially in recent years.
In their framework, Firat and Venkatesh (1993) offer five conditions of
postmodern culture:
(1) hyperreality;
(2) fragmentation;
(3) reversal of consumption and production;

(4) decentring of the subject; and
(5) paradoxical juxtapositions (of opposites)
and a general consequence of these conditions loss of commitment. Van Raaij
(1993) adds to these conditions the consequence of openness, which he defines
as pluralism; that is, pluralism as the dominant approach to all relationships, or
as the acceptance of difference. Brown further expands the framework by
articulating three tendencies of the postmodern consumer(s):
(1) readiness for living a perpetual present;
(2) emphasis on form/style (Brown, 1993b); and
(3) greater acceptance of or resignation to (a) state(s) of disorder and chaos
(Brown, 1993a).
Brief descriptions of these conditions are provided in Table I. The purpose of
this paper is not to discuss postmodernism per se since such discussion is
available in the aforementioned literature. Instead, we shall try to elaborate
points that will help us to provide some further understanding of the
transformation mentioned in the title of this paper: From segmentation to
fragmentation.
A recognition of the rudimentary aspects of a transition from modernity to
postmodernity will highlight the differences that such a transformation will
affect on the constitution of the market. We shall discuss these market
implications of the transition throughout the following sections of the paper. We
shall also propose, at different points in the paper, marketing strategies that will
be required to keep up with or proactively respond to the changes in the market.
Foundations of modern marketing thought

A brief discussion of the tenets of modern marketing is in order to help a better
understanding of the changes required for transition to postmodern marketing
strategies. Marketing thought and practice have experienced changes in
European Postmodern conditions Brief descriptions
Journal
of Marketing Openness/tolerance Acceptance of difference (different styles, ways of being
31,3/4 and living) without prejudice or evaluations of superiority
and inferiority
Hyperreality Constitution of social reality through hype or simulation
186 that is powerfully signified and represented
Perpetual present Cultural propensity to experience everything (including
the past and future) in the present, here and now
Paradoxical juxtapositions Cultural propensity to juxtapose anything with anything
else, including oppositional, contradictory and essentially
unrelated elements
Fragmentation Omnipresence of disjointed and disconnected moments
and experiences in life and sense of self and the growing

acceptance of the dynamism which leads to fragmentation
in markets
Loss of commitment Growing cultural unwillingness to commit to any single
idea, project or grand design
Decentring of the subject Removal of the human being from the central importance
she or he held in modern culture and the increasing
acceptance of the potentials of his/her objectfication
Reversal of consumption and Cultural acknowledgement that value is created not in
production production (as posited by modern thought) but in
consumption and the subsequent growth of attention
and importance given to consumption
Emphasis on form/style Growing influence of form and style (as opposed to
content) in determining meaning and life
Acceptance of disorder/chaos Cultural acknowledgement that rather than order, crises
Table I. and disequilibria are the common states of existence and
Brief description of the subsequent acceptance and appreciation of this
postmodern conditions condition
orientations and approaches across history. While present in the practices of

certain organizations early in the development of modern business practices
(Fullerton, 1988), modern marketing thought has not dominated practice until
after the Second World War (Kotler, 1972). Modern marketing is distinguishable
from other marketing orientations in several aspects, among which is the
marketing concept. This concept, as articulated by several marketing
scholars (e.g. Alderson, 1965; Bagozzi, 1975; Kotler, 1972; Kotler and Levy, 1969;
Levy and Zaltman, 1975) captures many of the more essential characteristics of
modern marketing; characteristics which reflect its indebtedness to tenets of
modernism in general.
Modern thought put the subject (human being) at the centre and elaborated
the project of modernity in terms of the relationships this subject develops with
the objects he or she acts on in order to improve conditions of life. The totality
of these subject-object relations constitute the economy, and the rationality of
managing these relations is the substance of economics. It could be claimed, From
therefore, that the economy and its science, economics, had to take centre segmentation to
stage in modern society. In fact, it would be difficult to argue the contrary; that fragmentation
the economy does not constitute the major interest in modern society. The
dominant train of thought throughout modern history has been that if the
economy is not healthy, nothing else can survive.
Marketing and the marketing concept tend to be products of this modernist 187
focus on the economy. The success of the marketing organization is contingent
on the acceptance of its products in the market and to the resolution of the
product offering in a market exchange (in a transaction involving economic
resources). Marketing textbooks (see Bagozzi, 1986; Kotler, 1991; Park and
Zaltman, 1987; Stanton, 1975) usually indicate that the final purpose of
marketing practice is to maximize in the long-term (or optimize) such
exchanges, or sales, and thereby, profits. While the social reason for being
(raison dtre/justification of existence) is professed to be the satisfaction of
consumer needs, existence is proclaimed to be possible only through
economic/financial success in a competitive environment. Given that the whole
societys existence depends on economic health, economically rational
behaviour becomes central to the operation of any institution or entity, and the
focal importance of the health of the economy above all else (including, some
critics would contend (Evernden, 1989; Henion, 1976), human, animal and plant
life) is reaffirmed in the individual behaviours of marketing organizations.
Social and political order comes to be perceived as dependent on a healthy
economic order (Schmookler, 1992). Each marketing organization reflects this
order in its own operations. One major reflection is in the centrality of the
product and each products contribution to the success of the organization,
since, in modernism, economic value is represented in and by the benefits
inherent to the uses of the product. In other words, value is a property of the
product; it is [t]he total utility which is yielded by the object in question
(Bannock et al., 1978). The marketing organization realizes or actualizes
economic value through its products. One reason for the centrality of the
product is that modern marketing presupposes that value for the consumer is
materialized in the prescribed benefits of product attributes being offered, and
that it is this value which results in consumer satisfaction. Postmodernists
would suggest that all of the above assertions are suspect, as we shall discuss.
The above premisses are also reflected on the conceptualizations of the
consumer in modern thought. The consumer, as the subject at the centre of the
modernist project, is an individual with a mind that can be independent from
the natural, sensational (emotional) limitations and weaknesses of the body
(Rorty, 1979). As such a subject, the consumer is not only conceptualized to be
the centre of the modernist project (i.e., improving human lives by controlling
nature through scientific technologies), but also to be very centred, self-
conscious, and committed to a reasoned and reasonable goal or end.
Consequently, modern marketing thought tends to hold that a unity (in some
European arguments, authenticity) of self or self-concept, a sense of ones identity and
Journal character, can and does exist. The consumer, then, armed with such a united
of Marketing concept of self and a commitment to it (many times represented in a personal
quest) strives for the satisfaction of (clearly) identified needs for this self. Such
31,3/4 unity of purpose, character and self logically suggests a stability in the
consumers orientations and behaviour. This allows segmentation into
188 relatively homogeneous behaviour/need/orientation groups, or the more recent
types (as in the VALS typology) possible and useful as a marketing principle
and tool.
Postmodern impacts on marketing

