3U Maths

Epping Boys High School
Mathematics
Extension 1
HSC
Vinodh Thanabalasingham, Lawrence Feng,

Pasan Waidyasekara
2014
Contents
CONTENTS
Polynomials 3
Circle Geometry 28
Further Trigonometry 38
Parametric Representations 40
Permutations and Combinations 55
Mathematical Induction 67
Angle Between Two Lines 71
Ratios of a Line 74
Asymptotic Curves 76
Integration by Substitution 79
Integration by Differentiation 85
Trigonometric Integration 86
Binomial Theorem 90
Further Applications of Calculus 114
Related Rates of Change 116
Inverse Functions and the Inverse Trigonometric Functons 125
Projectile Motion 152
Simple Harmonic Motion 159
MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 2 OF 179

Polynomials
POLYNOMIALS
INTRODUCTION
A polynomial is an algebraic expression of the form:
Definition of a Polynomial

() = + 1 1 + 2 2 + + 2 2 + 1 + 0 =
=0
The above expression is known as the polynomial ().
Polynomials are continuous and differentiable at every point.
The exponents of a polynomial are non-negative integers.
Coefficients are real numbers
Term Symbol Definition Significance

Degree Highest power of Determines the
general shape of
the curve
Coefficient 1 , 2 , Constants in front of powers
of
Leading Coefficient Constant in front of highest Determines the

power of behaviour of the
graph for large
values of x.
Constant Term 0 Constant term that does not Constant term,
change even as varies and is the y
intercept
Zeroes 1 , 2 , Values of for which ( ) = -intercepts of
0 the Polynomial. A
polynomial of
degree may
have up to n roots

Polynomials
TYPES OF POLYNOMIALS
Some polynomials have special names:
Degree () Polynomial () Special Name

( ) = 0 Constant Polynomial
( ) = 1 + 0 Linear Polynomial
( ) = 2 2 + 1 + 0 Quadratic Polynomial
( ) = 3 3 + 2 2 + 1 + 0 Cubic Polynomial
( ) = 4 4 + 3 3 + 2 2 + 1 + 0 Quartic Polynomial
( ) = + 1 1 + + 0 Monic Polynomial
ROOTS & ZEROES
The equation ( ) = 0 is known as a polynomial equation of degree where is the degree

of the polynomial . The real number such that ( ) = 0 is known as a root (or solution) of
the polynomial equation, as well as a zero of the polynomial . A polynomial equation may
have more than one root (up to roots, where is the degree of the polynomial) or may
have none at all (e.g. 2 + 1 = 0)
A polynomial has zeroes and a polynomial equation has roots.
Examples
Question 1
Identify which of these following expressions are polynomials. For the polynomials you have
identified, identify the degree, leading coefficient and constant.
2
a) 6 + 3 3 2 3
Not a polynomial because it contains 2 2 , which has a negative and fractional power.
b) 2( + 1)( 4)( + 3)
2( + 1)( 4)( + 3) = (2 + 2)( 2 12)

= 2 3 2 2 24 + 2 2 2 24
= 2 3 26 24
Since all the powers are non-negative integers, it is a polynomial
It is a polynomial of degree 3, with leading coefficient 2 and constant term 24

Polynomials
c) 5 + 5
It is not a polynomial because 5 is not a non-negative integer power
d) 0
It is a polynomial of degree 0, with leading coefficient 0 and constant term 0
Example 2
Consider the polynomial () = 3 + 2 2 2 write down the roots of P(x)
( ) = 3 + 2 2 2
= ( 1)( + 1)( + 2)
= ( 2 1)( + 2)
Since the roots of the equation are the zeroes of the polynomial ( ), the roots are
= 1, 1 and 2
GRAPHING POLYNOMIALS
SUMMARY OF ODD AND EVEN DEGREE FUNCTIONS

Degree Direction of the Tails Maximum Number of Roots Minimum Number of
(for Polynomial of degree ) Roots
Odd Opposite Direction 1
Even Same Direction 0
BEHAVIOUR FOR LARGE | |
For large values of | |, the leading term dominates the function
will affect the general shape of the curve (odd or even ). The sign of the leading
coefficient determines the value as
> 0 < 0
, even or odd () + ()
, even () + ()
, odd () () +

Polynomials

Double Root Triple Root
Single Root
At a single zero, the curve cuts the x-axis, not tangent to it.
Cuts the x axis
At a zero of even multiplicity, the curve lies tangent to the x-axis without crossing it
Bounces of the x-axis
At a zero of odd multiplicity ( 3), the curve lies tangent to the x-axis and possesses a point
of inflection at this root, crossing over the x-axis.
Point of inflection at root.
CURVE SKETCHING METHOD
A basic method for sketching polynomial functions:
STEP 1: Determine the general shape of the graph, and its behavior at the extremities by
examining the leading term .
When is even, the tails of the curve will be on the same side of the (like a
quadratic)
When is odd, the tails of the curve will be on different sides (like a cubic)
The sign of determines the behavior at the extremeties.
Mark the tails of the polynomial
STEP 2: Determine the zeroes of the polynomial
STEP 3: Determine the nature of the zeroes, i.e. their multiplicity and hence their shape
STEP 4: Determine the y-intercept by evaluating (0).
STEP 5: Sketch the curve using the above information
NOTE: Be sure to mark on your graph both the and intercepts as well as clearly
indicating the behaviour of the curve at its extremities.

Polynomials
Example
Graph the curve = 3 ( 1)( 3)2
STEP 1: Determine the general shape of the graph
The leading coefficient is positive, and the degree is even
Hence, as , and as +, +.
STEP 2: Determine the zeroes of the polynomial
= 0, 1, 3
STEP 3: Determine the nature of the zeroes
There is a triple root at = 0, so it is cubic in shape.
There is a double root at = 3, so it is parabolic in shape
STEP 4: Determine the y-intercept by evaluating (0).
(0) = 0
(0, 0) is the -intercept
STEP 5: Sketch the curve
1 3

Polynomials
POLYNOMIAL LONG DIVISION
DIVIDING INTEGERS
If we are asked to divide a number by another number we can write it as =

"remainder" r. Alternatively, we can write this as = + where 0 1
An example is dividing 3489 by 11. Using the normal long division method we deduce that
3489 = 317 11 + 2, i.e. the = 317 and = 2
Similarly, we can use this principle to divide polynomials to make factorise complex
polynomials.
DIVIDING POLYNOMIALS
Likewise if we are asked to divide a polynomial ( ) by a polynomial ( ), we can write this

in the form ( ) = ( ) ( ) + () where ( )is the quotient and ( )is the remainder
polynomial where 0 deg ( ) < deg () 1. A consequence of this is that () and () are
unique for every polynomial division.
NOTE: If there is a term missing, use 0x n

Polynomials
Example
Use the division algorithm to divide 3 3 + 4 2 + 8 + 9 by + 1
3 2 + +7
First, compare at the highest powers of the divisor () and the
dividend (3 3 ).
+1 3 3 + 4 2 + 8 +9
Multiply the entire divisor so that these two terms are equal and
write it below the dividend. Write down what you multiplied by at
3 2
3 +3
the top
Subtract the multiplied divisor from the dividend (the first term
should cancel out). Write down the answer, and then bring down
2
+8
the next term
Repeat this process until we are left with a polynomial with lesser
2 +
degree than the divisor
7 +9
7 +7
2 This polynomial is known as the remainder
Thus we can interpret this as
( ) = 3 3 + 4 2 + 8 + 9
= ( ). ( ) + ( )
= (3 2 + + 7)( + 1) + (2)

Polynomials
REMAINDER THEOREM
When the polynomial, P(x) is divided by ( ), the remainder is ()
Example
What is the remainder when ( ) = 3 + 2 2 5 6 is divided by + 3
By the remainder theorem, the remainder will be ( + 3)
(3) = (3)3 + 2 (3)2 5 (3) 6

= 27 + 18 + 15 6
=0
The remainder will be 0
THE FACTOR THEOREM
If ( ) = 0, then ( ) is a factor of P(x)
This is a special case of the remainder theorem.
Proof
It is given that () = 0 and ( ) = ( )( ) + .
(Hint: Show that ( ) is a factor of p(x).
( ) = ( ) ( ) +
( ) = ( ) ( ) +
= 0 ( ) +
=
But we know ( ) = 0
. . = 0
( ) = 0
Thus, if ( ) = 0 then ( ) is a factor
Example 1
Show that = 1, 2 are zeroes of ( ) = 3 4 2 + 4 and then
(1 ) = 1 4 1 + 4 = 0
(2) = 8 + 8 4 + 4 = 0
(2 ) = 8 8 4 + 4 = 0
Hence = 1, 2 are zeroes of ()

Polynomials
Example 2
Consider the polynomial ( ) = 2 3 + + 9, where is a constant
a) Find the value of given that + 3 is a factor
If + 3 is a factor, (3) = 0
(3) = 2(3)3 + (3) + 9 =0

54 3 + 9 =0
6 = 54
=9
b) Hence, find the remainder when ( ) is divided by 4
By the remainder theorem, the remainder is (4)
(4) = 2(4)3 + 9 4 + 81
= 128 + 36 + 81
= 245
The remainder is 245
CONSEQUENCES OF FACTOR THEOREM
As a consequence of the factor theorem, it is proven that a polynomial with degree n has a
maximum of n zeros/roots.
Example
Consider the polynomial ( ) = 3 + 2 2 5 6
a) State the maximum number of zeroes ( ) can have
Since ( ) is degree 3, it has a maximum of 3 zeroes
b) Evaluate (1), (2) and (3)
(1) = 1 + 2 + 5 6 = 0
(2) = 8 + 8 10 6 = 0
(3) = 27 + 18 + 15 6 = 0
Hence, = 1, 2, 3 are zeroes
c) Hence, fully factorise ( )
Since ( ) has a maximum of 3 zeroes, and = 1, 2, 3 are zeroes, these must be the
only zeroes of the polynomial
Hence, ( ) = ( + 1)( 2)( + 3)

Polynomials
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS
By examining the roots of a polynomial and the variations of the coefficients a relationship
can be developed.
Roots and Coefficients of Quadratic + + =

Sum of roots: + =

Product of roots: = +

Proof
Consider the quadratic polynomial ( ) = 2 + + with zeroes ,
a) Show that 2 + + = ( )( )
Since ( ) can have a maximum of 2 zeroes, and must be the only two zeroes
By the factor theorem, since ( ) = ( ) = 0, and are factors
Since the coefficient of 2 is , ( ) can be written in the form
( ) = ( )( )
2
+ + = ( )( )
b) By equating coefficients, find the values of + and in terms of , and
2 + + = [ 2 ( + ) + ]

2 + + = 2 ( + ) +

Equating coefficients, = ( + ) and =

Hence, + = and =

Polynomials
Example
For each of the following quadratic equations, find the sum and the product of the roots
a) 2 + 5 1 = 0
5
Sum of roots = = 5
1
1
Product of roots = = 1
1
b) 3 2 2 + 5 = 0
2 2
Sum of roots = ( )=
3 3
5
Product of roots =
3
c) 2 27 = 0
2
0 27 = 0
0
Sum of roots = = 0
1
27
Product of roots = = 27
1
Example 2
Let and be the roots of 2 3 + 1 = 0. Evaluate
a) +
3
= ( )=3
1
b)
1
= =1
1
c) 2 + 2
( + )2 = 2 + 2 + 2
2 + 2 = ( + )2 2
= 32 2 1
=7

Polynomials
RELATIONSHIPS WITH CUBICS
Roots and Coefficients of a Cubic + + + =

Sum of roots: + + =

Sum of roots two at a time: + + = +

Product of roots: =

Proof
Consider the polynomial ( ) = 3 + 2 + + with zeroes , and
a) Show that 3 + 2 + + = ( )( )( )
Since ( ) can have a maximum of 3 zeroes, , and must be the only zeroes
By the factor theorem, since ( ) = ( ) = () = 0, , and are factors
Since the coefficient of 2 is , ( ) can be written in the form
( ) = ( )( )( )
3 2
+ + + = ( )( )( )
b) Hence, find the values of + + , + + and in terms of , , and
3 + 2 + + = [ 3 ( + + ) 2 + ( + + ) ]

3 + 2 + + = 3 ( + + ) 2 + ( + + )

Equating coefficients, = ( + + ), = + + and =

Hence, + + = , + + = , =

Polynomials
Example
If , , are the three roots of 3 5 2 + 7 = 0, evaluate
a) + +
5
= ( )=5
1
b) + +
1
= =1
1
c)
7
= ( )=7
1
1 1 1
d) ++

1 1 1
+ + = + +

+ +
=

1
=
7
SUMMARY

Polynomials
RELATIONSHIPS IN THE GENERAL CASE
The relationships within the general case exist but require complicated summation notation.
If 1, 2 , 3 , are the roots of ( ) = + 1 1 + + 1 + 0 . Expanding and

equating coefficients gives:
Zeroes and Coefficients of a General Polynomial
1
=

2
= +

<
3
=

<<

0
1 2 = (1)

NOTE: Not needed for HSC syllabus but you can use it to remember the formula and just in
case it comes up.
Example
If , , , are roots of the quartic equation 2 4 5 3 + 4 + 2 = 0. Find the values of:
a) + + +
5 5
= ( )=
2 2
b) + + + + +
0
= =0
2

Polynomials
FACTORISING POLYNOMIALS
Factorising Polynomials Complete Method
If one or two roots of the polynomials are known, sums and products of roots can be used
to quickly identify the other roots of the polynomials, without the need for long division.
STEP 1: Use the Factor Theorem to find as many roots by the integer root theorem
Remember if all the coefficients in a polynomial are integers, try integer divisors of
the constant term.
This can be done by find factors of the constant term
STEP 2: Once you have found a few of the roots, use the sums and product identities to find
the other roots
STEP 3: Write the polynomial in fully factorised form, taking into account the leading
coefficient
Example
Factorise ( ) = 6 4 + 3 22 2 11 + 6
STEP 1: Use the Factor Theorem to find as many roots by the integer root theorem
Any integer zeroes must be 1, 2, 3, 6
(1) = 6 + 1 22 11 + 6 0
(1) = 6 1 22 + 11 + 6 = 0
(2) = 96 + 8 88 22 + 6 = 0
Further testing will reveal = 1, 2 are the only integer zeroes

