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mecanice de calculat au fost propuse anterior:

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variabilele aflate n curs de procesare. Acest registru este cunoscut sub denumirea de
UHJLVWUX DFXPXODWRU &DOFXODWRDUHOH HOHFWURQLFH DX IRVW LQL LDO SURSXVH VXE IRUPD XQXL
DSDUDW DEVWUDFW FDUH SRDWH UHDOL]D VDX VLPXOD RULFH WLS GH PDLQ PHFDQLF )RUPD
WHRUHWLFDIRVWLQWURGXVGHAlan Turing pe la mijlocul anului 1930.
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respecte acest model, a fost LQIOHQ DW GH DO GRLOHD U]ERL PRQGLDO $FHVW OXFUX D IRVW
posibil deoarece se dorea calcularea traiectoriilor de rachete (&ROORVXV L Eniac) sau
GHFRGDUHDFRGXOXL(QLJPDIRORVLWGH*HUPDQLDSHQWUXSURWHF LDPHVDMHORU
Primul program stocat electronic a fost folosit n 1948. n primii ani de dezvoltare
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QRWRULHWDWHGHFODUD LDOXLBill *DWHVIRQGDWRUXO0LFURVRIWFXPFQXYHGHFXPDUSXWHDIL
YUHRGDWQHYRLHGHPDLPXOWGHKo RAM.
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active ale ecranului. Aceste controale care sunt activate din PRXVH sunt caracteristice
sistemului de operare WINDOWS.
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Manufactory);
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neurale, procesoare analogice.
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SURFHVRDUHDQDORJLFHVWD LLJUDILFHDUKLWHFWXUL00;
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VRFLHWDWHDXPDQQXPDLSRWILFRQFHSXWHIUFDOFXODWRU
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transpunerea ntr-un limbaj de programare.
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specifice limbajului respectiv ntr-un FRGGLUHFWH[HFXWDELOinteligibil sistemului
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rezultatele).
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primul rnd cele care UH]HUYGHFODUR]RQGHPHPRULHFDILLQGVSHFLDOGHGLFDWQXPDL
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 $UKLWHFWXUDXQXLVLVWHPGHFDOFXO

Ca REVHUYD LH de ED]: un sistem de calcul este pur L simplu versiunea mult
GH]YROWDW a unui calculator de buzunar L deci nu trebuie V ne DWHSWP de la el ca vreo
GDW V IDF altceva dect l-a pus cineva, un programator prin intermediul unui program,
V IDF. ,QWHOLJHQ DDSDUHQWa unui sistem de calcul provine din cantitatea de LQWHOLJHQ 
XPDQLQYHVWLWn respectivul program aflat n H[HFX LH
Hilar, am putea spune F omul vQFHDUF V IDF pe cineva GXS chipul L
DVHPQDUHD lui dar rezultatul este o copie SDOLG FDUH altfel este extrem de XWLO Din
aceste lucruri GHULY vestitul principiu de aur al primilor programatori GIGO (Garbage In
Garbage Out), care ntr-o traducere SUR]DLF vQVHDPQ: gunoi bagi gunoi VFR L L care
are meritul, n DIDU de cel umoristic, de a atrage DWHQ LD oricui care se va apuca de
programare F din nefericire calculatorul face numai ce i se LQGLF prin diverse metode V
IDF. De aici UH]XOW R SULP DWHQ LRQDUH YDODELO aprope tot timpul n cazul
GHSDQULL(H[HFX LHLSDVFXSDVn scopul JVLULLeventualelor defecte n IXQF LRQDUHunui
SURJUDP  &$87 17, (52$5($ 7$ '( 352*5$0$725 , $32, ' 9,1$
PE CALCULATOR.
Desigur H[LVWun procent cam de 5% din VLWXD LLn care un program scris corect
este executat JUHLW lucru care apare ca rezultat al LQWHUIHUHQ HL unor programe
neautorizate, cum ar fi YLUXLL FX programul aflat n H[HFX LH n cazul n care nu este
valabil acest lucru problema este mai FRPSOH[putnd fi implicate GHIHF LXQLaleatorii ale
SU LL KDUGZDUH Oricum ar fi aceste lucruri LQWU n sfera de DF LXQH a unui inginer de
sistem, Ldeci nu sunt luate aprioric n FRQVLGHUD LHfiind de obicei rare.
Pentru a putea vQ HOHJHarhitectura vom FXWDanumite analogii ntre un om Lun
sistem de calcul.
6 DQDOL]P ce se vQWkPSO FX un om n momentul n care vede o formulare de
genul : 2*2= .
'HLni se pare ceva evident, cu WR LLDPvQY DWpe de rost tabla vQPXO LULL V
vQFHUFPacum o descompunere a SDLORUFDUHsunt H[HFXWD L
n primul rnd PHPRUPn memoria WHPSRUDUsau de VFXUWGXUDWRSHUDQ]LLdatele
asupra FURUDvom executa o RSHUD LXQHapoi UHDOL]PRSHUD LXQHDGHvQPXO LUHrezultnd
4, care este SkQODcomunicarea lui YHUEDOsau prin scris tot n memoria WHPSRUDU6H
REVHUYFoperanzii 2,2 LRSHUD LXQHD DXfost preluate de pe un suport extern si anume
cel scris, rezultatul putnd fi UHWXUQDWtrimis FWUHHPL WRUXOunei cereri de lucru GXS
cum am spus tot pe DFHOLsistem extern de stocare.
$FHVWH[HPSOXQXDIRVWGDWIUXQVFRSLDQXPHUROXOOXLHVWHSULQWUHDOWHOHGHD
Y RELQXL FX QLYHOXO H[WUHP GH VF]XW OD FDUH VH IDFH DQDOL]D L GHVFRPSXQHUHD XQHL
SUREOHPHUHDOHvQPRPHQWXOvQFDUHGRUHVFVRWUDQVSXQvQWUXQOLPEDMGHSURJUDPDUH
i acum VDQDOL]PDUKLWHFWXUDEORF(structura IXQF LRQDODunui sistem de calcul.
'XS FXP VH REVHUY GLQ ILJ  ntr-un
sistem de calcul H[LVW
' LV S R ] LW LY G H - un dispozitiv de stocare n PDV rolul
0 LF U R S U R F H V R U