Openness/tolerance
Postmodernists have argued that many of the modernist premisses, including
those which shaped modern marketing thought, are based on myths, in the
same vein that any social existence is (Campbell, 1990). The postmodernist
position is generally that since all social experience is founded on a narrative
that is, a story constructed by a social group about life, its conditions, and its
requirements in which a community believes and, by acting upon such belief,
transforms it into the social reality it experiences, no narrative ought to have a
privileged status. Postmodernism, therefore, is open to and tolerant of all
narratives, even including the modernist ones, as long as they tolerate other
narratives also. They do, however, challenge and object to, especially, two
aspects of modern narratives: the modernist assumption that a social reality
independent of a socially constructed one (or of human agency) exists; and the
modernist claim to having the only true way of objectively knowing and,
therefore, accurately representing this reality thanks to traditional methods of
scientific enquiry. These aspects suggest that knowledge and understanding
can only be determined by a given set of prescribed orientations and methods,
however imperfect, whereas for the postmodernist as for Mill (1859/1978) or
Nietzsche (1954) richer insights may be provided by knowing that the
imperfections of ones methods limit how much one may ever know.
Postmodernist thought especially challenges these narratives because,
perceiving such a unique quality in themselves, the modernist narratives
suggest superiority to all others and tend to reject all others as irrational,
insensible, unrealistic, utopian, and even as fantasy and palmistry.
Unfortunately for those who would wish to benefit from postmodernist
insights, there may seem to be an incommensurate ontological schism between
modernist and postmodernist positions. As opposed to the knowing subject of
modernity, postmodernism conceptualizes the consumer as the communicating
subject, one who actively communicates the social reality she or he prefers to
live rather than passively inheriting one constructed without his/her
participation. Marketing in a postmodern culture, therefore, has to be open to
and tolerant of the non-traditional demands communicated by consumers,
including those of interference into organizational cultures.
Hyperreality and perpetual present From
The disillusionments with the modernist project have given rise to many segmentation to
diverse movements, especially in the most modern societies of the world, which fragmentation
seem to have eroded the commitment to modernity. One result of the erosion of
commitment to modernity is an increasing tendency and willingness on the
part of the members of society to seek the simulated reality rather than an
extant reality, imposing and immutable (Baudrillard, 1983; Eco, 1986; Postman, 189
1985). There are many indications of this tendency that have an impact on
marketing. One is the transformation of our urban centres into theme parks
(Sorkin, 1993). Indeed, the city, itself, the reality that much of modern society
experiences in everyday life, is a simulation completely constructed by the
human imagination (Gottdiener and Lagopoulos, 1986). Yet, increasingly, we
find different sections of our cities replicating/reflecting different thematic
constructions. In Beverly Hills, California, for example, one finds Rodeo Drive
(named Via Rodeo), a very well-known part of this well-known town,
representing a theme from Rome. The shopping malls, most imposing parts of
our (sub)urban experience, of course, are theme parks in their own right. The
Borgata in Scottsdale, Arizona, which replicates a Renaissance Italian town, or
the Raffles Center in Singapore, the Circular Quay in Sydney, Australia,
represent good examples of this thematization of these important landmarks of
our time, where, possibly, outside their homes and work places, (sub)urban
populations may be spending the largest portions of their time. Clearly,
however, shopping malls do not stand alone as theme parks. Thematization is
well integrated into work areas, park areas, wharf areas, etc. In this sense,
markets are increasingly de(re)constructed by thematizing marketers in
conjunction with the consumers who seek the simulated experiences that
enhance and re-enchant their present encounters with(in) life.
For postmodernist observers of contemporary culture, these environments
represent a nostalgia on the part of contemporary urban populations for
experiencing what, in the imagination, once was or could have been. This is a
partly disinterested nostalgia, however, not a wish to be indeed transported
totally into such a time or existence, but only voyeuristically to experience it for
the moment that it excites and titillates the senses. Furthermore, this interest is
not solely for what could have been in the past but also in the future. It is the
representation of an imagined past or future in the present, and the present is
the period on to which postmodernism turns its gaze. Premodern culture
focused on the past, the modern culture on the future. The focus in
postmodernism is: right here, right now. But this immediacy does not have to
stabilize, become uniform and boring. The postmodern consumer wants to
experience the diversity of many themes, past and future, not get fixed in any
single one.
The hyperreal reality based on simulation (Baudrillard, 1993; Eco, 1986)
allows the realization of this wish. The touristic consumer samples the many
sights, sounds, themes and tastes of yesterday and tomorrow which are all
now and here, in the present (Gitlin, 1989) immersing themself into the
European experiences and moving among them to experience each for a moment, as long
Journal as it keeps its appeal. The postmodern consumer seeks those experiences that
of Marketing can make present all or most of the exciting elements of space/time settings
without the difficulties and hardships. This postmodern claim seems to find
31,3/4 support in the interest that consumers display for the IMAX Theatre at the
Grand Canyon where they can really experience the canyon in all its (historic)
190 grandeur without the trekking, the heat or the cold, and the possibility of
missing many sights. The interest in simulation seems to be evident in the fact
that visitors to the cloud forest in Costa Rica have to be shown in slide shows all
that they will miss when hiking the forest. It is evident in the numbers of
tourists who visit EPCOT Centers World Showcase in Disney World, Orlando,
Florida, from around the world to experience Paris and London and Italy and
Morocco, etc. It is evident in the interest in the volcano in front of The Mirage
Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, the safari at Fossil Rim Park in Texas, and the San
Francisco earthquake showcase on Pier 39 in San Francisco. Each place is one
where consumers go to have sensational experiences without the dangers
involved. Finally, it is very evident in the extraordinary interest exhibited in all
media for the coming advent of virtual reality and/or integrative
communication technologies that will allow simulated presence and sharing of
virtual spaces by people actually far away from each other (Bylinsky, 1991;
Daily News Tribune, 1990). The success of the marketing examples above
indicate the greater attention marketing organizations have to give to the
hyperreal and its representation in the present.
Fragmentation and loss of commitment