Polynomials
STEP 2: Once you have found a few of the roots, use the sums and product identities to find
the other roots
Let the other two zeroes be and
Using sum of roots,
1
+1+2=
6
1
++1=
6
7
+=
6
Using product of roots,
6
(1)(2) =
6
2 = 1
1
=
2
1
=
2
Substituting into the first equation,
1 7
+=
2 6
2
3 + 6 = 7
6 2 + 7 3 = 0
(2 + 3)(3 1) = 0
3 1
= ,
2 3
3 1 1 3
When = 2 , = 3, and when = 3 , = 2
1 3
Hence, the other two roots are and 2
3
STEP 3: Write the polynomial in fully factorised form, taking into account the leading
coefficient
Since the leading coefficient is 6
1 3
( ) = 6 ( ) ( + ) ( + 1)( 2)
3 2
= (3 1)(2 + 3)( + 1)( 2)

Polynomials
GEOMETRY APPLICATIONS OF POLYNOMIALS
Different polynomial techniques from above can be used to solve geometric problems.
FIND POINTS OF INTER SECTION OF TWO POLYNOMIAL CURVES
The points of intersection can be found by solving the two polynomial functions
simultaneously.
The roots of the resulting polynomial are the x coordinates of the points of
intersection.
Example
Consider the polynomials () = 3 + 2 2 9 + 27 and ( ) = 3 2 + 12 18
a) Find the values of for which ( ) = ( )
If ( ) = ( ),
3 + 2 2 9 + 27 = 3 2 + 12 18
3 2 21 + 45 = 0
Any integer roots must be 1, 3, 5, 9, 15, 45
(3) = 27 9 63 + 45 = 0
(5) = 125 25 + 105 + 45 = 0
Hence, = 3, 5 are roots
Let the last root be . Using sum of roots,
1
+3 5 = ( )
1
2 =1
=3
Hence, = 3 or = 5
Hence, state the -coordinates of any points of intersection of the two graphs
The -coordinates are the roots of the equation
Hence, the -coordinates are 3 and 5

Polynomials
b) By substituting these values of into both ( ) and ( ), verify that these are the points
of intersection
(3) = 27 + 18 27 + 27
= 45
(3) = 27 + 36 18
= 45
Hence, the point (3, 45) is common to both graphs
(5) = 125 + 50 + 45 + 27
= 3
(5) = 75 60 18
= 3
Hence, the point (5, 3) is common to both graphs
Hence, the graphs intersect at = 3 and = 5
MIDPOINTS OF INTERSECTION
Finding the Midpoint
When there are two points of intersection, the x-coordinate of the midpoint can be found
using the sum of roots
The y-coordinate can then be found by substituting the x-coordinate
Example
The diagram below shows to graphs = 2 4 + 3 and = + 1, which intersect at exactly

two points (1 , 1 ) and (2 , 2 )

Polynomials
a) Find the polynomial equations whose roots are the -coordinates of the points of
intersection
Equating the two curves,
2 4 + 3 = + 1
2 5 + 2 = 0
b) Find an expression for the midpoint of
1 + 2 1 + 2
( , )
2 2
c) Without finding the values of 1 and 2, find the -coordinate of
Since the roots of the equation 2 5 + 2 = 0 are the -coordinates of the points of
intersection, 1 and 2 must be roots
Using sum of roots,
5
1 + 2 = ( )
1
=5
1 +2 5
Hence, =2
2
5
The -cordinate of is 2
d) Hence, without finding the values of 1 and 2 , find coordinates of
The midpoint must also lie on the line = + 1
5 7
When = 2 , = 2
5 7
Hence, ( , )
2 2

Polynomials
NUMERICAL ESTIMATION OF ROOTS
LOCATING THE VICINITY OF ROOTS
Before estimating a root, we need to find a rough area a root can occur.
If the graph of f(x) changes sign from x=a to x=b, the curve crosses the x-axis and there
must be a root of the function in the interval a<x<b
NOTE: For this to be true, f(x) must be continuous between axb
Example
Consider the graph of ( ) = 3 + 2 + 1
a) Determine the value of (1). Is this above the x-axis or below it?
(1) = (1)3 + 2(1) + 1

= 1 2 + 1
= 2
This is below the -axis
b) Determine the value of (0). Is this above the x-axis or below it?
(0 ) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1
This is above the -axis
c) What can we conclude about the location of the root of the equation ( ) = 0
Between = 1 and = 0, the graph goes from being below the -axis to above the -
axis thus the graph must cross the -axis. A root will occur where the graph crosses the
-axis. Hence, a root must occur somewhere in the interval 1 < < 0

Polynomials
ROOT APPROXIMATION B Y HALVING THE INTERVAL METHOD
Given an equation f(x) (where f(x) is continuous close to the root
STEP 1: Find an interval a<x<b in which the root lies
+
STEP 2: Evaluate ( )
2
+
STEP 3: By comparing signs, determine whether the root lies in the interval a<x< ( ) or
2
+
( )<x<b
2
STEP 4: Repeat this process as many times as the question specifies
Example
Let ( ) = 2 3. Show that the root to the equation ( ) = 0 lies in the interval
1 < < 2, and hence use the method of halving the interval 2 times to obtain a better
approximation
STEP 1: Find an interval < < in which the root lies
(1) = 1 3 = 2
(2) = 4 3 = +1
Since the curve changes sign between = 1 and = 2, a root must lie in the interval
1<<2
+
STEP 2: Evaluate ( )
2
+
( ) = (1.5)
2
= 0.75
+
STEP 3: By comparing signs, determine whether the root lies in the interval < < or
2
+
<<
2
Since the curve changes sign between = 1.5 and = 2, a root must lie in the interval
1.5 < < 2
STEP 4: Repeat this process as many times as the question specifies
Using the new interval 1.5 < < 2
+
( ) = (1.75)
2
= 0.0625
Since the curve changes sign between = 1.5 and = 1.75, a root must lie in the
interval
1.5 < < 1.75

Polynomials
ROOT APPROXIMATION USING NEWTONS METHOD
In the below diagram, suppose we wish to find the approximate value of the root = and
we know that 0 is an approximate root. We note that 1 is a closer approximation than 0.
Newtons Method allows us to find 1.
Given = 0 as an approximation to the root = of ( ) = 0, provided the situation is

favourable (see further on), we can arrive at a new approximation:
Newtons Method of Approximation
( 0 )
1 = 0
( 0 )
Proof
Suppose that a tangent is drawn from the curve = () at the point = 0
a) What is the gradient of the line at = 0 ?
The derivative is ()
At = 0 , ( ) = (0 )
b) Use the point-gradient form of the line to write down an equation for the tangent at =
0
( (0 )) = (0 )( 0 )
c) Hence, find and expression for 1
When = 0, = 1
0 (0 ) = (0 )(1 0 )
( 0 )
= 1 0
( 0 )
( 0 )
1 = 0
( 0 )

Polynomials
Example
Using = 1 as a first approximation, use Newtons method to find an approximate root of

the equation = 2 , correct to 2 decimal places
Rearranging the equation, + 2 = 0
Let ( ) = + 2
( ) = + 1
By Newtons method,
1 + 1 2
1 = 1
1 + 1
2
=
+1
0.5379
To check that this is correct to 2 decimal places, we apply Newtons method again
Using 0 = 0.5379
0.5379 + 0.5379 2
1 = 0.5379
0.5379 + 1
0.4456
Using 0 = 0.4456
1 0.4429
Hence, = 0.44
NOTE: Remember to use the exact approximation for each successive application of
Newtons method. Use the memory keys on the calculator to store the approximations

Polynomials
CASES WHERE NEWTONS METHODS FAIL
Case 1: Turning Point Between Root and Approximation
The initial approximation = 0 is on the wrong side of a stationary point at = . Applying

Newtons Method will provide a second approximation = 1 , which will be a worse
approximation than the first.
Case 2: Tangent is Horizontal
Where 0 is the co-ordinate of a stationary point, the tangent is horizontal and will never
(1 )
intersect the -axis. Alternatively (0 ) = 0, so 1 = 0 . This is undefined.
0

Polynomials
Case 3: Newtons Method can find the Wrong Root
If we do not select 0 (our approximation for = ) carefully, then Newtons method might
approximate a different root =
Case 4: The Sequence Oscillates
If we select our first approximation at = 0 , Newtons method will find a next

approximation of = 1 . Applying Newtons again will find the next approximation to be =
0. The approximations oscillate between = 0 and = 1, without ever coming closer to
= .

Circle Geometry
CIRCLE GEOMETRY
OVERVIEW
Circle geometry is the process of looking at the different parts of a circle, then performing
calculations based on properties of circles. It is made up of many theorems.
PARTS OF A CIRCLE
Segment
Minor
Chord. Secant.
Major Segment
Radius.
GENERAL INFORMATION:
Concentric Circles are circles that have the same

centre.
Equal circles have the same radius.

Circle Geometry
Concyclic Points are points that lie on the

circumference.
Any 3 non-collinear points (i.e. not in a line) are

concyclic. They lie on a circle, with centre at the point
of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the
intervals joining those points.
4+ non-collinear points may not necessarily lie on a

circle.
THEOREMS
Equal arcs subtend equal angles at the centre.
Converse: If two arcs subtend equal angles at the centre

of the circle, then the arcs are equal.
Proof:
Let two equal arcs have lengths 1 and 2 and subtend

angles of and at the centre of the circle.
Using = , 1 = and 2 =
But 1 = 2
=
=

Circle Geometry
Equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre of the

circle.
Converse: Equal angles subtended at the centre of the

circle cut off equal chords.
Proof:
= (equal radii)
= (similarly)
= (given)
by SSS,
= (corresponding s in congruent s)
The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the

circumference subtended by the same arc.
Proof:
Join and produce to .
Let = and =
= +
= (equal radii)
= (base s of isoceles )
=
= (equal radii)
= (base s of isoceles )
=
= + (exterior of )
= 2
= + (exterior of )
= 2
= +
= 2 + 2
= 2( + )
= 2
Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.

(butterfly wings)
A A
Proof:
Join and to centre

= 2 ( at centre is twice the at the circumference)
= 2
=
The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Proof:
= 180 (straight )
= 2( at centre is twice the at the circumference)
= 90

Circle Geometry
A perpendicular line from the centre of a circle to a chord

bisects the chord.
Converse: A line from the centre of a circle that bisects a

chord is perpendicular to the chord.
Proof:
= = 90 (given)
= (equal radii)
OD is common
by RHS
= (corresp. sides in congruent s)
So bisects
Equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle.
Converse: Chords that are equidistant from the centre are

equal.
Proof:
Let =
= = 90 (given)
= (equal radii)
= (given)
1
= ( bisects )
2
1
=
2
=
by RHS
The products of intercepts of intersecting chords are

equal. (i.e. = )
Proof:
= (vertically opposite s)
= (s in the same segment)
= (similarly)
|||

=

=

Circle Geometry
The opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are

supplementary.
Converse: If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are

supplementary, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
Proof:
Join and to .
Obtuse = 2 ( at centre is double

Reflex = 2 at circumference)
Obtuse + reflex = 360 ( of revolution)
2 + 2 = 360
+ = 180
Similarly, it can be proven that + = 180 by joining and
to .
The exterior angle at a vertex of a cyclic quadrilateral is

A
B equal to the interior opposite angle.
Proof:
Let =
Then = 180 (opp. s supplementary
in cyclic quad.)
+ = 180 ( straight angle)
E = 180 (180 )
D C =
=
The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius

drawn from the point of contact.
Converse: The line perpendicular to the radius at the

point where it meets the circle is a tangent to the circle at
that point.
Tangents to a circle from an exterior point are equal.
Proof:
Join
= = 90 (tangent radius)
is common
= (equal radii)
by RHS,

Circle Geometry
When two circles touch, the line through their centres

passes through their point of contact.
Proof:
is a tangent to circle with centre
= 90 (tangent radius)
is a tangent to circle with centre
= 90 (similarly)
+ = 90 + 90
= 180
is a straight line
The angle between a tangent and a chord through the

point of contact is equal to the angle in the alternate
segment.

A Proof:
Draw in diameter and join .
Let = .
= 90 (tangent radius)
= 90
= 90 ( in a semicircle)
= 180 (90 + 90 ) (angle sum of )
=
A
= (angles in same segment)
=
The square of the length of the tangent from an external

point is equal to the product of the intercepts of the
secant passing through this point. (i.e. 2 = )
Proof:
= (angles in alternate segments)
is common
|||

= =

=

2 =

Circle Geometry
EXAMPLES
Example 1
The points , and lie on a circle with centre , as shown in the diagram. The size of
3
is radians. What is the size of in radians?
5
Solution
3
Obtuse = 2
5
10 3
=
5 5
7
=
5
1
= Obtuse (angle at the circumference is half the angle
2
at the centre subtended by the same arc)
1 7
=
2 5
7
= radians
10

Circle Geometry
Example 2
The circles 1 and 2 touch at the point . The points and are on 1 . The line
intersects 2 at . The point on 2 is chosen so that is parallel to . Prove that the
points , and are collinear.
Solution
The circles 1 and 2 have a common tangent at .
Choose points and on that tangent as marked on the diagram above.
= = (angle in alternate segment, chord and tangent )

= = (angle in alternate segment, chord and tangent )
But = (alternate angles equal, )
i.e. =
=
Hence is a straight line making equal vertically opposite angles with line at .
, , are collinear.

Circle Geometry
Example 3
The points , and lie on a circle centred at . The tangents to the circle at and meet
at the point , and = . What is in terms of ?
Solution
Draw and .
is a quadrilateral.
= = 90 (tangent to a circle is to the radius drawn from the point of contact)
= 360 2 90 (interior angle sum of a quadrilateral is 360)
= 180
1 1
= ( at the circumference is the at the centre subtended by the same arc)
2 2
1
= (180 )
2

= 90
2
Example 4
The diagram shows a large semicircle with diameter and two smaller semicircles with
diameters and , respectively, where is a point on the diameter . The point is the
centre of the semicircle with diameter .
The line perpendicular to through meets the largest semicircle at the point . The
points and are the intersections of the lines and with the smaller semicircles. The
point is the intersection of the lines and .