VWR FDUH
caietului pe care scrim /citim n cazul
+ ' ' ) ' '
nostru. Acest dispozitiv este materializat
prin Hard Disk (HDD) FUXLD i se mai
0HPRULH 'LVSR]LWLY spune Lsuport fix de date L)ORSS\'LVN
7HPSRUDUm ,QWUDUH
5$0 ,H LUH
(FDD) FUXLD i se mai spune L suport
mobil de date .
)LJ$UKLWHFWXUDXQXL - o memorie WHPRUDU 5$0 5DQGRP
VLVWHPGHFDOFXO Acces Memory) care MRDF H[DFW rolul
memoriei de VFXUWGXUDWumane.
- dispozitive de Intrare sau de ,HLUH prin care sistemul SULPHWH sau UHWXUQHD] GDWH n
cazul unui sistem de calcul acestea sunt tastatura L PRXVH FD dispozitive de intrare L
monitorul sau imprimanta ca dispozitive de LHLUH
A mai Umas de OPXULWproblema microprocesorului care este inima unui sistem
de calcul L DUH rolul de a coordona ntregul sistem. Desigur F DFHDVW coordonare se
UHDOL]HD]WRWprin intermediul unor programe care H[LVWn ceea cea am putea numi, prin
analogie cu omul, partea de reflexe FRQGL LRQDWH aceste programe se JVHVF ntr-o
memorie ROM (Read Only Memory) deci nu pot fi dect citite.

 )XQF LRQDUHDXQXLVLVWHPGHFDOFXO

Sistemul de calcul GXS FXP VH REVHUY FRPSRUW destul similitudini cu omul la
nivel de DUKLWHFWXULdeasemeni, GXSFXPvom discuta, LODnivel de IXQF LRQDUH
6vedem cum se UHDOL]HD]ELQHvQ HOHVODnivel simplificat, H[HFX LDunei formule
de genul 2*2= .
 Se FLWHWH GH pe suportul de stocare programul care FRQ LQH cererea QRDVWU VH
vQFDUF n memoria WHPSRUDU GH acest lucru se RFXS VLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUHprogramul
specializat care se RFXS GH traducerea unor LQVWUXF LXQL VLPSOH L LQWXLWLYH DOH
utilizatorului n comenzi directe FWUH partea de H[HFX LH D sistemului, n urma cererii
noastre explicite de lansare a programului) L VH ncepe H[HFX LD lui de FWUH procesor
H[HFX LHFDUHXUPHD]aproximativ sistemul uman de gndire. Pe scurt modul de H[HFX LH
la nivelul procesorului poate fi descris ca :
FLWHWHdatele utile (din RAM n aceast caz) (2,2)
FLWHWHRSHUD LDFDUHtrebuie H[HFXWDWasupra datelor suspomenite(tot din RAM)(*)
H[HFXWRSHUD LD  
returneazrezultatul (nnapoi n RAM)(4).
La nivelul sistemului de calcul modul de H[HFX LHDUDWFDmai jos:
FLWHWHprogramul de executat (de pe sistemul de stocare fix/mobil) L
vQFDUFOn RAM
H[HFXWprogramul (din RAM)
la terminarea programului DWHDSWnoua cerere de H[HFX LH