Rather than suppress fragmentation or try to find unifying themes to resolve it,
postmodernism calls for an unabashed practice of it. Recognition of the above
discussed interest among the consumers of, especially, contemporary market
economies in experiencing the different simulated existences, and an
interpretation of human history in terms of socially constructed realities, lends
validity to making such a call. This is a call for a tolerance towards different
ways of being, life styles and realities. The postmodern sensibility even
encourages the experiencing of many different ways of being, not conforming
or committing only to a single one. Such a stance clearly allows for an
expansion of fragmentation, of fragmented moments of experience and
existence in a lifetime. Since contemporary consumers find commitment to a
single project or metanarrative across modernity to have brought little promise
but much misery, they have an affinity to not commit or conform to any unified,
consistent, centred field, idea, system, or narrative (Jay, 1986; Lyotard; 1992;
Wilson, 1989), or regime of truth (Foucalt, 1980). Fragmentation seems to be
omnipresent in the everyday lives of modern consumers.
Indeed, to the postmodern observer, fragmentations abound in everyday life
experiences. They dominate the media, the most important and omnipresent
mode of exposure to our universe in contemporary society. Fragmentation in
the medium of television permeates advertisements, music videos, situation
comedies and other programmes. Advertisements and music videos, From
increasingly resembling each other, are collages of fleeting moments that excite segmentation to
the senses, yet rarely connect to a central, unified theme or focus. Consider the fragmentation
Just do it Nike advertisements. The purpose of the collage is to leave the
consumer not with a centred idea or cognition but with an overall image, an
image that is, itself, not linked to the fragmented images in the collage, but
triggered by their impact on the senses. The programmes on television or the 191
most popular films from the movie establishments are not really that different.
Each is made up of largely independent but highly exciting, short, fleeting
segments that stand on their own through their spectacular qualities, whether
technical, artistic or stylistic. While in modern film, for example, each scene
was constructed to contribute to the narration of a story line, as postmodern
trends diffuse in the film industry, films increasingly concentrate on the
spectacle with inconsequential story lines that enable the spectacular scenes
that can be created through technique and style (Marchetti, 1989). Similar
fragmentation is also experienced in the spoken or printed vignettes on the
radio or in newspapers and magazines, as well as in the highlighted brand
names that flash by on billboards to reinforce the experiences on television and
films. The fragmentation in everyday life experiences and the loss of
commitment to any single way of being result in bricolage markets, that is
consumers who do not present a united, centred self and, therefore, set of
preferences, but instead a jigsaw collage of multiple representations of selves
and preferences even when approaching the same product category. The market
is increasingly constituted of individual consumers who, for example, express
preference for punk, grunge, conservative and preppy clothing styles
simultaneously (Lacayo, 1994; Tully, 1994). In effect, the market may be
constituted of tribes which allow greater freedom of movement within and
among them than did any class, sub-culture or segment (Cova, 1995).
Paradoxical juxtapositions
As well as fragmented from each other, postmodernists would argue that these
fleeting spectacles are also fragmented from any context (Gitlin, 1989). They do
not belong within a specific context or history. Anything can be juxtaposed to
anything else. Everything takes place in the present, here, that is, nowhere in
particular(Gitlin, 1989, p. 350). On television, as well as in other media that
dominate much of our lives, we see programmes, including news programmes,
where events, scenes and personalities are often superimposed and juxtaposed
on to each other from completely independent and disconnected contexts. Such
fragmentation from contexts in our media surrounding and informing us
reinforces, for the modernist critic, a failure on the part of the young
postmodern generation to connect to history and other worldly events around
them (American Broadcasting Corporation, 1988). For the postmodern
generation that extends from Berlin, to Bangkok, to Boston and that is perhaps
best represented by the MTV generation, Generation X, and the Boom Busters
well over 100 million consumers between the ages of 15 and 29 (see Business
European Week, 1992; Tully, 1994) this is an alternative form of being and, ultimately,
Journal consumption; one that liberates from more modernist pressures to conform to
of Marketing the status quo.
Such postmodern existence is reinforced by another set of fragmentations;
31,3/4 that of the signifier from the signified, the object from the function, and the
product from the need. That all signifiers are only arbitrarily linked to the
192 signified (and the referent) has been well recognized by semioticians at least
since Saussure and Pierce (Eco and Thomas, 1983; Santambrogio and Violi,
1988). The link is only pragmatic, that is, culturally, linguistically imposed. As
in the case of marketing campaigns, the free-floating signifiers can be
gainfully employed in (re)signification. They can be constantly imbued with
novel or nostalgic or reinforced meanings to represent a multiplicity of ideas,
things and positions.
As in the case of the fissure between the signifier and the signified, so is there
one between the object and its function. All objects, including those specifically
produced for a particular function, are, nevertheless, only arbitrarily connected
to that function. Imagine, for example, the number of different uses a child or
even an adult not acculturated to a Western kitchen could find for a kitchen
implement, such as a mixer. This freedom of objects from their intended
functional uses was well recognized by surrealist and other artists, such as
Duchamp et al., who turned utilitarian objects (toilet seats, meat grinders, Coca-
Cola bottles) into icons and art pieces in their own right.
Finally, given a postmodern analysis, the product acquired in the market is
independent of the need(s) for which the consumer initially sought it and the
producer provided it. This, of course, is just an extension of the separation of
the object from its original function. In effect, the consumer acquires the product
for the image that it represents, and this image is only partially, if at all,
constructed on the basis of a functional need. Furthermore, a single product is
capable of representing multiple images, as signified by culture and by the
marketing effort. Consequently, the disconnectedness of images and products
from each other, from their original contents and from their contexts, is
complete.
Decentring, consumption/production reversal, and the emergence of the Homo