Circle Geometry
(i) Explain why is a rectangle. 1
Solution
= 90 (angle in a semi-circle, diameter )
= 90 (adjacent supplementary angles)
Similarly = 90
= 90 (angle in a semi-circle, diameter )
Hence is a rectangle since all angles are 90.
(ii) Show that and are congruent. 2
Solution
As the diagonals of a rectangle are equal and intersect at their midpoints, =
As and are on the same circle with centre , = (equal radii)
is common to the triangles and
Hence (SSS)
(iii) Show that the line is a tangent to the semicircle with diameter . 1
Solution
= 90 as (given)
= (corresponding angles in congruent triangles)
i.e. = 90
Hence radius at the point of contact, and is a tangent.

Further Trigonometry
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
TRIG EXPANSIONS
(, ) (, )
( ) ;
()2 = ( )2 + ( )2
= 2 2( + )
()2 = 12 + 12 2 1 1 ( )
;
( ) = +
( + ) ;
( ) = +
=
( + ) = () + ()
( + ) =
( ) ;
( + ) =
= 90
(90 + ) = (90 ) (90 )
( ) =
( + ) ;
( ) = +
=
( + ) = () ()
( ) = +
( ) ; ( + ) ;
( )
= ( ) =
( ) + 1 +
=
()
( ) = ( + ) =
1 + ()
+

+
( ) = ( + ) =
+

Further Trigonometry
DOUBLE ANGLES
2 ;
2 = ( + )
= +
2 ;
2 = ( + )
=
=
=
=
2 ;
2 = ( + )
+
=
1
3D TRIG
Draw a careful diagram of the situation marking all right angles.
A plan diagram, looking down, is usally a great help.
Identify every triangle in the diagram, to see whether it can be solved.
If one triangle can be solved, then work from it around the diagram until the problem is
solved.
If no triangle can be solved, assign a pronumeral to what is to be found, then work around
the diagram until an equation in that pronumeral can be formed and solved.
AUXILIARY ANGLES
; + = ,
( + ) =
( ) = +
( + ) = +
( ) =

Parametric Representations
PARAMETRIC REPRESENT ATIONS
OVERVIEW
A parametric representation is a way of representing a Cartesian equation. In the parametric

form, and are expressed in terms of a third variable called a parameter. Generally they
are related to equations of a parabola.
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF THE PARABOLA
The parabola 2 = 4 can be written as:
= 2
= 2
Proof:
If = 2, then 2 = 4
(2)2 = 4
42 2 = 4
42 2
=
4
= 2
Similarly:
2 = 4 then = 2 2 = 4 then = 2 2 = 4 then = 2

= 2 = 2 = 2
The Cartesian equation can be found by rearranging the equations to find and using
simultaneous equations.

EXAMPLES
Example 1
Given the equation the parabola = 4 and = 2 2 , find the:
a) Cartesian form of the parabola.
Solution
= 4

=
4
2
= 2( )
4
2 2
=
16
1 2
=
8
b) The points of the parabola at = 2.
Solution
When = 2, = 8, = 8 point (8, 8)

When = 2, = 8, = 8 point (8, 8)
Example 2
Write 2 = 32 as a set of parametric equations.
Solution
i.e. 4 = 32
=8
= 2
= 2
i.e. = 16
= 8 2

CHORDS, TANGENTS AND NORMALS
PARAMETRIC FORM
If (2, 2 ) and (2, 2 ) are any two points on the parabola 2 = 4, then the chord
has:
+
Gradient =
2
1
Equation ( + ) + = 0
2
Proof:
2 1 The equation formula is:
=
2 1
2 2 1 = ( 1 )
= +
2 2 2 = ( 2 )
( 2 2 ) 2
= 1
2( ) = ( + ) ( + )
2
( + )( ) 1
= = ( + ) 2
2( ) 2
+ 1
= ( + ) + = 0
2 2
If is a focal chord, then:
= 1
Proof:
2 = 4 has a focus (0, ).
1
has equation ( + ) + = 0
2
For to be a focal chord, it passes through (0, ).
1
i.e. ( + ) 0 + = 0
2
+ = 0
=
= 1

The tangent to the parabola 2 = 4 at the point (2, 2 ) has:
Gradient =
Equation + 2 = 0
Proof:
2 = 4
2 The equation formula is:

= 1 = ( 1 )
4
2 2 = ( 2)
=
4 = 22

= + 2 = 0
2
At (2, 2 )
2
=
2
=
The tangents to the parabola 2 = 4 at points (2, 2 ) and (2, 2 ) intersect at:
Point [( + ), ]
Proof:
Equation of tangent at is + 2 = 0 (1) Substitute in (1):
Equation of tangent at is + 2 = 0 (2)
( + ) + 2 = 0
(1 ) (2 ) 2 + 2 = 0
+ + 2 2 = 0 =
( ) = ( 2 2 ) point of intersection is [( + ), ]
= ( + )( )
= ( + )

The normal to the curve 2 = 4 at point (2, 2 ) has:
1
Gradient =

Equation + = 3 + 2
Proof:
Tangent at has gradient . The equation formula is:
For perpendicular lines, 1 2 = 1
1 1 = ( 1 )
normal has gradient .
1
2 = ( 2)

( 2 ) = ( 2)
3 = + 2
+ = 3 + 2
The normal to the parabola 2 = 4 at (, 2 ) and (2, 2 ) intersect at:
[( + ), (2 + + 2 + 2)]
Proof:
Equation of normal at is Substitute in (1):
+ = 3 + 2 (1) + (2 + + 2 + 2) = 3 + 2
Equation of normal at is + 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 3 + 2
+ = 3 + 2 (2) = 2 2
= ( + )
(1 ) (2 )
= 3 3 + 2 2 point of intersection is
3 3) [( + ), (2 + + 2 + 2)]
( ) = ( + 2( )
= ( )(2 + + 2 ) + 2( )
= (2 + + 2 ) + 2
= (2 + + 2 + 2)

CARTESIAN FORM
If point (1 , 1 ) lies on the parabola 2 = 4, then the equation of the tangent at is given
by:
1 = 2( + 1 )
Proof:
2 The equation formula is:
=
4 1 = ( 1 )
2 1
= = ( 1 )
4 2
2( 1 ) = 1 1 2
=
2
= 1 41 (since 1 2 = 41 )
At (1 , 1 )
2 + 21 = 1
1
=
2 2( + 1 ) = 1
If point (1 , 1 ) lies on the parabola 2 = 4, then the equation of the normal at is given
by:
2
1 = ( 1 )
1
Proof:
2 For normal, 1 2 = 1
=
4 2
2 =
2 1
=
4
The equation formula is:

= 1 = ( 1 )
2
2
At (1 , 1 ) 1 = ( 1 )
1
1
=
2

The equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from external point (1 , 1 ) to the
parabola 2 = 4 is given by:
1 = 2( + 1 )
Proof:
Let = (2, 2 ) and = (2, 2 ).
1
Then chord has equation ( + ) + = 0
2
Now the tangents at and intersect at (1 , 1 ).
But the intersection of tangents is [( + ), ]
1 = ( + ) (1)
and 1 = (2)
From (1):
1
+ = (3)

Substituting (2) and (3) into the equation of chord gives
1 1
( ) + 1 = 0
2
2 1 + 21 = 0
2( + 1 ) 1 = 0
2( + 1 ) = 1

EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the equation of the chord joining points where = 3 and = 2 on the parabola = 2,
= 2 .
Solution
When = 3 The equation formula is

= 2(3) = (3 )2
1 = ( 1 )
= 6 = 9
When = 2 1
= 2(2) = (2)2 4 = ( + 4)
2
= 4 = 4
2 8 = + 4
points are (6, 9) and (4, 4)
2 1 2 + 12 = 0
Gradient =
2 1
4 9
=
4 6
5
=
10
1
=
2
Example 2
Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola 2 = 8 at the point (4, 2 2 ).
Solution
2 = 8
2
=
8
2
=
8

=
4
At (4, 2 2 )
4
=
4
=
The equation formula is
1 = ( 1 )
2 2 = ( 4)
= 4 2
2 2 = 0

Example 3
Tangents are drawn from the point , - to the points and on the parabola 2 = 4.
1 1
2 2
Find the equation of the chord of contact and the coordinates of and .
Solution
2 = 4
4 = 4
=1
1 1
has equation 1 = 2( + 1 ) where 1 = and 1 = .
2 2
1 1
= 2 ( )
2 2
= 2 1
= 4 2
4 + 2 = 0 is the equation of the chord of contact.

To find and , solve simultaneous equations.
2 = 4 (1)
4 + 2 = 0 (2)
From (2):
+ 2 = 4 (3)
Substitute into (1):
2 = + 2
2 2 = 0
( 2)( + 1) = 0
= 2, 1
Substitute = 2 into (3):
2 4 + 2 = 0
4 = 4
1=
Substitute = 1 into (3):
1 + 4 + 2 = 0
1 = 4
1
=
4
1
So and are points (2, 1) and (1, ) .
4

PROPERTIES OF THE PARABOLA
The tangents at the end of a focal intersect at right angles on the directrix.
Proof:
Let be a focal chord of 2 = 4 where = (2, 2 ) and = (2, 2 ).
Then = 1
Tangent at has gradient 1 =
Tangent at has gradient 2 =
= 1
i.e. 1 2 = 1
the tangents are perpendicular
Tangents intersect at [( + ), ]
i.e. =
But = 1
=
This is the equation of the directrix.
tangents intersect on the directrix

The tangent at point on a parabola is equally inclined to the axis of the parabola and the
focal chord through .
Proof:
= (definition of a parabola)
= +
= 2 +
= 2 +
Tangent has equation + 2 = 0
At Q, = 0
0 + 2 = 0
= 2
= (0, 2 )
= +
= + 2
=
= (base s of isosceles )
tangent is equally inclined to the axis and the focal chord.

EXAMPLES
Example 1
Points 2, - and 8, 8 lie on the parabola 2 = 8.

1
2
a) Find the equation of line .
Solution
1 2 1
=
1 2 1
1
+8 2 +8
=
+8 2+8
3
=
4
4 + 32 = 3 + 24
3 4 8 = 0
b) Show that is a focal chord.
Solution
2 = 8
4 = 8
=2
Focus = (0, 2)
Substitute (0, 2) into (1)
RHS = 3(0) 4(2) 8
=0
= LHS
is a focal chord

c) Prove that the tangents at and intersect at right angles on the directrix.
Solution
2 1
= has gradient 1 =
8 2
has gradient 2 = 2
=
4 1
1 2 = 2
2 2
At P, = = 1
4
1 the tangents are perpendicular
=
2 Now,
The equation formula is + 2 1 = 0 (1)
1 = ( 1 ) 2 + 8 = 0 (2)
1 1 (1) 2: 2 + 4 2 = 0 (3)
+ = ( 2 )
2 2
(2) (3): 5 + 10 = 0
2 + 1 = + 2
10 = 5
+ 2 1 = 0 2=
(8) Subtitute in (1)
At Q, =
4
+41=0
=2
= 3
The equation formula is
point of intersection is (3, 2)
1 = ( 1 )
The directrix has equation =
+ 8 = 2( + 8) i.e. = 2
= 2 + 16 The point (3, 2) lies on the line = 2
0 = 2 + 8 the tangents meet on the directrix.
Example 2
a) Find the equation of chord on the parabola 2 = 12 where = 2, and

1
3
= (18, 27).
Solution
1 4
= ( 2)
2 = 12 3 3
3 1 = 4( 2)
4 = 12
= 4 + 8
=3 4 + 3 9 = 0
1
27 3
=
18 2
4
=
3

b) Show that is a focal chord.
Solution
Focus at (0, )
(0, 3)
At (0, 3), LHS = 4(0) + 3(3) 9
=0+99
=0
= RHS
is a focal chord.
c) Show that the tangents at and are perpendicular.
Solution
2 1
When = 2, 1 = =
2 = 12 6 3
18
2 When = 18, 2 = = 3
= 6
12 1
1 2 = 3
2 3
=
12 = 1
tangents are perpendicular
=
6
d) Show that the tangents intersect on the directrix.
Solution
1
= 3 27
Directrix at = 3
= 3 1 = 9 81
Point of intersection: 10 = 80
1 1 80
When = 2, = ( 2) =
3 3 10
3 1 = 2 = 8
When = 8, = 3(8) 27
3 = 2 + 1
= 3
1
= Point of intersection is (8, 3)
3
When = 18, 27 = 3( + 18) tangents intersect on the directrix
= 3 54
= 3 27

Example 3
(2, 2 ) and (2, 2 ) are the points on the parabola 2 = 4. It is given that the chord
1
has the equation ( + ) + = 0.
2
a) Derive the equation of the tangent to the parabola 2 = 4 at the point (2, 2 ).
Solution
2
When = 2, =
2 = 4 2
2 =
= 1 = ( 1 )
4
2 2 = ( 2)
=
4 = 2 2

= = 2 2 + 2
2
= 2
b) The tangent at cuts the -axis at the point . Find the coordinates of point .
Solution
= 2
When = 0, = (0) 2
= 2
(0, 2 )
c) If the chord passes through the point , show that , , and are terms of a
geometric series.
Solution
Point has coordinate 0, and coordinate 2

1
( + ) + = 0
2
1
2 ( + )0 + = 0
2
2 + = 0
2 =
2 =

=

, , are terms of a GP ( = 2 = 3)
1 2

Permutations and Combinations
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
OVERVIEW
Permutations and combinations is advanced probability. It involves selections of elements

in a given set. Thus, rules and ideas from Advanced Mathematics probability can be used.
Permutation is when order is taken into account and the different arrangements are called
permutations.
Combination is when order is not taken into account and the different selections are called
combinations.
Such as:
The arrangements of A, B, C, D in pairs is:
Combination: AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD
Permutation: AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD
BA, CA, DA, CB, DB, DC
THE FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE
The fundamental counting principle is:
If an event can occur a1 ways, and a second event can occur in a 2 ways, and a third event can
occur in a3 ways, , and an nth event can occur in an ways, then all n events can occur in
succession in a1a2a3an ways.
Example
There are three towns: A, B and C. In how many ways can we travel from A to B to C, if there
are:
a) three roads from A to B and four roads from B to C
from A B there are 3 ways
from B C there are 4 ways
total number of ways = 34 = 12 ways
b) p roads from A to B and q roads from B to C
from A B there are p ways
from B C there are q ways
total number of ways = pq = pq ways

PROBABLITY
The probability of an event if all events are equally likely:
#
=
#
The total probability of an event is 1
+ = 1
Therefore, for complex and longer desired outcomes the probability can be found through
= 1
This can further be see in the exclusion principle of counting states that can be used to
count the number of desired outcomes where there are many cases.
# = # #
Example
There are six marbles in a sick: 2 white, 2 yellow, one red and one blue. If a marble is
selected at random, find the probability that it is:
a) white
# 2 1
= = =
# 6 3
b) not red
1 5
= 1 = 1 =
6 6
FACTORIALS
Factorials are the product of n consecutive positive integers from n down to 1.
i.e. ! = ( 1)( 2)( 3)( 4) 4 3 2 1
Such as: 6! = 6 5 4 3 2 1 = 720
Factorial notation is used to counting outcomes there isnt any repetition or replacements as
the numbers can become very large.