0HPRULD7HPSRUDUDXQXLVLVWHPGHFDOFXO
'XSFXPDPpomenit n primul capitol, una din componentele de ED]DOHunui
sistem de calcul este memoria GLQDPLF5$0sau memoria WHPSRUDU
$FHDVWmemorie a fost FRQFHSXW LQkQGcont de faptul Fsistemul de QXPHUD LH
folosit n interiorul unui calculator este ED]  'H aici UH]XOW F orice fel de GDW sau
LQVWUXF LXQHefectiv SURFHVDWsau H[HFXWDWODnivelul PDLQLLtrebuie Vfie SDVWUDWVXE
forma ei ELQDU deci FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH bazei 2). ntruct n baza 2 nu H[LVW dect dou
numere 0 L  UH]XOW F vom avea UHSUH]HQWUL VXE IRUPD unor LUXUL GH  L GH  /D
nivelul PDLQLL materializarea HIHFWLY D respectivelor numere este UHDOL]DW GH obicei,
prin DWDDUHD ORJLF D lui 1 la o tensiune de 5 YRO L iar lui 0 lipsei acestei tensiuni.
7RWXLindiferent de nivelul tehnologic este absolut nepractic ca VFRQVLGHUPIL[9sau
fix 0 V ca valori de FRPSDUD LHpentru Facest lucru ar fi dus la QLWHechipamente extrem
de scumpe LGHlente. Din aceasta FDX]VHFRQVLGHUDILsau 1 logic n jurul valorilor
sus PHQ LRQDWH FX V. De aici a rezultat posibilitatea folosirii unui condensator ca
element de memorare. Acest lucru este posibil deoarece n cazul unei UHvQFUFUL
periodice a acestuia se poate RE LHQH FD tensiunea la bornele lui V varieze n limitele
necesare QRX GDF fac suficient de repede DFHDVW UHvQFUFDUH n aceste FRQGL LL foarte
simplist putem vedea o memorie GLQDPLF ca o matrice LPHQV de condensatoare care pot
fi vQFUFDWHsau GHVFUFDWHn cursul RSHUD LXQLORUGHscriere/citire.
Aici mai apare o SUREOHPLanume QXPUXOGHEL LFDUHcompun datele utile de
calcul (ELW unitate LQIRUPD LRQDO FRUHVSXQ]WRDUH H[LVWHQ HL sau a unei tensiuni la
intrarea unui dispozitiv digital) care pot fi SURFHVD LODun moment dat de un procesor.
ntruct memoria RAM este cea care IXUQL]HD] respectivele date era logic ca ea
V fie RUJDQL]DW n diviziuni de o PULPH HJDO cu cea a QXPUXOXL de EL L sus PHQ LRQD L.
Aceste JUXSUL se numesc ORFD LLGHPHPRULH L pot fi considerate ca minima unitate care
poate fi VFULV sau FLWLW dintr-o memorie. O GDW OPXULW acest aspect devine clar F
pentru a P putea referi la una sau alta din ORFD LL trebuie V existe o PHWRG GH
individualizare VWULFW6DDOHVcea mai VLPSOFXSXWLQ Lanume
numerotarea lor QXPUXOORFD LHLnumindu-se DGUHVDORFD LHL.
1R LXQHDGHDOJRULWP

QSURFHVXOGHUH]ROYDUHDXQHLSUREOHPHIRORVLQGFDOFXODWRUXOH[LVWGRXID]H

- GHILQLUHDLDQDOL]DSUREOHPHL
- SURLHFWDUHDLLPSOHPHQWDUHDXQXLDOJRULWPFDUHUH]ROYSUREOHPD

'HILQLUHDLDQDOL]DSUREOHPHLSRDWHILODUkQGXOHLGHVFRPSXVvQ
- specificarea datelor de intrare;
- VSHFLILFDUHDGDWHORUGHLHLUH

6SHFLILFDUHDGDWHORUGHLQWUDUHFRQVWvQ

1. Ce date vor fi primite la intrare;

2. Care este formatul (forma lor de reprezentare) a datelor de intrare;
3. Care sunt valorile permise sau nepermise pentru datele de intrare;
4. ([LVWXQHOHUHVWULF LLDOWHOHGHFkWODSULYLQGYDORULOHGHLQWUDUH
5. &kWH YDORUL YRU IL OD LQWUDUH VDX GDF QX VH SRDWH VSHFLILFD XQ QXPU IL[ GH YDORUL
FXPVHYDWLFkQGVDXWHUPLQDWGHLQWURGXVGDWHOHGHLQWUDUH