consumericus
The fragmentations discussed certainly reflect on the everyday life and being of
the consumer. Marketings growing influence and role in human life, in terms of
an increasing, almost complete, domination of life by the products purchased in
the market, renders the consumers life a series of fragmented self-definitions
determined by consumption. In consuming each product, as the consumer eats
a frozen dinner, watches television, feeds the cat, washes dirty clothes in the
clothes washer, they are involved in an independent, separate task which is only
connected in the cultures imaginary narratives of purpose regarding a healthy
life, a long life, an enjoyable life, a free life, etc. The consumer is no longer
defined by the cost/benefit assessments of choices, but by the experiences
acquired through consumption. Yet these are indeed narratives through which From
consumers seem to seek a central, unified meaning and purpose for a life that is segmentation to
increasingly fragmented into moments dominated by tasks required by fragmentation
products consumed. In effect, these are modernist narratives, products of the
modernist imaginary (Kellner, 1989).
Conversely, postmodern consumers are said to be transcending these
narratives, no longer seeking centred, unified characters, but increasingly 193
seeking to feel good in separate, different moments by acquiring self-images
that make them marketable, likeable, and/or desirable in each situation or
moment. As a result, one finds a growing playfulness with the game of
simulating and switching images to make the best of each situation in which the
consumer finds themself (Ewen, 1988; Kaplan, 1987; Moyers, 1989). In short,
modernist Homo sapiens evolved into Homo economicus, a creature defined by
time and resource allocations, costs and benefits. The postmodern individual
has evolved into Homo consumericus, a creature defined by consumption and
the experiences derived therefrom.
Thus occurs the fragmentation of the self. In postmodern culture, the self is
not consistent, authentic or centred (Gergen, 1991; Laing, 1969). Postmodernists
will argue that it never was, in its core, or in tendency, but that in modernity the
illusion of such a self was sanctified and, therefore, sought. The postmodern
generation has transcended this quest and neither seeks it nor feels a guilt in
not seeking it. On the contrary, this ability to switch images and represent
different selves by switching products that represent the images allowing
oneself to lay claim to powerful successful images is considered as a liberation
as freedom from monotony, boredom and the necessity to conform. Many
consumers, for example, find energy, excitement and fun in playing
personalities through look-alike parties, contests and life styles (Moyers,
1989). On the other hand, in societies where modern culture and rhetoric are still
strong, the experience of seeking such image and personality switching, such
endless array of situations necessitating variations, seems to create, in some
individuals, a counter-seeking of conformity and belonging to permanent and
tightly-knit groups, such as cults and gangs, or clubs and other groups of
various sizes that require conformity based on an array of agendas.
In a market exchange economy, all these self-images are represented through
the products acquired in the market and, thus, the market becomes the locus of
realizing the fragmented self, the fragmented moments of feeling good. The
market is, itself, fragmented, since it appears to have no central, unified agenda.
It is construed of many consumers and products, and all relationships in the
market are truly momentary; each transaction requiring no deep commitment
on the part of the consumer. Indeed, the consumer can do a trial purchase, as
long as the buying power is present, and drop the product, or use it momentarily
as required in representing an image in one situation, then move to another,
with other products. The moments of involvement in the market are, thereby,
fragmented. Yet, in contemporary times where the market mentality is so
pervasive, the consumer seeks self-images to be marketable that is, to be
European represented in a social or economic market and these marketable self-images
Journal are represented through acquisition of products in the market. In this sense, the
of Marketing market and its fragmentation become the centre of all activity and the medium
through which all is signified and represented without the appearance of any
31,3/4 unified purpose, ideology, or narrative. This may indicate, contrary to the
postmodernist claims that all meta-narratives have come to an end, the
194 existence, at this juncture of the postmodern, of a new meta-narrative that is not
recognizable with the modernist categories and constructs that historically
enabled the perception of existence of a meta-narrative. Fragmentation, itself,
and its medium, the market, constitute, in fact, this new meta-narrative. The
deliberate practice of the market, marketing, then becomes the culture of
contemporary life. For consumers to fulfil their desires, marketing
organizations will need to empower the consumers to become marketers of (self)
images themselves.
Emphasis on form/style
The fragmentation, the dynamic of continuous communication of new images
and imaginaries through creative signification and representation of free-
floating signifiers subsequently necessitates that each communicative moment
be independently exciting. In the culture of disjointed images (re)presented in
collages the possibility of substantive linkages among and within
communicative moments is greatly eliminated and an increasing sophistication
in form and style, where technique and pace gain utmost importance, is
necessitated. The communicating, touristic, customizer markets (consumers),
and the marketers, rely on the form and the style of their communicative
messages (whether it be in verbal, visual, sonic or other media) to address and
represent their content. Form becomes content in remaining the only way to
represent it (Ewen, 1988). Concurrently, the markets become image rather than
brand markets, remaining loyal to brand names only as long as they maintain
fresh and up-to-date images a circumstance experienced by brand names such
as Brylcreem, Ovaltine and Lifebuoy (Elliott, 1993). In effect, the markets are
fluid, constantly ready to switch and re-switch, constantly ready to try several
or many images, brands and products, both sequentially and simultaneously.
This is, by no means, a senseless try anything movement, however. The
image must be right it must be the image sought whether in terms of quality
and value, or in terms of expressing the consumers own momentary image.
Marketers better get things right, especially when it comes to cultural icons
(Steinhauer, 1994).
Acceptance of disorder/chaos
The ability to move among the fragmented moments and experiences heightens
the scepticism among contemporary consumers that a single order is present or
necessary. Rather, the consumer generally takes the existence of disorder and
chaos as the norm with the cognizance that different orders, even if temporary
and momentary, is to be constructed through signifying actions and
negotiations with others and with the objects. The markets, therefore, have to be From
considered as fluid and not stable. segmentation to
In the postmodernist sensibility, chaos and disorder are not to be feared but fragmentation
to be critically played with. Increasing numbers of consumers seem to have lost
their trust in the industrial, technological order which promised brighter and
improved futures but largely failed to provide it for large majorities of the
worlds population although the successes in medical technologies cannot be 195
denied, they are considered to have benefited small minorities around the world
instead creating much pollution, misery, loss of responsibility, depletion of the
Earths resources, extinction of species, and possibilities of immense
destruction (Baudrillard, 1987; Chomsky, 1989; Kellner, 1990; Postman, 1985)
Therefore, marketing strategies that will provide the possibilities for critical
play with chaos and disorder will empower the contemporary consumers, give
them greater control over the order(s) they wish to see in their lives, and bring
success to the marketing organization.
Marketing in postmodern culture