Example
A card is drawn randomly from a set of 25 cards numbered 1 to 25 in turn without replacing
it before the next is drawn. How many possible outcomes are there if all 25 cards out?
First card: there are 25 possibilities
Second card: there are 24 ways as one card has been drawn out
Third card: there are 23 ways as two cards has been drawn out
total number ways = 25!

= 1.55 1025
ADDITION RULE OF COUNTING
A mutually exclusive event is event that cannot happen at the same time.
If a mutually exclusive event can occur in, a1 ways for one case, and a2 ways for a second
case, and a3 for a third case, , and an ways for an nth case, then the total number of ways
in which this event can happen is a1 + a2 + a3 ++an
Example
How many integers greater than 4000 can be formed with the digits 1, 3, 4, 7, 9 if digits
may be repeated by maximum numbers of digits used is capped at five?
Case 1 4 digit Case 2 5 digits

____ -----
3555 55555
The 1st digit can only be 4, 7, 9 to be All 5 digits can be any of the given 5 digits
greater 4000 # 5 = 55 = 3125
The other 3 digits can be either of the 5
digits
# 4 = 3 5 5 5 = 375
# = 375 +3125=3500
ORDERED AND UNORDERE D OBJECTS
A set of objects is ordered if and only if each of its elements are unique in some ways
e.g. it has its own colour, number, position etc.

PERMUTATION
A permutation is an ordered selection (i.e. an arrangement) of n or less objects from a set

containing n objects.
PERMUTATION NOTATION

The symbol denotes the number of arrangements of n different objects taken r at a time
i.e. the number of ordered r-subsets which can be formed from an n-set.
It denotes the number of ways of filling r places with n different objects where

= ( 1)( 2) ( + 1)

!
=
( )!

NOTE: can be calculated on your calculator with the nPr button.

Proof

= ( 1)( 2) ( + 1)
( )( 1)( 2) 3 2 1
= ( 1)( 2) ( + 1)
( )( 1)( 2) 3 2 1
( 1)( 2) ( + 1)( )( 1)( 2) 3 2 1
=
( )( 1)( 2) 3 2 1
!
=
( )!

A special case: = !

Proof
!
=
( )!

!
=
( )!
!
= 0! = 1
0!
!
=
1
= !

Example 1
Find the number of arrangements of 3 digits numbers that can be formed using the digits 0
to 9 if each digit can only be used once.
There are 10 digits from 0 to 9
The 1st digit can be any of the 10 digits.
The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 9 digits
The 3rd digit can be any of the remaining 8 digits
Method One Method Two
= 10 9 8 10 10!
= 720 =
3 (10 3)!
10!
=
7!
= 720
Example 2
How many 3 digits numbers greater than 700 can be formed?
The 1st digit can only be 7, 8 or 9
The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 9 digits
The 3rd digit can be any of the remaining 8 digits
Method One Method Two
= 3 9 8 There 3 ways to get the 1st digit.

= 216
The possible arrangements of the
9
remaining 2 digits is
2
9
= 3
2
= 3 72
= 216
ADDING OR MULTIPLYING RULE
When we see and, we consider multiplying
When we see or, we consider adding

PERMUTATIONS WITH RE STRICTIONS
When solving with permutations with restrictions, deal with the restriction first.
Example
In how many ways can five boys and four girls be arranged in a row for a photograph if:
a) there are no restriction on where they stand
No restriction so anyone go anywhere
# = 9!
b) one particular girl must be on the right end
_________
The right spot must be taken by a particular
The rest of the 8 positions can then be taken by the rest
876543211
# = 8!
c) The boys and girls must take alternating positions

_________
A boy must be on the end as there are more boys than girls, then alternating
genders are picked.
544332211
# = 5! 4!

ADJACENT OBJECTS
When one or more objects must be kept to together, these objects are grouped together and
referred to as one entity.
Example
In how many ways can five boys and four girls be arranged in a row for a photograph if
three boys must sit together?
{B1 B2 B3} B4 B5 G1 G2 G3 G4
There are now 7 entities, the group of 3 boys, and the remaining 6 boys and girls.
# = 7!
but the three boys together can move around within themselves
# 3 = 3!
# = 7! 3!
ARRANGEMENTS IN A CIRCLE
When dealing with arrangement in a circle, fix the position of one object and then calculate
the number of ways of arranging the remaining objects.
in general, the number of ways of arranging n objects in a circle
# = ( 1)!
This is when the circle cannot be flipped, i.e. clockwise and anti-clockwise are considered to
be distinct, such as seats at a table.
In some circumstances, clockwise and anti-clockwise are considered to be indistinct, such

as a necklace or bracelet
n 1!
then, # =
2
Example
In how many ways can a group of six people be arranged in a circle?
After locking in one person, there are 5 more people whom can move around
= ( 1)!
= (6 1)!
= 5! = 120

Example 2
How many different necklaces can Vanessa make from 12 different coloured beads if all
beads must be used?
Since a necklace can be flipped to obtain the same bracelet, all cases have been
accounted for twice.
( 1 )!
=
2
(12 1)!
=
2
= 11! = 19958400
PERMUTATIONS WITH RE PETITION
The number of arrangement of n objects in a row, with a of one kind repeated, b of another
kind repeated, etc. is:
!
=
! !
Example
In how many ways can the letters of the word HIPPOPTAMUS be arranged in a line?
Out of the total 12 letters the letters, p is repeated 3 times and O is repeated 2
times.
!
=
! !
12!
= = 39916800
3! 2!
COMBINATIONS
Combinations are used when order doesnt matter
Such as a basketball team of 5 players are chosen from a group 10 people.
A combination is an unordered selection of n or less objects from a set containing n objects.
COMBINATION NOTATION
The number of combinations of n objects taking r at a time is given by:

=( )

!
=
! ( )!
where n is the total number of objects and r is the number of objects that are being selected

Proof
Since combinations are unordered solutions, to order them, we find the combinations and
then order them manually;

! =

=
!
!
as =
()!
!
( )!
=
!
!
=
! ( )!

NOTE: can be calculated on your calculator with the nCr button.

Example
How many different possible lotto entries can be made if six numbers are to be chosen from
1 to 44 in each entry?
There are 44 digits that can be chosen from, and we need 6 numbers for each entry
and order doesnt matter as they remain the same number.
44
=
6
= 7059052
EQUAL COMBINATIONS
The combinatorial identity is:
Proof

RTP: =

! !
= =
! ( )! ( )! [ ( )]!
!
=
( )! ( )!
=

=


PRODUCT OF COMBINATIONS
Just like other probability, when asked for and we can multiply cases
Example
A tutorial group of four students is to be formed from a class of six boys and five girls.
a) How different tutorials are possible if:

i. There are no restrictions
Anyone of the nine people can fill the tutorial
11
# & = = 330
4
ii. There must be two girls and 2 boys
There must be 2 girls, and 2 boys for that to happen, out of the 5
girls 2 can be selected, and out of the 6 boys 2 can be selected
6 5
=
2 2
= 15 10 = 150
iii. Two particular girls must be included
Two spaces have been already been taken by the two particular girls,
so two spaces are left for the remaining for the rest of the nine people
9
# & = = 36
2
b) If all four members of the tutorial group are chosen at random, find the probability
that at least two of the students are boys
For this question, cases must be taken. As it will take too long to do cases for boys
being in the tutorial, we must take cases of boys not being in there
Case 1 no boys Case 2 only one boy is chosen

This means only the girls can be picked This means one boy out of the six is
for the 4 spots chosen and 3 girls out of the 5 girls are
5 chosen
# =
4 6 5
1 =
1 3
= 1
11 5 6 5
= = 265
4 4 1 3
# 2
2 =
#
265 53
=
11 66

4

DISTRIBUTING ITEMS IN GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALLY
Sometimes, it is easier to distribute items or entities one at a time rather than in groups.
Example
Three tutors are to share 21 homeworks for marking equally between them.
a) How many homeworks will each tutor get?

There are 21 homeworks, and they need to spread equally between 3 tutors
21
# = =7
3
b) How many different sets of homework could the first tutor receive?
The first tutor has 21 homeworks to choose from, and only needs 7.
21
=
7
= 116280
c) Once the first tutor has received his homeworks, how many different sets of
homework could the second tutor receive?
The second tutor can now pick from 14 homeworks as the first tutor took 7
homeworks, and he requires 7 homeworks.
14
=
7
= 3432
d) Once the first two tutors have received their homeworks, how many different sets of
homework count the third tutor receive?
The third and last tutor needs 7 books but there is only 7 books remaining as the
first two tutors took 14 books between them.
7
=
7
=1
e) How many ways can the homeworks be distributed?
This is essentially an and question, it is basically saying, how ways can the 1 st tutor
and 2nd tutor and 3rd tutor get their homework.
= 1 2 3
21 14 7
=

7 7 7
= 399 072 960

Example 2
Another set of three tutors are to distribute 21 homeworks between them with no restriction
on how many each tutor takes. In how many ways can all of the homeworks be distributed?
This time, each homework now has to be pair up with one of the three tutors, as such each
homework has 3 choices.
= 3 3 3 3 3
21
=3
SELECTION AND ORDERING
For certain questions, it may be easier or required to use combinations and then order the
entities.
Example
A crashed aeroplane contains five Australians, six Sri Lankans, three Indians and six New
Zealanders, in how many ways can we chose:
a) Four Sri Lankans, one Indian and 2 New Zealanders to search to shelter and food?
Since it is an and question, it involves multiplying cases
=
6 3 6
=
4 1 2
= 675
b) Five Australians, four New Zealanders and one Indian and arrange them into a row to
signal to a rescue plane
This requires finding the amount of the combinations and ordering them.
We need to choose 10 people from the selected races and then order them.
= five Australians four New Zealanders one Indian n!
5 6 3
= 10!
5 4 1
= 16 329 600
c) Two Indians, three Australians and a New Zealander and place their skulls into a
well-fell cannibals necklace.
We have to pick 6 people from the selected races, put them in a circle and account
for flipping.
!
=
2
3 5 6 5!
=
2 3 1 2
= 10 800

Mathematical Induction
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
OVERVIEW
Using mathematical induction, we can prove that a particular statement is true for an infinite
set of integers. While the types of problems that require mathematical induction vary, the
process is essentially always the same.
STEPS IN MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Steps in Mathematical Induction
To prove a statement is true for all > 0 (usually 0 = 0) where
STEP 1: Prove that the statement is true for 0
STEP 2: Assume the statement is true for = , where is an integer
STEP 3: Prove that the statement is true for = + 1 using the assumption
STEP 4: Write a concluding statement. The concluding statement is usually as follows:
Hence, the statement is true for = + 1 if it is true for =

By Mathematical Induction, the statement is true for all 0 "
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Prove using mathematical induction that
2 + 4 + 8 + + 2 = 2(2 1) n > 0 where
Solution
When = 1
= 21
=2
= 2(21 1)
= 2(1) = 2 =
Hence, the result is true for = 1

Assume the statement is true for = , where 1 & . That is,
21 + 22 + + 2 = 2(2 1)
NOTE: Remember, you must specify that (or whichever pronumeral you choose) must be
an integer.
We are required to prove the statement is true for = + 1. That is,
RTP:21 + 22 + + 2 + 2+1 = 2(2+1 1)
= 21 + 22 + + 2 + 2+1
= 2(2 1) + 2+1 ( )
= 2 2 2 + 2+1
= 2+1 + 2+1 2
= 2 2+1 2
= 2(2+1 1)
=
NOTE: Whenever you use your assumption, you must quote by assumption
STEP 4: Write a concluding statement.
By Mathematical Induction, the statement is true for all positive integers
Example 2
Prove by mathematical induction that 3 + 2 is divisible by 3 for , 1
When = 1
= 13 + 2(1)
=3
Which is divisible by 3
Hence, the statement is true for = 1

NOTE: Always remember to show that the expression in brackets is an integer as

well
3 + 2 = 3, where
RTP: ( + 1)3 + 2( + 1) = 3, where
= 3 + 3 2 + 3 + 1 + 2 + 2
= 3 + 2 + 3 2 + 3 + 3
= 3 + 3 2 + 3 + 3 ( )
= 3( + 2 + + 1)
Since , are integers, + 2 + + 1 is also an integer
= 3 where = + 2 + + 1
=

By Mathematical Induction, the statement is true for all integers 1

Example 3
Prove that 3 > 2 for all positive integers
When = 1
= 31
= 21
<
Hence, the statement is true for = 1
3 > 2
3 2 > 0

RTP:3+1 > 2+1
Or, RTP:3+1 2+1 > 0
= 3+1 2+1
= 3 3+1 2 2+1
= 2 3+1 2 2+1 + 3+1
= 2(3+1 2+1 ) + 3+1
Since 3+1 2+1 > 0 (by assumption), and 3+1 > 0
2(3+1 2+1 ) + 3+1 > 0

> 0
=

By Mathematical Induction, the statement is true for all positive integers

Angle Between Two Lines
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
OVERVIEW
The angle between two lines is part of the Linear Functions topic, and is an extension topic.
The acute angle between two straight lines is given by:
1 2
tan = | |
1 + 1 2
Where: = angle
1 = gradient of line 1
2 = gradient of line 2
Proof:
Let line 1 have gradient 1 and line 2 have gradient 2 .