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vQWUHGDWHLQWHUPHGLDUHLGDWHGHLHLUH
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3. 6XQW VDX QX QHFHVDUH H[SOLFD LL VXSOLPHQWDUH SHQWUX XWLOL]DWRU vQ DIDUD GDWHORU GH
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FDUH GHVFULX PRGXO GH SUHOXFUDUH D XQRU GDWH GH LQWUDUH  vQ VFRSXO UH]ROYULL XQHL
SUREOHPH 'HFL $/*257,08/ (67( $&($ 3$57( '( &$/&8/ &2081 1
&$=8/5(=2/95,,81(,352%/(0('(&$/&8/
8QH[HPSOXVLPSOXGHDOJRULWPDUILVXLWDGHRSHUD LLPDWHPDWLFHIFXWvQUH]ROYDUHD
XQHL HFXD LL PDWHPDWLFH GH JUDGXO ,, D;E;F  FRHILFLHQ LL D E F VH VFKLPE GDU
modul de procesare a valorilor lor, nu.
3URSULHW LOHXQXLDOJRULWPVXQW

1. (VWHFRPSXVGLQLQVWUXF LXQLVLPSOHLFODUH
2. 2SHUD LXQLOHVSHFLILFDWHGHLQVWUXF LXQLVHH[HFXWvQWURDQXPLWVHFYHQ 
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'LQ FHOH VSXVH PDL VXV UH]XOW F 81 $/*25,70 (67( ,1'(3(1'(17 '(
7,38/ '( /,0%$- 1 &$5( (67( 75$16386 6$8 '( 7,38/ '( 0$,1 3(
CARE ESTE EXECUTAT.
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UHVSHFWLY352*5$0$5($6(&9(1,$/
8Q DOJRULWP VHFYHQ LDO HVWH DFHO DOJRULWP FUHDW SHQWUX H[HFX LD  SH XQ FDOFXODWRU
VHFYHQ LDO'HQXPLUHDGHVHFYHQ LDOSURYLQHGLQIDSWXOFDFHVWDQXSRDWHH[HFXWDGHFkW
RVLQJXURSHUD LHODXQPRPHQWGDW

5HSUH]HQWDUHDDOJRULWPLORU

Q JHQHUDO XQ DOJRULWP SRDWH IL FRQVLGHUDW FD R GHVFULHUH D SUHOXFUULL HIHFWXDWH
asupra unui flux de date, prelucrare care are loc cu un scop bine determinat. Ca de obicei,
vQ FD]XO GH]YROWULL XQHL QRL WHRULL VD FXWDW DWkW R FDOH GH VWDQGDUGL]DUH D PRGXOXL GH
GHVFULHUH D XQXL DOJRULWP FkW L R FDOH GH DO IDFH LQGHSHQGHQW GH XQ OLPEDM GH
SURJUDPDUHDQXPHUH]XOWkQGGRXPHWRGHFODVLFH

- metoda schemei logice (diagramei de flux (flowchart));

- metoda pseudocodului.