In a culture of fragmentation where consumers are neither committed to nor
captivated by a single narrative, state of being, or self, and where they assert
their existence through the power of the images they represent (Moyers, 1989),
marketing indeed becomes the cultural sensibility. Both the spectacles, now
representing attractive images and vying for consumers momentary
experiences, and the consumers themselves, representing images that make
them attractive in different moments, have to acquire the marketing acumen. In
an environment where there is increasingly less commitment to any one
spectacle, product, brand, but only a momentary attachment so long as the
image represented is seductive, as experienced by several brands that enjoyed
high popularity for a period, such as LA Gear and, to a certain extent, Lacoste
a continual (re)production, (re)formulation, (re)positioning and (re)generation
of images (image marketing) is necessitated. In a system of fragmented
narratives where none has power beyond the image that it represents through
signifying the elements of the bricolage it offers, success is only possible
through a marketing sensibility that recognizes the linguistic, symbolic and
communicative aspects of signifiers to employ and (re)signify them in ways that
represent spectacular images. Any signifier (including the Homo consumericus)
that cannot achieve this tends to be lost in the market, now the only medium of
existence.
The postmodern consumer, therefore, recognizes that they are not just a
consumer, but a customizer and a producer of (self-)images at each consumptive
moment (Firat et al., 1995). Marketing with a postmodern perspective must no
longer conceptualize any consumer unit as a point of conclusion (the end user),
but as a moment in the continual cycle of (re)production. And, since this
consumer is no longer representing a centred, unified, consistent, single self-
image, but a fragmented and fluid set of self-images, conceptualizing the
consumer as a member of a relatively homogeneous market segment is
European increasingly difficult. Rather, marketers will have to revisualize the market as a
Journal set of fragments, as we shall discuss. Already, marketing organizations are
of Marketing realizing that they may be encountering segments of one (Blattberg and
Deighton, 1991). That is, as consumers are starting to seek unique self-images
31,3/4 and computer technologies are allowing, in some cases, personalized production
of products, the segments are breaking up into individual customers. An
196 example is the advent of personalized greeting cards. While modernity created
mass-production of greeting cards with their specialized messages for different
segments and occasions, computerization now allows personalized messages,
yet still on mass-produced cards. The personalization of the cards themselves is
also likely to follow soon, since technology allows it and fragmentation
demands it. This forces the greeting card company to transform from one of
manufacturing and marketing greeting cards (a product) to one of marketing a
process whereby consumers can, themselves, produce cards. In Japan, some

marketers of kitchens are using virtual reality technology to allow the future
owners of kitchens to participate in the designing of their kitchens (Bylinski,
1991). The customer is increasingly becoming the customizer (McKenna, 1988;
Moyers, 1989). Such transformation is likely to affect many, if not most,
marketing organizations, especially since it enables consumers to construct
different versions of products that in their imagination best represent the
images they wish to create when marketing themselves. Furthermore, given
fragmentation, marketing techniques which allow consumers to construct
different styles, forms, types and versions of the same product for use in
representing different self-images in different situations (spectacle marketing)
are likely to become necessary. This may most likely require the greatest
ingenuity and creativity on the part of organizations that market high-price
durable products.
Marketing strategy in fragmented markets