Then 1 = tan and 2 = tan
=+ (exterior angle of )
tan = tan( )
tan tan
=
1 + tan tan
1 2
=
1 + 1 2
When tan is positive, is acute.
When tan is negative, is obtuse.
for the acute angle between lines 1 and 2 ,
1 2
tan = | |
1 + 1 2

EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the acute angle between the lines 3 2 + 1 = 0 and 3 = 0.
Solution
3 2 + 1 = 0 3 1

tan = | 2 3 |
3 + 1 = 2 3 1
1+23
3 1 7
+ = =
2 2 9
3 7
So 1 = = tan1 ( )
2 9
3 = 0 = 37 52
= 3
1
=
3
1
So 2 =
3
Example 2
Find the obtuse angle between the lines 5 2 + 6 = 0 and 2 + 4 = 0.
Solution
5 2 + 6 = 0 5
(2)
tan = | 2 |
5 + 6 = 2 5
1 + 2 (2)
5 9
+3 = = | |
2 8
5 9
So 1 = =
2 8
2 + 4 = 9
= tan1 ( )
= 2 + 4 8
So 2 = 2
48 22
9
Obtuse angle = 180 tan1 ( )
8
131 28

Example 3
If the angle between the lines 2 7 = 0 and = + 3 is 25, find two possible values
of , correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
2 7 = 0
2 7 =
1 = 2
= + 3
2 =
2
tan 25 = | |
1 + 2 OR
2 2
tan 25 = tan 25 =
1 + 2 1 + 2
tan 25 (1 + 2) = 2 tan 25 (1 + 2) = 2
tan 25 + 2 tan 25 = 2 tan 25 2 tan 25 = 2
2 tan 25 + = 2 tan 25 2 tan 25 + = 2 + tan 25
(2 tan 25 + 1) = 2 tan 25 (2 tan 25 + 1) = 2 + tan 25
2 tan 25 2 + tan 25
= =
2 tan 25 + 1 2 tan 25 + 1
0.8 36.6

Ratios of a Line
RATIOS OF A LINE
OVERVIEW
A line can be divided up into certain ratios in two ways, internally and externally.
It involves looking at the placement of three collinear points, (1 , 1 ), (2 , 2 ) and .
The line will be divided up into the ratio , with always referring to the first point, and
the second, i.e.

=

Internal Division
Where the line is divided by point which lies on the line itself.
2 + 1 2 + 2
( , )
+ +
External Division
Where the line is divided by point which lies outside the line. It divides the
linear distance from to .
2 1 2 2
( , )

Proof:
Let (, ) be the point dividing the (2 ) = ( 1 )
interval into the ratio : . 2 = 1
2 + 1 = +
Then =
= ( + )
Draw parallel to the -axis. 2 + 1
=
Then = 1 and = 2 . +
Similarly, by drawing perpendicular to the -axis,
2 + 1
it can be shown that =
+
=

1
=
2

Ratios of a Line
EXAMPLES
Example 1
Find the coordinates of the point which divides the interval joining the points (1, 3) and
(6, 7) in the ratio 2: 3.
Solution
= 2, = 3
(1 , 1 ) = (1, 3)
(2 , 2 ) = (6, 7)
2 + 1 2 + 1 2 6 + 3 1 2 7 + 3 3
( , ) = ( , )
+ + 2+3 2+3
12 + 3 14 9
= ( , )
5 5
15 5
= ( , )
5 5
= (3, 1)
Example 2
Find the coordinates of the point which divides the interval joining (4, 6) and (1, 2)
externally in the ratio 5: 3.
Solution
= 5, = 3
2 1 2 1 (5 (1) 3 4) 5 2 3 (6)
( , ) = [ , ]
53 53
5 12 10 + 18
= ( , )
2 2
17
= ( , 14)
2

Asymptotic Curves
ASYMPTOTIC CURVES
OVERVIEW
Asymptotic curves are curves which have one or more asymptotes. Asymptotes are values of
or which the curve will never touch, and generally the curve will approach the asymptote
until it is impossible to see the gap between the asymptote and the curve by eye.
Asymptotes are found in certain graphs, including graphs:
Hyperbola Exponential Logarithmic
Tangent Cosecant Cotangent
DRAWING ASYMPTOTIC CURVES
When drawing an asymptotic curve = ( ), the following method is most appropriate:
1. Determine if the function is odd, even or neither

Odd functions occur when ( ) = ( )
Even functions occur when ( ) = ( )
Neither occurs when none of the above are valid
2. Find any intercepts with the and -axes

Intercepts with the -axis occurs when = 0
Intercepts with the -axis occurs when = 0

Asymptotic Curves
3. Determine the equation of any asymptotes

Vertical asymptotes occur when the denominator of a fraction equals 0
Non-vertical asymptotes occur as
4. Find the coordinates and nature of stationary points

Use the first derivative ( ( ) = ?) for the coordinates
Use the coordinates with the second derivative ( ( ) = ?) for the nature
5. Sketch using the information given and obtained
EXAMPLE
Example
2
Sketch ( ) =
2 9
Solution
Test for odd/even function, or neither:

2
( ) =
2 9
( )2
( ) =
( )2 9
2
= 2
9
= ( )
Even function (i.e. symmetrical)
Intercepts with and -axes:
(0 )2 2
When = 0, (0) = When = 0, =0
( 0 )2 9 2 9
2 = 0
=0
=0
-intercept at (0, 0) -intercept at (0, 0)
Equation of Asymptotes
Vertical Asymptotes when 2 9 = 0
2 = 9
= 9
= 3
asymptotes at 3.
Horizontal Asymptote when

Asymptotic Curves
2
2 2
lim 2 = lim 2
9 9

2 2
1
= lim
9
1 2

1
=
10
=0
asymptote at = 1.
Stationary Points
( 2 9)(2) 2 (2)
( ) =
( 2 9 )2
2 3 18 2 3
=
( 2 9)2
18
=
( 2 9)2
When = 0, 18 = 0
=0
2 )2 (
( 9 18 ) + 18[2( 2 9) 2 ]
() =
[( 2 9)2 ]2
18( 2 9)2 + 72 2 ( 2 9)
=
( 2 9)4
( 2 9)(18 2 + 162 + 72 2 )
=
( 2 9)4
54 2 + 162
=
( 2 9)3
54(0)2 + 162
When = 0, ( ) =
(02 9)3
162
=
(9)3
2
=
9
< 0 maximum turning point

Sketch

Integration by Substitution
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
A lot of the expressions we want to do calculus with are not simple polynomials with which
we can use the table of standard integrals.
When it comes to more complex expressions for differentiation, we have learnt to use the
chain rule to differentiation.
For integration we use the reverse chain rule, or integration by substitution.
SUBSTITUTIONS OF THE FORM = ()
To use integration by substitution, follow the following steps:
STEP 1: Choose an expression in the integral to be , i.e. let = ().

STEP 2: Find = () and write this as = ()

STEP 3: Transform the integral by replacing with . This will create an integral in terms
()
of alone
STEP 4: Integrate the new expression which is in terms of .
STEP 5: Convert the result back in terms of by letting = ().
Note that for Extension 1 exams, the first step will be given by the question.

Example 1
Find the following integral using the substitution = 3 + 2:
3 (3 + 2)5
STEP 1: Choose an expression to be
Let = 3 + 2

STEP 2: Find = () and write this as =
()

=3

= 3

STEP 3: Transform the integral by replacing with
()

3 (3 + 2)5 = 3 5 3
5
=
STEP 4: Integrate the new expression which is in terms of .
6
5 = 6
+
STEP 5: Convert the result back in terms of by letting = ().
6 (3 + 2)6
+ = +
6 6
Hence, we have evaluated the integral as:
(3 + 2)6
3 (3 + 2)5 = +
6
Verify that the integral is correct by differentiating the integral using the chain rule.
(3 + 2)6 6(3 + 2)5

( + ) = 3 ( )+0
6 6
= 3(3 + 2)5

Example 2
Use the substitution = 2 + 4 to find the following integral:
2 2 + 4
a) Find = ( ).
Differentiating:

= 2

=
2
b) Eliminate by replacing it with

()
2 2 + 4 =
c) Evaluate the new integral with respect to .
1
= 2
2 3
= 2 +
3
d) Convert the result back in terms of by letting ( ) = .
2 3 2 3
2 + = ( 2 + 4)2 +
3 3

Example 3
Use the substitution = 2 + 3 to find the following integral:

(2 + 3)6
Let = 2 + 3

= 2

=
2
1
=
(2 + 3)6 2 ( )6
1
= 6
2
1 1
= ( 5 ) +
2 5
1
= (2 + 3)5 +
10
1
= +
10(2 + 3)5

Example 4
Use the substitution = 1 to find the following integral 1

Let = 1

= 1

If = 1 , = 1
1
=
1
1 1
= 2 2
1 3
2
= (22 3 2 ) +
3 1
2
=3 2 22 +
3 1
2
=3 (1 )2 2(1 )2 +
Example 5
Use the substitution = 2 + + 1 to find the integral:
(2 + 1)( 2 + + 1)3
Let = 2 + + 1

= 2 + 1

= (2+1)
(2 + 1)( 2 + + 1)3 = 3
1
=2 2 +
1
=2 ( 2 + + 1)2 +

DEFINITE INTEGRALS
When doing integration by substitution with definite integrals, the domain must also be
changed accordingly to new domain.
Example 1
1
3
Use the substitution = 3 to evaluate 03 6 +1
For = 3

= 3 3 = 3 3

1
= =0
when 3 ,
= =1
1 1
3 3 1 3 3 3
6 = 6
0 +1 3 0 +1
1 1
= 2
3 1 +1
1
= [tan1 ]
3 1
1
= (tan1 tan1 1)
3
1
= (tan1 )
3 4
Example 2
2
Use the substitution = 2 to evaluate 1 (2 )5
For = 2

= 1 = 1 = 2
=2
= =1 =0
2 2
(2 )5 = (2 )5
1 1
0
= (2 )()5
1
1
= 25 6
0
6 7 1
=[ ]
3 7
0
1 1 0 0
= ( )( )
3 7 3 7
4
=
21

Integration by Differentiation
INTEGRATION BY DIFFERENTIATION
Often questions will assist finding complicated integrals by first finding conveniently
appropriate derivatives.
NOTE: Questions will take you through the process of differentiation and then integration.
Example 1
a) Find the derivative of sin

let ( ) = sin
( ) = sin + cos by product rule
b) Hence, find cos
sin + cos = sin + cos
cos = sin + cos sin

= sin ( cos )
= sin + cos +
Example 2
a) Find the derivative of ln

let ( ) = ln
( ) = 1 + ln by product rule
b) Hence find ln
1 + ln = 1 + ln
ln = 1 + ln 1
= ln +

Trigonometric Integration
TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGR ATION
Since we have now established the standard forms of deriving trigonometric functions, we
can use the fundamental theorem of calculus to find the integrals of the basic trig functions.
The fundamental theorem of calculus states that:

( ) = () +

SUMMARY OF STANDARD FORMS OF TRIGONOMETR IC INTEGRATION
Integral of Basic Function Standard Form

1
cos = sin + cos( + ) = sin( + ) +

1
sin = cos + sin( + ) = cos( + ) +

1
sec2 = tan + sec2 ( + ) = tan( + ) +

Proof
a) Find the derivative of = ( + ) by using the Chain Rule

sin( + ) = cos( + )

b) Hence, find the integral of ( + ) by using the Fundamental theorem of Calculus

sin( + ) = cos( + )

sin( + ) = cos( + )
1
cos( + ) = sin( + ) +

Similar results can be proven for cos and tan.

Example 1
Integrate the following
a) sin 3
1
= cos 3 +
3
b) sec 2 (2 1)
1
= tan(2 1) +
2

c) 08 12 cos 4

1 8
= 12 [ sin 4]
4 0

= 3 (sin sin 0)
2
=3
d) cos 2 sin2
= cos 2
1
= sin 2 +
2

Example 2
Integrate the following, using the given substitution
a) cot using = sin

cos = sin
=
sin
= cos
=
= cos
= ln|| + C
= ln|sin | +

b) 02 sin cos using = cos
0
= cos
=
1 = sin
+1
0
= [ ] = sin
+1 1
When = 0, = 1
1
= When = , = 0
+1 2
c) sec 2 cos(tan ) using = tan

= tan
= cos

= sin + C = sec 2

= sin(tan ) + = sec 2

Example 3
a) Differentiate .
Using the product rule

( ) = sin
( ) = sin (1) + (cos )
= cos + sin
b) Hence find the indefinite integral of .
Note the following

sin = cos + sin

sin sin = cos

sin + cos = cos
Therefore, the indefinite integral of cos is sin + cos + .
Example 4
Show that

a) ( 2 ) = 2 + 2 2

sec 2 =
cos 2
(1) cos 2 (2 cos sin )

( sec 2 ) =
cos 4
1 2 sin
= +
cos 2 cos 3
sin 1
= 2 + 2
cos cos 2
2 2
= sec + 2 sec tan
b) Hence find 2

( sec 2 ) = sec 2 + 2 sec 2 tan

2 sec 2 tan = ( sec 2 ) sec 2
1 1
sec 2 tan = sec 2 tan +
2 2

Binomial Theorem
BINOMIAL THEOREM
INTRODUCTION
A binomial is an expression which involves two terms.
In binomial theory, we look at how to find coefficients of expansions such as ( + ) , so

that we can expand them without having to multiply it out times.
It is based upon Pascals triangle.
PASCALS TRIANGLE
Pascals triangle is a number triangle with numbers arranged in staggered rows so that we
are more easily able to write down complicated binomial expansions.
Properties of Pascals triangle are:
The first row is 1

The ends of each row are 1
The expansion of the nth index has (n+1) coefficients
The coefficients are symmetrical
Any coefficient is the sum of the two coefficients above it
Each row starts and ends with 1
The sum of each row is 2n
Proof
Expand the following expressions
a) ( + )0
( + ) 0 = 1
b) ( + )1
( + )1 = +
c) ( + )2
( + )2 = 2 + 2 + 2
d) ( + )3
( + )3 = 3 + 32 + 32 + 3

Binomial Theorem
e) ( + )4
( + ) 4 = ( + )3 ( + )
= (3 + 32 + 32 + 3 )( + )
= 4 + 33 + 32 2 + 3 + 3 + 32 2 + 33 + 4
= 4 + 43 + 62 2 + 43 + 4
f) ( + ) 5
( + ) 5 = ( + )4 ( + )
= (4 + 43 + 62 2 + 43 + 4 )( + )
= 5 + 44 + 63 2 + 42 3 + 4 + 4 + 43 2 + 62 3 + 44 + 5
= 5 + 54 + 103 2 + 102 3 + 54 + 5
g) Write out the first 6 rows of Pascals triangle.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 1 3 3
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
h) What do you notice about the expansions above in relation to Pascals triangle?
The numbers in each row of Pascals triangle match the coefficients of each expansion.
In particular, the ( + 1)th row of Pascals triangle gives the coefficients for the
expansion ( + )
THE FORMULA FOR THE COEFFICIENTS
As the index becomes larger, reading directly off Pascals Triangle and applying it to every
term becomes very hard and long.
The binomial theorem provides a convenient formula to find any term in a binomial
expansion.
The Binomial Theorem
We define the coefficient of , i.e the ( + 1) term, in the expansion of (1 + ) to be

This can also be written as () and is also known as choose .