0HWRGDVFKHPHLORJLFH

QFDGUXODFHVWHLPHWRGHVHIRORVHWHXQVHWGHVLPEROXULSUH]HQWDWvQILJXUD
SHQWUXGHVFULHUHDSDLORUFHWUHEXLHH[HFXWD LSHQWUXFDSURJUDPXOUH]XOWDWVQHUH]ROYHR
DQXPLWSUREOHP
'HLDIRVWH[WUHPGHIRORVLWSkQQXGHPXOWDFHDVWPHWRGSDUHDSLHUGHWHUHQ
vQ ID D UHSUH]HQWULL GH WLS SVHXGRFRG SRDWH L GDWRULW WLPSXOXL VXSOLPHQWDU SLHUGXW GH
utilizator cu executarea simbolurilor grafice.
6 DQDOL]P XQ SURJUDP GH FDOFXO D PHGLHL SHQWUX WUHL QRWH L V YHGHP FXP DU
DSUHDGHVFULVSULQDFHDVWPHWRG
'XSFXPVHREVHUYvQILJXUDVHGHVFULXHIHFWLYSDVFXSDVWRDWHRSHUD LXQLOH
care trebuiesc urmate.
Q ILJXUD  VD VSHFLILFDW L vQFHSXWXO SURJUDPXOXL IDSW FDUH SDUH LQXWLO GDU vQ
FD]XOGHVFULHULLXQXLSURJUDPIRDUWHPDUHVHSUHDSRDWHFDVFKHPDORJLFVVHvQWLQGSH
]HFLGHSDJLQLFD]vQFDUHGHYLQHHYLGHQWQHFHVLWDWHDGHFODUULLvQFHSXWXOXLLVIkULWXOXL
de program.
QXUPWRUXOSDVVHGHFODUYDULDELOHOH2YDULDELOHVWHXQLGHQWLILFDWRUSURSULXDO
SURJUDPDWRUXOXL FDUH vQ FD]XO RSHUD LXQLL GH GHFODUDUH VH DWDHD] OD JHQHUDUHD
SURJUDPXOXL XQHL ]RQH GH PHPRULH D FUHL GLPHQVLXQH HVWH vQ GLUHFW FRQFRUGDQ  FX
WLSXOGHGDWVWRFDWGHDFHDVWD
Se trece apoi la citirea datelor de intrare. n acest caz este vorba de trei note ceea
FH SUHVXSXQH F YDORULOH GH LQWUDUH SRW DYHD L FX ]HFLPDOH 0DL WkU]LX VH YD GLVFXWD
GHVSUHDOHJHUHDWLSXOXLGHYDULDELOIXQF LHGHVSHFLILFD LLOHXWLOL]DWRUXOXL
6HH[HFXWFDOFXOXOSURSULX]LVGXSFDUHVHDILHD]UH]XOWDWXOFX]HFLPDOH$
PDL UPDV GRDU PDUFDUHD VIkULWXO GH SURJUDP &KLDU GDF PHWRGD DUH R LPSUHVLH
DUWLVWLFVSRULWFkWHRGDWVHSLHUGHSUHDPXOWWLPSLKkUWLHvQFD]XOIRORVLULLHLLGH
DFHHDGLQFHvQFHPDLPXO LSUHIHUFDPHWRGGHGHVFULHUHpseudocodul.
 6LPERO GH WHUPLQDUH
VDX vQFHSHUH SURJUDP

&XWLH GH FDOFXO

&XWLH GH FRPHQWDULX

&XWLH GH
,QWUDUH VDX ,HLUH 'DWH

)LU GH H[HFX LH D SURJUDPXOXL

)LJ  6LPEROXUL VWDQGDUG SHQWUX
 XQXL
)LJ  6FKHPD ORJLF
PHWRGD VFKHPHL ORJLFH
SURJUDP GH FDOFXO D PHGLHL SHQWUX

WUHL QRWH

0HWRGDSVHXGRFRGXOXL

)D GHVFKHPDORJLFDUHGH]DYDQWDMXOFQXvQWRWGHDXQDUHGDEVROXWWR LSDLLGH
FDOFXO 7RWXL HVWH PDL FRPRG GH IRORVLW vQ FD]XO vQ FDUH VH GHVFULX DOJRULWPL SHQWUX
OLPEDMHOHGHSURJUDPDUHGHQLYHOPHGLXLvQDOW
6FKHPD ORJLF HVWH FHD PDL LQGLFDW FD PHWRG GH GHVFULHUH vQ VSHFLDO vQ FD]XO
LPSOHPHQWULLXQXLDOJRULWPIRORVLQGOLPEDMGHDVDPEODUHXQGHGHVFULHUHDDPQXQ LWD
ILHFUXL SDV HVWH QHFHVDU  SHQWUX SXWHD PLQLPL]D DQVHOH DSDUL LHL XQRU HURUL GH
implementare.
DescrierHDHIHFWLYDSDLORUFHWUHEXLHHIHFWXD LIRORVLQGFXYLQWHOHOLPELLURPkQH
vPSUHXQ FX FXYLQWH FKHLH DOH OLPEDMXOXL GH SURJUDPDUH vQ FDUH VH YD LPSOHPHQWD
DOJRULWPXO VH QXPHWH SVHXGRFRG 6H REVHUY F vQ DFHVW FD]  FULWHULXO LQGHSHQGHQ HL
WRWDOHDGHVFULHULLID GHOLPEDMXOGHLPSOHPHQWDUHQXHVWHvQWUXWRWXOUHVSHFWDW
3HQWUX FRPSDUD LH YRP GHVFULH PDL MRV vQ SVHXGRFRG SUREOHPD SUH]HQWDW vQ
figura 1.2.

YDULDELOHPDQQQ
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FLWHWHQQQ
PD QQQ
DILHD]PDFX]HFLPDOH
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