Fragmented markets are likely to render segmentation strategies and
techniques founded on the more traditional bases of segmentation, such as
demographics and psychographics, and even the more recent typologies (for
example, VALS typology (Mitchell, 1984)) less and less useful. Such strategies
depended on the modern premisses, discussed earlier in the paper, regarding,
for example, a consistent, centred and unified character or self-concept for the
consumer. The consumer was conceptualized as a subject, a human being who
was qualitatively different from objects and who acted on and through objects
to realize superordinate goals for life. Ability to act on and manipulate objects
to fulfil the goal in the future afforded this consumer their power. The
postmodern consumer is conceptualized (and conceptualizes themself) in a
substantially different way, as a product which asserts its power through
objectification, (re)presenting an image, thereby, the ability to seduce
(Baudrillard, 1990) in order to achieve a position that makes one marketable in
the present, in each moment of exposure. For postmodern consumer markets,
using segmentation strategies that try to constrain or anchor consumers to a From
single, consistent, stable way of behaving is likely to lead to marketing failure. segmentation to
Fragmented markets and fragmented experiences signal both the increasing fragmentation
possibility and maybe necessity and the growing consumer desire for fluid
movements among different experiences, images and meanings in and through
life. As a result, the offerings of marketing organizations that have greater
sensitivity to changes in the market and the desires of contemporary consumers 197
exhibit the postmodern characteristics discussed above. We are witnessing the
success of those marketers who provide consumers with products that help
projection of (self-)images and, especially, of those marketers who offer
consumers (con)texts within which consumers can have experiences and
experiment with (self-)images different from those required by the roles they
played in modern society. Las Vegas, which Time Magazine declared as the
New All American City (Anderson, 1994), a city that has flourished even
during times of general economic stagnation in the USA, and a city that many
postmodernists consider as the prototype postmodern space, is a case in point.
It is increasingly being constructed as a city of themes and is no longer simply
a gambling town. The themes offered to the consumers, such as Ancient Egypt
(Luxor Hotel), Roman Empire (Ceasars Palace Hotel), or pirate land (Treasure
Island Hotel), present such (con)textual experiences and represent experiments
toward postmodern marketing. We must assess these experiments, along with
those of Disney, Universal Studios, Nike Town, Legoland and others as
examples of early (or immature) postmodern marketing, however. While they
allow consumers different experiences and possibilities of playing with (self)
images, they are highly commercial and predetermined offerings not leaving
much scope for the consumer to participate in their design and construction. A
more mature postmodern marketing practice will empower consumers for
greater participation in such play and construction of experiences, images and
meanings.
An example of relatively more mature postmodern marketing may be
presented by the Electronic Caf International experiment (Galloway and
Rabinowitz, 1989). Started by two artists in Santa Monica, California, electronic
cafs now about 50 exist around the world provide an environment in which
consumers from all walks of life can experiment with new integrative
information and communication technologies, including virtual reality and
hypermedia technologies, in order to try out and construct experiences they feel
may be maningful. As already mentioned, mature postmodern marketing
strategies will be those that empower the consumers to become partners with
marketing organizations as influential participants in the construction of
experience(s) and (self-)images when and if they choose.
Currently, as we have tried to express, such constructions are greatly
dependent on the market and on the ability to make the images and offerings
marketable. This is due to the growing influence of the market globally.
However, the meanings and the difference that the consumers are seeking to
construct in their lives may come to be considered to be restrained and limited
European by the necessities of making them marketable. Postmodern marketers,
Journal therefore, need to be alert and ready to respond to significant qualitative
of Marketing transformations in the very nature of the market itself.
Is it at all possible to plan and develop marketing strategies in an
31,3/4 environment of fragmented and fluid spectacles, images and lives? How does
any marketer, including the consumer, market their products themself and
198 know which images will attract? The purpose of the remainder of this paper is
to propose some answers to these questions in order to alert opinion leaders and
innovators in the field of marketing to the possible opportunities and pitfalls in
a possibly increasingly postmodern global market.
Image is the product