Binomial Theorem
Proof
a) Write out the fifth line of Pascals Triangle

14641
b) Evaluate
4
I. ( )=1
0
4
II. ( )=4
1
4
III. ( )=6
2
4
IV. ( )=4
3
4
V. ( )=1
4
GENERAL EXPRESSION FOR THE EXPANSION
The expansion of (a+b)n in descending powers of a is given by:

( + ) =
=0

= ( )

=0
That is,

( + ) = 0 0 + 1 1 1 + 2 2 2 + + 1 1 1 + 0

= ( ) 0 + ( ) 1 1 + ( ) 2 2 + + ( ) 1
1
+ ( ) 0
0 1 2 1
Where
NOTE: can be calculated directly from your calculator.

Binomial Theorem
The expansion of (a+b)n in ascending powers of a is given by:

( + ) =
=0

= ( )

=0
That is,

( + ) = 0 0 + 1 1 1 + 2 2 2 + + 1 1 1 + 0

= ( ) 0 + ( ) 1 1 + ( ) 2 2 + + ( 1
) 1 + ( )
0
0 1 2 1
Where
Example
Using the binomial theorem and your calculator, write down the expansion of (1 + )6
(1 + )6 = 6 0 (1)6 + 6 1 (1)5 + 6 2 (1)4 2 + 6 3 (1)3 3 + 6 4 (1)2 4 + 6 5 (1) 5 + 6 6 6

= 1 + 6 + 15 2 + 20 3 + 15 4 + 6 5 + 6
Example 2
1 10
Consider the expansion of (2 + ) . Find an expression for the
a) 4th term
4 = 3+1
1 3
= 10 3 (2 )7 ( )

7
1
= 120 8 3

= 15360 4
b) 7th term
7 = 6+1
1 6
= 10 6 (2 )4 ( )

4
1
= 210 16 6

3360
= 2

c) 9th term
9 = 8+1
1 8
= 10 8 (2 )2 ( )

2
1
= 45 4 8

180
= 6


Binomial Theorem
PROPERTIES OF PASCALS TRIANGLE RELATING TO BINOMIAL THEOREM

Position in row
The superscript n denotes the row
The subscript r denotes the position within the row
NOTE: denotes the ( + 1) position in the ( + 1) row. This is simply because

the first row is the zero, NOT one and the first position is zero, NOT one.
SPECIAL PROPERTIES O F

There a few special cases, which help out with solving binomial problems.

0 = = 1

=
Proof
a) Write out the expansion using the binomial theorem
( + ) = 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 2 + +
b) What happens when = 1, = 0?
When = 1, = 0
(1 + 0) = 0 (1) + 1 (1)1 (0) + 2 (1)2 (0)2 + + (0)

1 = 0
c) What happens when = 0, = 1?
When = 0, = 1
(0 + 1) = 0 (0) + 1 (0)1 (1) + 2 (0)2 (1)2 + + (1)

1 =

Binomial Theorem
d) What happens when = 1, = 1?
When = 1, = 1
(1 + 1) = 0 (1) + 1 (1)1 (1) + 2 (1)2 (1)2 + + (1)

2 = 0 + 1 + 2 +
e) Write out the expansion of ( + ) using the binomial theorem
( + ) = 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 2 + +
f) By comparing the above expansion to the original expansion, prove that =
( + ) = 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 2 + +
( + ) = 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 2 + +
Since ( + ) = ( + ) , the coefficients of each term must be equal
Hence, 0 = , 1 = 1 ,
THE ADDITION PROPERT Y
We know that any number in Pascals triangle is the sum of the two numbers above it. This
can be expressed in notation as follows:
1
= 1 + 1
1 1
( )=( )+( )
1
Proof
a) Show that (1 + ) = (1 + )1 + (1 + )1
= (1 + )
= (1 + )1 (1 + )
= (1 + )1 + (1 + )1
=
b) What is the coefficient of in the expansion (1 + )?
The term with will be the ( + 1)th term
+1 = (1)
Hence, the coefficient will be

Binomial Theorem
c) What is the coefficient of in the expansion (1 + )1 ?
The term with will be the ( + 1)th term
+1 = 1 (1)1
Hence, the coefficient will be 1
d) What is the coefficient of in the expansion (1 + )1 ?
Since we multiply by , the term with will actually be the term with 1 in the
expansion of (1 + ), which is the th term
= 1 1 (1) 1
Hence, the coefficient will be 1 1
e) Hence, show that = 1 1 + 1
Since the two expressions are equal, the coefficients of the term must also be equal
Hence,
= 1 1 + 1
FACTORIAL NOTATION
Whilst we can determine the value of by looking at the corresponding positions in

Pascals triangle or with a calculator, there is in fact a formula for . This formula uses
factorial notation.
Factorial Notation is a method of writing the product of all positive integers from down to 1
!, or -factorial is defined as
! = ( 1) ( 2) 3 2 1
Where 0! = 1
We can further notate it as
! = ( 1)! , for 1
This recursive definition allows us to unroll a factorial, which can be very useful for
questions in which we have factorials on the top or bottom.

Binomial Theorem
Example
Write each of the following factorials as a product, and then evaluate
a) 5!
5! = 5 4 3 2 1
= 120
b) 10!
10! = 10 9 2 1
= 3628800
c) 7!
7! = 7 6 2 1
= 5040
Example 2
Simplify the following expressions without using a calculator

10!
a) 7!
10! 10 9 8 7!
=
7! 7!
= 10 9 8
= 720
5!
b)
7!
5! 5!
=
7! 7 6 5!
1
=
76
1
=
42
c) 4! + 6!
4! + 6! = 4! + 6 5 4!
= 4! (1 + 6 5)
= 4! (1 + 30)
= 4 3 2 1 31
= 24 31
= 744

Binomial Theorem
Example 3
Express as a single fraction
1
+
( 2)! ( 4)!
1 1
+ = +
( 2)! ( 4)! ( 2)( 3)( 4)! ( 4)!
+ ( 2)( 3)
=
( 2)!
+ 2 5 + 6
=
( 2 )!
2
4 + 6
=
( 2 )!
THE FORMULA FOR
Although you can directly calculate from your calculator, you should remember this
formula as it can help solve harder binomial problems.
!
= ( ) =
! ( )!
Example 1
Using the formula for , prove that
a) = 1
= 0
!
=
! ( )!
!
=
! 0!
1
=
1
=
b) =
=
!
=
! ( )!
!
=
( )! [ ( )]!
=
=

Binomial Theorem
Example 2
a) Show that 1 =
()(1)!
!()!
( 1)!
=
! ( 1 )!
( )( 1)!
=
! ( ) ( 1 )!
( )( 1)!
=
! ( )!
=
b) Show that 1 1 = !()!

(1)!
( 1)!
=
( 1)! [ 1 ( 1)]!
( 1 )!
=
( 1)! ( 1 + 1 )!
( 1 )!
=
! ( )!
=
c) Hence, prove that
= 1 1 + 1
= 1 1 + 1
( 1 )! ( )( 1)!
= +
! ( )! ! ( )!
( 1)! + ( )( 1)!
=
! ( )!
( 1)! ( + )
=
! ( )!
( 1)!
=
! ( )!
!
=
! ( )!
= =

Binomial Theorem
SPECIAL VALUES OF WHEN = , ,
There are some special cases that can be used to quickly simplify certain expressions when
solving binomial problems.
0 = = 1
1 = 1 =
1
2 = 2 = ( 1)
2
Proof
a) 0 = 1
!
=
0! 0)!
(
!
=
1 !
=1
=
b) 1 =
!
=
1! 1)!
(
( 1)!
=
1 ( 1)!
=
=
1
c) 2 = 2 ( 1)
!
=
2! ( 2)!
( 1) ( 2)!
=
2 1 ( 2) !
( 1)
=
2
1
= ( 1)
2
=

Binomial Theorem
Example
Find the value of given that
a) 10 = 1
= 10
b) 2 = 36
1
( 1) = 36
2
2 = 72
( 9)( + 8) = 0
= 9 or 8
Since 0, = 9 only
c) 1 = 12
= 12
d) 1 + 2 = 190
1
+ ( 1) = 190
2
2 + 2 = 380
2 + 380 = 0
( + 20)( 19) = 0
= 20 or 19
Since 0, = 19 only

Binomial Theorem
FINDING THE GENERAL TERM AND A SPECIFIC TERM
PRELIMINARY: Label the two expressions in the binomial " and " and determine
STEP 1: Write down an expression for the general term, using the fact that
+1 =
NOTE: The fact that it is the ( + 1)th term is usually irrelevant in these questions
STEP 2: Use index laws to simplify the expression by combining powers of
STEP 3: Find the appropriate value of , and substitute it into the general formula to find the
specific term
Example 1
Find the term in 4 for the expression (2 + 3)9, leaving your answer in index form
PRELIMINARY: Label the two expressions in the binomial " and " and determine
Let = 2, = 3
=9
STEP 1: Write down an expression for the general term, using the fact that +1 =
+1 =
= 9 (2)9 (3)
STEP 2: Use index laws to simplify the expression by combining powers of
+1 = 9 29 3 9
STEP 3: Find the appropriate value of , and substitute it into the general formula to find the
specific term
For the term in 4 ,
9 = 4
9 =4
=5
6 = 9 5 295 35 95
= 126 24 35 4

Binomial Theorem
Example 2
Find the term in 10 in each of the following expansions
a) (1 2 2 )7
Let = 1, = 2 2, = 7
+1 = 7 (1)10 (2 2 )
= 7 (2) 2
For the term in 10 ,
2 = 10
2 = 10
=5
6 = 7 5 (2)5 10
= 67210
3 20
b) (2 + ) (Leave your answer in index notation)
Let = 2, = 3 1
= 20
+1 = 20 (2)20 (3 1 )
= 20 220 3 202
For the term in 10 ,
202 = 10
20 2 = 10
=5
6 = 5 2205 35 2010
= 15504 215 35 10
c) ( 3 + 3)5
Consider the expansion of ( 3 + 3)5
Let = 3 , = 3, = 5
+1 = 5 ( 3 )5 (3)
= 5 3 153
For the term in 10 , we want the term in 9 in the expansion of ( 3 + 3)5
153 = 9
15 3 = 9
=2
3 = 5 2 32 156
= 90 9
Hence, the term in 10 is 90 10

Binomial Theorem
GREATEST TERM AND GREATEST COEFFICIENTS
A recurring question is to find the greatest term or the greatest coefficient. You can see that
in the expansion of (1 + )7, the coefficients rise and fall:
1 + 7 + 21 2 + 35 3 + 35 4 + 21 5 + 7 6 + 1
In fact, the coefficients of binomials always increase then decrease without exception, and
we can use this fact to find the greatest coefficient
STEPS TO FOLLOW FOR GREATEST COEFFICIENT
PRELIMINARY STEP: Let the coefficient of the th term be
STEP 1: Write down expressions for and +1
+1
STEP 2: Note that the coefficients increase if 1 and simplify this expression

STEP 3: Find the largest integer value(s) of for which the inequality holds, and substitute
into +1 to get the greatest coefficient.
Note that if the final inequality results in integer, i.e. 4, then it means there is a
+1
value of for which = 1, and there will be two equal coefficients. In this case, =

3 and = 4 will produce equal coefficients for +1

Binomial Theorem
Example
Find the greatest coefficient in the expansion of (5 + 2 )15, leaving your answer in index
notation
PRELIMINARY STEP: Let the coefficient of be
+1 = 15 515 2
= 15 1 515(1) 21
= 15 1 516 21
+1

+1
The coefficients increase if
1
15 515 2
1
15 1 516 21
15 2
15
1
1 5
!
! (15 )! 5

! 2
( 1)! (16 )!
( 1)! (16 )! 5

! (15 )! 2
16 5

2
32 2 5
7 32
4.6
Since is an integer, the greatest coefficient occurs when = 4
4+1 = 15 4 15154 24
5 = 1365 1511 24
Hence, the greatest coefficient is 1365 1511 24

Binomial Theorem
Example 2
Find the greatest coefficient in the expansion of (3 2 + )19
PRELIMINARY STEP: Let the coefficient of be
+1 = 19 319 1
= 19 319
= 19 1 319(1) 11
= 19 1 320
+1

+1
The coefficients increase if 1

19 319
1
19 1 320
19 1
1
19 1 3
!
! (19 )!
3
!
( 1)! (20 )!
( 1)! (20 )!
3
! (19 )!
20
3

20 3
4 20
5
Since equality occurs at = 5, equal coefficients must occur when = 4 and = 5
4+1 = 19 4 3194
5 = 3876 315
5+1 = 19 5 3195
6 = 11628 314
= 3876 315
Hence, the greatest coefficient is 3876 315

Binomial Theorem
STEPS TO FOLLOW FOR GREATEST COEFFICIENT
The greatest term is very similar to the greatest coefficient.
However in this case, a value of will be specified, or no will be involved at all. The overall
method is identical
PRELIMINARY STEP: Let the th term be
+1
STEP 2: Note that the terms increase if 1 and simplify this expression

STEP 3: Find the largest integer value of for which the inequality holds, and substitute into
+1 to get the greatest term
Example 1
Find the greatest term in the expansion of (2 + 5)12 when = 2, leaving your answer in
1
index notation
1 12
+1 = 12 (2 ) 5
2
= 12 112 5
= 12 5
1 12(1)
= 12 1 (2 ) 51
2
= 12 1 51

Binomial Theorem
+1

+1
The terms increase if 1

12 5
1
12 1 31
12
51
12 1
!
! (12 )! 1

! 5
( 1)! (13 )!
( 1)! (13 )! 1

! (12 )! 5
13 1

5
65 5
6 65
10.8
Since is an integer, the greatest term occurs when = 10
10+1 = 12 10 510
11 = 66 510
Hence, the greatest term is 66 510
Example 2
8
Find the greatest term in the expansion of (2 + 3)

+1 = 8 (2)12 3
1
= 8 1 (2)12(1) 3
1
= 8 1 213 3

Binomial Theorem
+1

+1
The terms increase if 1

8 (2)12 3
1 1
8 1 213 3
8 3
1
8 1 2
!
! (8 )! 2

! 3
( 1)! (9 )!
( 1)! (9 )! 2

! (8 )! 3
9 2

3
93 3 2
(2 + 3) 93
3.5
Since is an integer, the greatest term occurs when = 3
3
3+1 = 8 3 283 3
3
4 = 56 25 3
Hence, the greatest term is 4803
FORMULA FOR THE GREATEST TERM/COEFFICIENT
There is a general formula for the greatest term but, you are not allowed to quote this
formula in an exam, and must prove it each time as above.
The formula may be useful for quickly checking your answer if you wish:
In the expansion ( + ) , the value(s) of for which the greatest term occurs is given by
+1
1


Binomial Theorem
Proof
Consider the expansion of ( + ) . Let the th term be
a) Write down an expression for +1 and for
+1 =
= 1 (1) 1
b) Hence, show that the greatest term occurs when

+1
1

+1
The greatest term occurs when 1

1
1 (1) 1

1
1
!
! ( )!
1
!
( 1)! ( ( 1))!
( 1)! ( + 1)!
1
! ( )!
+1
1

Example

Consider the expansion of (2 3)
1
a) Find the greatest coefficient when = 10
Let the th coefficient be
+1 = 10 210 (31 )
= 10 210 3
= 10 1 210(1) (31 )1
= 10 1 211 31
+1
For the greatest coefficient, 1

10 210 3
1
10 1 211 31
10 1
10
1
1 6

Binomial Theorem
!
! (10 )!
6
!
( 1)! (11 )!
( 1)! (11 )!
6
! (10 )!
11
6

11 6
7 11
< 1.6
Since is an integer, the greatest coefficient occurs when = 1
1+1 = 10 1 2101 31
1
2 = 10 29
3
5120
Hence, the greatest coefficient is 3
b) Find the smallest value of for which the greatest coefficient occurs for the 10th term
(you may assume the formula for the greatest term/coefficient)
+1
1

1
For the greatest coefficient, = 3 , = 2
1
10 + 1 3
1
10 2
9 1
1
10 6
9 60
69
Hence, the smallest value of for which the greatest coefficient occurs for the 10th term
is = 69
c) Given that = 20, find the range of values of for which the greatest term is 6th term (you
may assume the formula for the greatest term/coefficient)
+1
1

1
For the greatest term, = 3 , = 2
1
20 6 + 1 3
1
6 2
15 1
21
6 6

Binomial Theorem
159 36 2
15
2
36
15 15

36 36
d) Given that = 10, find the value(s) of for which the 8th and 9th terms are equal (you may
assume the formula for the greatest term/coefficient)
+1
1

+1 1
For the terms to be equal, = 1, = 3 , = 2

If the 8th and 9th terms are equal, we want = 7 and = 8. Hence, we want equality
when = 8
1
10 8 + 1 3
=1
8 2
3 1
=1
8 6 2
3 = 48 2
1
2 =
16
1
=
4
EQUATING COEFFICIENTS
This process involves expressing the binomial as a product of two other binomial
expressions and equate like terms on the LHS and RHS.
Example
Using the fact that (1 + )2 = (1 + ) (1 + ) and by comparing the coefficients of , prove

that
2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + + ( )
0 1 2 3
(1 + )2 = (1 + ) (1 + )
Using the binomial theorem,
(1 + )2 = (2) + (2) + (2) 2 + (2) 3 + + (2) + + (2) 2

0 1 2 3 2

Binomial Theorem
Using the binomial theorem again,
(1 + ) (1 + ) =

(( ) + ( ) + + ( ) 1 + ( ) ) (( ) + ( ) + + ( ) 1 + ( ) )
0 1 1 0 1 1
Equating the coefficients of from the above two equations,
2
( ) = ( )( ) + ( )( )+ ( )( ) ++ ( )( )+ ( )( )
0 1 1 2 2 1 1 0

Since ( ) = ( )

2
( ) = ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( ) + + ( )( ) + ( )( )
0 0 1 1 2 2 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
= ( ) + ( ) +( ) + ( ) ++ ( )
0 1 2 3
Example 2
By considering the fact that (1 + )9 = (1 + )3 (1 + )6 , prove that
9 6 6 3
( )1 = ( )+3( )+ 6( )
3 3 2 2
(1 + )9 = (1 + )3 (1 + )6
(1 + )9 = (9) + (9) + (9) 2 + (9) 3 + + (9) 8 + (9) 9

0 1 2 3 8 9
(1 + )3 (1 + )6 =
3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6
(( ) + ( ) + ( ) 2 + ( ) 3 ) (( ) + ( ) + ( ) 2 + ( ) 3 + + ( ) 5 + ( ) 6 )
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 5 6
Equating the coefficients of 3 on both sides,
9 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 6
( ) = ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( )
3 0 3 1 2 2 1 3 0
9 6 6 3
( ) = 1( )+3( )+( )6+11
3 3 2 2
9 6 6 3
( )1 = ( )+3( )+ 6( )
3 3 2 2

Further Applications of Calculus
FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF CALCULUS
OVERVIEW
Further Applications of Calculus is essentially applying your basic calculus methods to solve
real life problems. This may involve the use of differentiation or integration.
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
Example 1
Solution:

Further Applications of Calculus
Example 2
Solution:

Related Rates of Change
RELATED RATES OF CHANGE
INTRODUCTION
A rate of change measures the change in one quantity with respect to another quantity.
For example:

Velocity is the change in distance with respect to time =

=
Related rates of change are simply multiple rates of change that are related to each other in
some way.
i.e. it involved using product rule
AREA, VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA

Circle
= 2
= 2
Sphere
4 3
=
3
= 4 2
Cylinder
= 2
= 2 2 + 2
Cone
1 2
=
3
= 2 +
= 2 + 2

Example 1
The amount of water in a dam in kilolitres at a certain time hours past midday is given by
the function
2400
( ) =
+1
a) Find the amount of water in the dam at 2pm
2pm is 2 hours past midday, so = 2
2400
(2 ) =
2+1
2400
=
3
= 800
At 2pm, there is 800kL of water in the dam
b) Find the amount of water lost from the dam between 2pm and 3pm.
3pm is 3 hours past midday, so = 3
2400
(3 ) =
3+1
= 600
(2) (3) = 800 600

= 200
200kL of water is lost frm the dam between 2pm and 3pm
c) Find the rate of flow of water out of the dam at 2pm.
() = 2400( + 1)1
() = 2400( + 1)2
(2) = 2400(2 + 1)2

2400
=
9
800
=
3
800
At 2pm, water is flowing out of the dam at a rate of kL/h
3
NOTE: For a negative derivative, if you write that it is decreasing, then you do not need to
include the sign, such as in the question above. Alternatively, you could say that water is
800
flowing at a rate of kL/h.
3

NOTE: You can use integration for these questions
Example 2
A rock is thrown straight down a cliff such that the rate at which it falls is given

= 3 + 2

where is the distance in metres it has fallen after seconds
a) What is the value of when = 0?
At = 0, the rock has not travelled any distance, so = 0
b) How fast is the rock thrown?

When = 0, =3

The rock is thrown at 3m/s
c) Find an expression for in terms of

= 3 + 2

= 3 + 2 +
When = 0, = 0
0 =0+0+
=0
= 3 + 2

Example 3
A glacier recedes at a rate of 5 + 10 (2) metres per year, where is the number of years
since the start of the year 2000.
a) At what times during the year is the glacier receding the fastest?
The glacier recedes the fastest when cos(2) = 1
2 = 2, where is an integer
=
Hence, it is receding the fastest at the beginning of each year
b) At what times during the year is the glacier receding the slowest?
The glacier recedes the slowest when cos(2) = 1
2 = 2 , where is an integer
1
=
2
Hence, it is receding the slowest halfway through each year
c) Find an expression for , the amount of recession of the glacier in metres, in terms of

= 5 + 10 cos(2)

= 5 + 10 cos(2)

1
= 5 + 10 sin(2) +
2
5
= 5 + sin(2) +

Since there is no recession relative to the start of the year 2000, when = 0, = 0
5
0= sin 0 +

=0
5
= 5 + sin(2)

d) Hence, find exactly how much the glacier has receded by the start of 2050
When = 50
5
= 5(50) + sin(2 50)

5
= 250 + sin 2

= 250
Hence, the glacier has receded by 250m by the start of 2050

STEPS TO SOLVE RELAT ED RATES OF CHANGE QUESTIONS
1. Construct a diagram where needed

2. Write down any rates that are given
3. Determine which rate is needed to be evaluated
4. Use the chain rule of differentiation to express the rate in a convenient form
5. Evaluate the required rate
6. Answer the question
USING THE CHAIN RULE
Given two quantities f and g
PRELIMINARY STEP: Identify your two variables f, and g, and determine whether you are

finding or

STEP 1: Find a relationship between f and g (this may sometimes be given)
STEP 2: Using the chain rule, differentiate the above equation with respect to t
STEP 3: Substitute the given values and hence find the required rate of change
Example 1
Water is dripping into a circular puddle with radius cm. The radius of the puddle is
increasing at 3cm/s. Find the rate at which the area is increasing when the radius is 15 cm
PRELIMINARY STEP: Identify your two variables , and , and determine whether you are

findng or

The two variables are the radius, and the area, .

We are given that is increasing at 3cm/s, so we know that =3

Hence, we are trying to find
STEP 1: Find a relationship between and (this may sometimes be given)
We need to find a relationship between the area of the circle, and the radius.
In this case,
= 2

STEP 2: Using the chain rule, differentiate the above equation with respect to

= = ( 2 )

= 2 3 = 2
= 6
=3

STEP 3: Substitute the given values and hence find the required rate of change

We are asked to find when = 15

When = 15

= 6 15

= 90
Hence, the area is increasing at 80 cm2/s when the radius is 15 cm
Example 2
a) Find , where is the volume of the sphere and is the radius

4
= 3
3
4
= 3 2
3
= 4 2
b) Write down an expression for

1
=

1
=
4 2

c) Hence, find the rate at which the radius is decreasing when the radius is 10cm
The two variables are the volume, and the radius,

We are given that = 100, and need to find

1
= =
4 2
1
= (100) = 100
4 2
25
= 2

When = 10
25
=
(10)2
25
=
100
1
=
4
1
Hence, the radius is decreasing at cm/s
4
d) Find the radius of the circle when the volume is 288cm3
When = 288
4
288 = 3
3
216 = 3
3 = 216
=6
e) Hence, find the rate at which the radius is decreasing when the volume is 288cm3


1
= =
4 2
1
= (100) = 100
4 2
25
= 2

When = 288, = 6
When = 6
25
=
(6)2
25
=
36
25
Hence, the radius is decreasing at cm/s when the volume is 288 cm3
36

Example 3
Water is pouring into an inverted cone at a rate of 50cm3/s. The height of the cone is equal
to twice the radius . Let the volume of the cone be
a) Write down an expression for in terms of and
1
= 2
3
b) Show that

=2

Since we know that is twice
= 2

=2

c) Find the rate at which the height of the water increases when the cone is 10cm high
The two variables are the volume, and the height,


Hence, we need to eliminate

=
2
1 2
= ( )
3 2
1
= 3
12
1
= = (32 )
12
4 2
= 2 50 =
4
200 4
= 2 = 2

= 50

When = 10
200
=
(102 )
200
=
100
2
=

2
Hence, the height is increasing at cm/s


d) Find the rate at which the radius of top of the water increases when the radius is 10cm


Hence, we need to eliminate
= 2
1
= 2 (2)
3
2
= 3
3
2
= = (3 2 )
3
1 = 2 2
= 50 1
2 2
25 =
= 2 2 2

= 50

When = 10
25
=
(102 )
25
=
100
1
=
4
1
Hence, the radius is increasing at cm/s
4
NOTE: When given three variables involved in a related rates question. Find a relationship
between two of them, and substitute that to make it two variables. To decide which variable
to eliminate, simply look at which rate of change is required to be found.

Inverse Functions and the Inverse Trigonometric Functons
INVERSE FUNCTIONS AND THE INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTONS
OVERVIEW
Considering two operations such that each is the reverse of the other. This is the main
concept behind inverse functions.
It uses the notation 1 () to represent an inverse function and the more formal definition
is:
[ 1 ( )] =
A function and its inverse function can cancel each other out.
We find an inverse function
Simply swap the x and y around in the equation

Then rearrange to make y the subject of the equation.
= ( )
(1, 1)
However, the inverse of a function is not necessarily a function, it needs to pass the
horizontal line test.
If any horizontal cut the graph more than once, then we must apply a domain restriction to
the original function f(x) for the inverse function, 1 () to exist.
as for some y value there are more than one x value.

DOMAIN AND RANGE
Since we are interchanging and , it should be clear that the domain of the function,
becomes the range of the inverse function and the range of the function becomes the
domain of the inverse function
For a function, ( ) which has domain and range () () (), the inverse
relation will have
Domain: () (),
Range: 1 ()
Example
Consider the function = + 5
a) Find the domain and range of the function = + 5
Domain: all real
Since > 0,
+ 5 > 5
>5
b) Find the inverse function
The inverse function has equation
= + 5
5 =
= ln( 5)
c) State the domain and range of the inverse function
Domain: > 5
Range: all real

INCREASING AND DECRE ASING FUNCTIONS
We define an increasing and decreasing function as follows:
The function ( ) is an increasing function if every chord within the curve slopes upwards
( ) < ( ), <
In terms of calculus, the first derivative is always positive (or zero)
( ) 0
A decreasing function is defined similarly;
The function ( ) is a decreasing function if every chord within the curve slopes downwards
( ) < ( ), <
In terms of calculus, the first derivative is always negative (or zero)
( ) 0
For a curve that is always increasing or decreasing, it is clear that no horizontal line will cut
it more than once.
Increasing or Decreasing Functions and their Inverse Functions
The Inverse of an increasing or decreasing function is a function.
Furthermore, the inverse of an increasing function is increasing and the inverse of a

decreasing function is decreasing.