While modernist meta-narratives declared that value was a property of the
product and that the image represented this value, as we discussed earlier in the
paper, the postmodernist insights regarding the simulation and the symbolic
tend to lead to a claim that the relationship between the product and the image
are reversed. Marketing practitioners have known for a long time that, in many
instances, the products image determines whether an exchange is
consummated. The consumer purchases a product to realize the value that they
perceive in the image. For marketing to be successful, therefore, the product
must represent the image well; otherwise the consumer will be disappointed.
Thus, value is the property of the image, it is the image that the consumer seeks,
especially at a time when the principal goal of the Homo consumericus is to
(re)produce and (re)present oneself as an image. Marketers need to think in
terms of (re)producing images and of then constructing products that represent
the images. That is, they must think in terms of products representing the
images, not images representing the products.
In concordance with the increasing importance of the symbolic and the
image over the functional (specifically, utilitarian functions) and the material,
the images that the consumers seek in objects (products) are likely to
increasingly emphasize the symbolic aspects. That is, the image of the object is
likely to be increasingly dependent not on the (utilitarian) functions it serves
but on its contributions to self-image and its contributions to happiness (or
feeling good). Consequently, there is a need to pay greater attention to the tacit
and the visceral, especially to the feelings of the consumers. How consumers feel,
therefore, is going to play an increasingly important role among who they are
(demographics), what they do (activities and interests, life styles), what they
think (opinions and beliefs), and what they value (values and attitudes), aspects
of consumer behaviour that have been more heavily researched in modern
marketing. Researchers can expect to find feelings to be more fluid or fickle
than the other variables, that is changing more often and rather substantially as
the consumers move from one situation or life sphere to another. We are defining
life spheres as the domains within which an individual performs, usually at
different moments of their life. These spheres are, generally, culturally
considered or perceived to be relatively separate from each other in that the
individual rarely transports the roles he or she plays in one sphere into another. From
In contemporary society, such life spheres within which consumers will most segmentation to
likely seek different images include, but are not limited to, the work sphere, the fragmentation
domestic sphere and the recreational sphere. It is imporant to recognize that
since the spheres are culturally constructed and bound, they are dynamic and in
rather constant (re)definition.
199
Fragmented images
If the arguments of the postmodernist scholars are correct, it will be rather
futile to try to find consistent, centred, or stable self-images in postmodern
markets. Rather, within each life sphere there will be several self-images that a
single consumer may subscribe to at different times, under different
circumstances. Therefore, in postmodern markets the marketers purpose will
increasingly be to understand the elements of the types of images represented

in Figure 1, for example, in order to try to provide processes for the consumers
to immerse themselves into and find the elements that they seek in
(re)presenting and (re)producing their self-images. It is possible that research
will expose the existence of greater affinity among certain images in different
life spheres, as illustrated by three such spheres in Figure 2. There may be
found, therefore, some image clusters within and across life spheres. While it is
unlikely to expect any single postmodern consumer to adhere to any single
image within the life spheres (due to the aforementioned fragmentations), there
may be higher propensities to switch among certain images that belong to the
same clusters (due to the image clusters). Any image cluster should be
considered rather temporary and transitory, however, given the characteristics
of postmodern markets. Furthermore, it may be reasonable to expect that the
life spheres that seem to be so clearly defined and different at present that is,
work life, domestic life, and life outside the home spent for recreation and
leisure, for example, are currently rather well delineated from each other will
begin to merge, either creating new configurations of life spheres or a life that is
not differentiable into distinct spheres, but completely fragmented into
dispersed moments.
Figure 1.
Constitution of images
European
Journal
of Marketing
31,3/4
200
Figure 2.
Fragmented images in
life spheres
Merging of the consumer and the producer (organization)

Based on our discussion of the developments observed in postmodern
culture(s), we have already tried to illustrate the increasing propensity of the
consumer to act as a producer. This propensity seems to occur along two
dimensions: the Homo consumericus perceives themself as a product to be
(re)presented in market(s), and participates in the market to (re)produce their
marketable self-image(s); and they increasingly become a partner in the process
of production of the products that they use in (re)producing their self-images.
Both dimensions indicate a merging of the consumer and the producer since at
each instance of activity there is, simultaneously, both consumption and
production occurring as the individual consumes products she or he finds in
the market, for example, they are (re)producing their self, both physically and
mentally. At each moment, whether there is a clear and conscious intention on
the part of the individual or not, consumption also produces the self-images.
Given the postmodernist insights, therefore, consumption and production are From
inseparable, contrary to the modernist contentions and efforts to define these segmentation to
two moments separately (Mill, 1967/1836; Say, 1964/1821). Coincidentally, the fragmentation
consumer is also a producer at each moment. Postmodernist insights may alert
us to the fact that, while culturally we may wish to make a distinction between
the two (i.e. consumption and production, consumer and producer) to help us
order things in our own minds, any distinction is only arbitrary. The cultural 201
recognition of such identity of consumption and production, consumer and
producer, and the technological advancements in the computer/information
field which allow greater customization in organized production, may be the
impetus behind the greater participation of the individual in the process of
production, not as an employee of the producing organization but as its
customer/partner.
We mentioned above the examples of personalized greeting cards and virtual

reality kitchens whereby the customer participates in the process of finalization
of certain features of the product that they will eventually possess and use.
Clearly, such offerings of process instead of a product are at their early stages.
Yet, if we were to carry this trend to its logical end, it represents a merging of the
customer and the organization, where the customer becomes a complete partner
in the production process(es) of the organization(s). While, currently, this may
seem far in the future, it also seems to be an increasingly inevitable trend for
many product categories and services. The implications of postmodern
conditions for the market and for marketing strategies discussed above are
summarized in Table II.
Future research
Certainly, social trends and the emergence of Homo consumericus would
suggest the mutually evolving concepts of marketing and postmodernism, i.e.
postmodern marketing, warrant further research. We believe the most
compelling research would investigate the developments in the market and the
corresponding marketing responses to these developments. To a large extent,
this paper discussed the developments that are taking place in contemporary
markets as a result of the postmodern trends by utilizing the insights from
mostly postmodernist observers of the qualitative changes that are occurring.
One of the central conclusions from the discussions was that the realm of
images is increasingly asserting its dominance, both in terms of what
consumers seek and in terms of determining what value(s) the products in the
market will eventually represent. Thus, one major area of research required is:
How the images that at a certain time tend to be especially preferred
within different life spheres or dispersed moments are constructed.
And similarly, how the level of participation by individual consumers,
marketing organizations, and other cultural institutions in the process of
signification and representation of these images interact presently and
interact over time.
European Postmodern condition Market implications Marketing strategies
Journal
Openness/tolerance Communicating Flexible marketing
of Marketing (rather than knowing) markets Adaptive marketing
31,3/4
Hyperreality Constructed (rather Thematization
than given) markets Simulation
202
Perpetual present Consumer preference Immersion
for simulations
Here-and-now markets
Paradoxical juxtapositions Bricolage markets Image fragmentation

Fragmentation Fragmented markets Image clustering
Loss of commitment Touristic markets Spectacle marketing
Decentring of the subject Consumers with Continual image

fragmented selves (re)generation
Reversal of consumption Customizer markets Market de (re)construction

and production Producer markets Process marketing
Emphasis on form/style Image (rather than Image (versus brand

brand) markets marketing)
Acceptance of disorder/chaos Fluid markets Empowerment marketing

Table II. Note:
Implications of Concepts are positioned in the table for reasons of parsimony and clarity; readers should
postmodern conditons understand that while we intentionally denote some specific relationships in the table, in fact the
for market and concepts, as discussed in the text, are very dynamic and each is related to and impacts all the
marketing strategies others
Another important conclusion from the discussions provided in this paper is

that the consumers are in the market to produce themselves, specifically, their
self-images which will make them successful, that is, attractive and marketable,
in the different situations (which are unfolding increasingly as market relations)
that they encounter in every sphere of their lives. Therefore, a second important
area of research is:
How the consumers select the different images to represent in different
situations. (What is the degree of contribution from the elements
depicted in Figure 1 in the preference of the images selected?)
The situations for which the consumers customize themselves as marketable
images are increasingly fragmented as we have already illustrated.
Consequently, the individuals are representing not singular images but multiple
images fashioned for the many occasions that each individual encounters. As
producers of self-images, the consumers need to manage this multiplicity and
fragmentation. This, as discussed, may be achieved through some clustering of From
images. Thus, another area of research needed is: segmentation to
How the image clusters form, transform and reform. (What are the major fragmentation
factors that play a role in these transformation processes?)
Our earlier discussions indicate that, as a result of the changes in the nature of
the consumer and the market, important changes are also taking place in the 203
nature of the product and marketing. We elaborated the transformation from
product to process in the marketing organizations offering. Currently,
marketing organizations are largely oriented towards providing finished
products for their customers. Thus, a much-needed research area is:
How to identify, cope with, and manage the differences during the times
of change from marketing a product to marketing a process.
As processes are offered to customers to enable them to participate in the

designing of the final product in order to customize the products to the images
sought by the consumers, the marketing organizations will be responsible for
making these processes friendly and approachable and thus attractive to their
customers. This is a new area of expertise and it requires research into:
How the participation of the consumers in the processes for
customization of products to represent preferred images are or can be
enhanced and made more effective.
Finally, all the transformations discussed above point to substantive and
qualitative changes in what marketing is and will become. Beyond the different,
specific research needs listed above, a much more general and conceptual, as
well as practice-oriented rethinking of the role of marketing, indeed of its
identity, its definition, will be necessary. Therefore, as the merging of the
customer and the organization becomes increasingly complete, important
avenues of research will involve:
How to reconceptualize and practise marketing; positioning, pricing,
distribution, promotion (information and conversation) and product
(process).
How to develop new marketing strategies based on these
reconceptualizations.
How to operationalize the role of marketing in order to avail it to all
marketers, including, specifically, the Homo consumericus.
Conclusion
That the world is presently undergoing extraordinary change can hardly be
debated. Moreover, this change seems to be affecting all people and institutions.
However, the appropriate way to make sense of it, to explain it in such a way
that marketers can seize opportunities that emanate from this phenomenal
change, is the source of frequent and sometimes divisive debate. The purpose of
this paper has been to provide an objective overview of the emergence of a social
European phenomenon, postmodernism, and to discuss the impacts this phenomenon
Journal may have on the marketing discipline, especially strategic contingencies for
of Marketing marketing managers and research opportunities for marketing and consumer
research scholars.
31,3/4
We submit that postmodernism, so influential in other disciplines, has the
potential to reframe our thinking about social trends and business practices in
204 an increasingly global, but fragmented marketplace, and thus to give marketing
managers insights that, in turn, can abet strategic decision making. Finally, we
suggest that a better understanding of the underlying macro social forces and
micro human behaviour associated with postmodernism can ultimately be
leveraged by marketers to obtain competitive advantages in an increasingly
dynamic, unpredictable and unstable marketplace.
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From Segmentation To Fragmentation

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European Journal of Marketing

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Markets and marketing strategy in the

A. Fuat Firat and Clifford J. Shultz II

philosophy (Derrida, 1982; Lyotard, 1984; Madison, 1988), literary criticism

(3) reversal of consumption and production;

Foundations of modern marketing thought

and experiences in life and sense of self and the growing

orientations and approaches across history. While present in the practices of

Postmodern impacts on marketing

Fragmentation and loss of commitment

Decentring, consumption/production reversal, and the emergence of the Homo

Marketing in postmodern culture

process whereby consumers can, themselves, produce cards. In Japan, some

Marketing strategy in fragmented markets

Image is the product

increasingly be to understand the elements of the types of images represented

Merging of the consumer and the producer (organization)

We mentioned above the examples of personalized greeting cards and virtual

Paradoxical juxtapositions Bricolage markets Image fragmentation

Decentring of the subject Consumers with Continual image

Reversal of consumption Customizer markets Market de (re)construction

Emphasis on form/style Image (rather than Image (versus brand

Acceptance of disorder/chaos Fluid markets Empowerment marketing

Another important conclusion from the discussions provided in this paper is

As processes are offered to customers to enable them to participate in the

Politics in Contemporary America, Routledge, New York, NY, pp. 151-64.

State University of New York Press, Albany, NY.

Consumption Markets & Culture 5, 231-249. [CrossRef]

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