RESTRICTING THE DOMAIN
When we want a function that does not pass the horizontal line test to have an inverse
function, we can restrict the domain so that the function is either always increasing or
decreasing.
This is equivalent to finding the segments of curves that are bounded by stationary points.
Proof
The graph below shows = ( ), where ( ) = 2
a) Does this function have an inverse function? Give reasons for your answer
The graph will fail the horizontal line test, so it does not have an inverse function
b) For what values of will the function have an inverse function?
The function will have an inverse when a horizontal line passes through it only once
This will occur on either side of the turning point at = 0, ie:
For 0 or for 0
Alternatively, it will have an inverse function when ( ) 0 or ( ) 0

c) What is the range of the function for the above values of ?
d) Find the inverse relation
Let = 2
The inverse has equation
= 2
=
e) What is the domain and range of the inverse function?
Domain: 0
Range: 0 or 0
f) Hence, find the equation of the inverse function if the domain is restricted to 0
If 0, then the range of the inverse function is 0
Hence, the inverse has equation =

Example
Consider the function ( ) = ( 4)2
a) Find ( )
( ) = 2 ( 4 )
b) Hence, find the largest domain for which ( ) will have an inverse function
( ) will have an inverse function if ( ) 0 or () 0.
That is, 4 or 4
The largest domain for which ( ) has an inverse function is 4
c) Find the equation of the inverse function for this domain
Let = ( 4)2
Then its inverse is given by
= ( 4)2
= ( 4)
= + 4
Since the domain of the function is restricted to 4, the range of the inverse function
is restricted to 4
Hence, the inverse function is = + 4

Question 12
Consider ( ) = 2 ( )
1
a) Prove that ( ) > 0 for all
1
( ) = ( + )
2
Since > 0 and > 0, for all ,
( ) > 0 for all
b) Find 1 ()
Since the function is increasing, it has an inverse function
The inverse function is given by
1
= ( )
2
2 1
2 =

2 2 1 = 0
2 4 2 + 4
=
2
2 + 4 2 + 4
= ( > 0)
2
= ln( + 2 + 1)

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
Because of the periodic nature of the trigonometric functions, all of them will fail the
horizontal line test. For example, the Sine graph is shown below
2 3
0 3 2
2 2
2 2
1
We need to restrict the domain of the trigonometric functions points so that they have
inverse functions. We select the domain by noting that
The segment will lie between two stationary points
The acute angles should be included, as they are the most commonly used, ie: the domain

contains the interval 0 2

THE INVERSE SIN FUNCTION

2 2
Definition of
y = sin1 is defined to be the inverse function of the restricted function = sin , where

2 2
1 1
0
Properties of =
Domain: 1 1

Range: 2 2
Symmetry: Odd Symmetry

THE INVERSE COS FUNCTION
0 3 2
2 2
Definition of
= cos 1 is defined to be the inverse function of the restricted function: = cos ,

where 0
-1 1
1 0 1
Properties of =
Domain: 1 1
Range: 0

THE INVERSE TAN FUNCTION
3 0 3

2 2 2 2
Definition of
= tan1 is defined to be the inverse function of the restricted function: = tan , where

<< 2
2
Properties of = tan1
Domain: All

Range: 2 < < 2
Symmetry: Odd Symmetry

Asymptotes: = 2

INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC NOTATIONS

= sin1 means = sin , where 2 2
= cos 1 means = cos , where 0

= tan1 means = tan , where 2 < < 2
TRIGONOMETRY OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRY

sin(1 ( )) = for 1 1 sin1 (( )) = for 2 2
cos( 1 ( )) = for 1 1 cos 1 (( )) = for 0

tan(1 ( )) = for all real x tan1 (( )) = for 2 2
Example
Evaluate the following, giving your answer in radians
a) sin1 (1)

sin1 (1) = Let = sin1 (1)
2
sin = 1,
2 2
1
b) tan1 ( 3)

1 1
Let = tan1 ( 3)
tan1 ( )=
3 6 1
tan = , < <
3 2 2
1
c) cos 1 ( 2)

1 1
Let = cos 1 ( 2)
cos 1 ( )=
2 4 1
cos = ,0
2
3
d) sin1 ( 2 )
3
sin1 (
3
)=
Let = sin1 ( 2 )
2 3
3
sin = ,
2 2 2

e) cos 1 (sin 3 )
3
cos 1 (sin ) = cos 1 ( )
3 2 3
Let = cos 1 ( 2 )

= 3
6 cos = ,0
2

f) sin1 (tan 4 )

sin1 (tan ) = sin1 (1)
4
Let = sin1 (1)
=
2 sin = 1,
2 2

Example 2
a) Evaluate (1 (1))
tan(tan1 (1)) = tan Let = tan1 (1)

= tan ( ) tan = 1 < <
4 2 2
= 1
b) Evaluate 1 ( 4 )
3
3
tan1 (tan ) = tan1 (1)
4
Let = tan1 (1)
=
4 tan = 1, < <
2 2
Example 3
With the aid of a diagram, evaluate the following
NOTE: Remember, an inverse trigonometric function is an angle
a) sin(tan1 2)
Let = tan1 2 where is acute
By Pythagoras, the hypotenuse is 5

5
1
sin(tan 2) = sin 1
2
=
5
1
b) cos (tan1 ( 3))
2
1
We can see that the angle tan1 ( ) lies in the fourth quadrant, so we know the
3
1
expression is positive. So consider the related angle (. . tan1 ( ))
3
1
Let = tan1 (3)
By Pythagoras, the hypotenuse is 10

1 1 10
cos (tan1 ( )) = cos (tan1 ( ))
3 3 1
= cos
3
=
10
3

c) sin(cos 1 )
Let = cos 1
By Pythagoras, the third side is 1 2 1
sin(cos 1 ) = sin 1 2
1 2
=
1
= 1 2

Example 4
a) Evaluate (1 5), (1 13)

4 12
4
Let = sin1 5
By Pythagoras, the third side is 3

5
4
cos (sin1 ) = cos 4
5
3
=
5
12
Let = sin1 13 3
By Pythagoras, the third side is 5
12 13
cos (sin1 ) = cos
13 12
5
=
13

5
b) Hence, simplify
4 12
( 1 + 1 )
5 13
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin 4

4 12 = sin1
5
sin (sin1 + sin1 ) 12
5 13 = sin 1
4 12 4 12 13
= sin (sin1 ) cos (sin1 ) + cos (sin1 ) sin (sin1 )
5 13 5 13
4 5 3 12
= ( )( ) + ( )( )
5 13 5 13
20 36
= +
65 65
56
=
65

CURVE SKETCHING INVO LVING INVERSE TRIG
You can sketch many graphs using simple transformations (shifting, reflecting, stretching).
The table below shows the effect of each transformation:
To: You need to:

Shift the curve to the left (right) units Replace with
Shift the curve up (down) units Add to (): ( ) +
Stretch the curve vertically by a factor of Multiply ( ) by . Note that if > 1, it will be
magnified and if < 1 it will be diminished
1
Stretch the curve horizontally by a factor of Multiply by a factor of . If > 1 then the curve will
be compressed horizontally and if < 1 the curve will
be stretched
Reflect the curve about the axis Multiply () by 1
Reflect the curve about the axis Replace with
Example 1
a) Sketch the graph of = 1 , showing all important information
1 0 1

b) Hence, sketch the graphs of

i) = sin1 + 2
This is the graph of = sin1 shifted up by

units.
2

Hence, the new range is 0 , and the
2
domain remains unchanged
1 0 1
ii) = sin1 2
This is the graph of = sin1 reflected

1
about the -axis, as well as stretched horizontally by a factor of 1 or 2
2
Hence, the new domain is 2 2 and the range remains unchanged
2 0 2
iii) = 3 sin1 ( 1)
This is the graph of = sin1 stretched vertically by a factor of 3 and shifted to the
left by 1 unit
3
The new domain is 2 0 and the new range is 0 2
3
2
0 1 2
3

2

Example 2
Sketch the graphs of
NOTE: Because there are no endpoints on the inverse tan graph, make sure to mark a

lock in point on the graph to show the domain (usually the point corresponding to (1, 4 )
on the basic graph is the easiest).
a) = tan1

4
0
1 1

4
b) = 4 tan1 +
This is the graph of = tan1 stretched horizontally by a factor of 4 and shifted up by

units
The new range is 3, and the domain remains unchanged
The graph now passes through (1, 0) and (1, 2)
1 0 1


c) = tan1 ()
1
This is the graph of = tan1 stretched horizontally by a factor of 1 or

The domain and range remain unchanged

The graph now passes through (, 4 ) and (, 4 )
0

4

2

DIFFERENTIATION
sin1

Given = sin1 , 2 2 , then:
1
sin1 =
1 2
Using the Chain Rule,
1
sin1 =
1
2
Proof
Let = sin1

Then = sin , where
2 2

So = cos

Using the pythagorean identity sin2 + cos 2 = 1 ,

cos = +1 sin2 (since y is in the 1st and 4th Q)
= 1 2 (since = sin )

So = 1 2

1
And =
1 2

Given = cos 1 , 0 , then:
1
cos 1 =
1 x 2
Using the Chain Rule
1
cos 1 =
1
2

Proof
Let = cos 1
Then = cos , where 0

So = sin

Using the pythagorean identity sin2 + cos2 = 1,
sin = +1 cos 2 (since y is in the 1st and 2nd Q)
= 1 2 (since = cos )

So = 1 2

1
And =
1 2
tan1

Given = tan1 , 2 2 , then:
1
tan1 =
1 + 2
Using the Chain Rule,
1
tan1 =
1 + 2
Proof
Let = tan1

Then = tan , where
2 2

So = sec 2

= 1 + tan2 (Using the identity sec 2 = 1 + tan2
= 1 + 2 (since = tan )
1
Hence =
1 + 2

Example
Prove the following standard forms of differentiation

1
a) sin1 =
2 2
1
(sin1 ) = Let =
1 2
1 1 1
(sin 1
)= Then =
2
1 ( )

1
=
2
1 2

1
=
2 2
1
b) cos1 =
2 2
1
(cos 1 ) = Let =
1 2
1 1 1
(cos 1 ) = Then =
2
1 ( )

1
=
2
1 2

1
=
2 2

c) tan1 = 2+ 2

1
(tan1 ) = Let =
1+ 2
1 1 1
(tan 1
)= Then =
2

1 + ( )
1
=
2
(1 + 2 )

= 2
+ 2

SUMMARY OF DERIVATIVE OF INVERSE TRIG
Basic Derivative Linear Extension Standard Form
1
= sin1 ( + ) = sin1 =
1 ( + )2 2
2
1
= cos 1 ( + ) = cos 1 =
2 2
1 ( + )2

tan1 = 2
= tan1 ( + ) = + 2
+ 1 + ( + )2
Example
Differentiate each of the following with respect to :
a) ( ) = sin1 2
1 = 2
(sin1 ) =
1 2
=2
1
(sin1 2) = 2
1 (2)2
2
=
1 4 2
b) = cos 1 (3 + 6)
1 = 3 + 6
(cos 1 ) =
1 2
=3
1
(cos 1 (3 + 6)) = 3
1 (3 + 6)2
3
=
2
1 9 36 36
3
=
2
9 36 35

c) = tan1 2
1 = 2
(tan1 ) =
1 + 2
1 = 2
(tan1 2 ) = 2
1 + ( 2 )2
2
=
1 + 4
d) = 3 sin1 2
() = + = 3
3 1 2 2 = 3 2
( sin ) = 3 2 (sin1 2 ) + 3
1 4 = sin1 ( 2 )
2 4 2
= 3 2 sin1 2 + =
1 4 1 4
tan1
e) =
= tan1
( ) = 1
2 =
1 1 + 2
tan1 ( ) ( ) (tan1 )(1)
( )= 1 + 2 =
( )2 = 1
1
2 tan
=1+ 2

(1 + 2 ) tan1
=
2 + 4
f) = ln (sin1 )
1
= ln(sin1 )2
1
= ln(sin1 )
2
1 = sin1
ln = 1

1 1 1 1 =
( ln(sin1 )) = 1 1 2
2 2 sin 1 2
1
=
2 sin 1 2
1

BASIC STANDARD FORMS OF INTEGRATION
These integrals are considered to be standard integrals and are given to you:

= sin1 + , cos 1 +
1 2

= tan1 +
1 + 2
1
= sin1
+ , cos 1 +
2

2
1 1
2 = tan1 +
+ 2
Proof
a) Show that
1 1 1
= 2

2 2 1()

1 1
=
2 2 2
2 (1 2 )

1
=
2
1 ( )
1 1
=
2
1 ( )

b) Hence, using the substitution = , show that

1
= 1 +
2 2

1 1
=
1 1
Let =
2 1 2
1 ( ) 1
=

1
= =
1 2
= sin1 +

= sin1 ( ) +


c) Similarly, using the substitution = , show that 2+ 2 = 1 +
1 1
1 1
=
2 + 2 2
2 [1 + () ]
1 1
= 2
2
1 + ( )

1

1
=
1 1
Let =
2
2 1 + 2 2
1 + ( ) 1
=
1 1
= 2

1+ =
1 1
=
1 + 2
1
= tan1 +

1
= tan1 ( ) +

Example 1
Integrate the following expressions

a) 4+ 2
1
=
22 + 2
1
= tan1 +
2 2
1
b)
25 2
1
=
52 2

= sin1 +
5
1
c) , using a different integral to the previous question
25 2
1
=
52 2
1
=
52 2

= cos 1 +
5

Example 2
Evaluate the following

4
a) 0
16 2
2

=
42 2
0
2
= [sin1 ]
20
2 0
= sin1 sin1
2 2
= sin1 1 sin1 0

= 0=
2 2
3 1
b) 0 2 +9

3 1
=
0 2 + 32
1 3
= [ tan1 ]
3 3 0
1 3 1 0
= tan1 tan1
3 3 3 3
1 1 1
= tan1 tan1 0
3 3 3
1 1
= 0
3 6 3

=
18
Example 3
Integrate the following using the given substitution

a) using = 2
1 4
Let = 2
=
1 4 1 2 2
1 1 = 2
=
1 2 2
1 1 =
= 2
2 12 2
1
= sin1 +
2
1
= sin1 2 +
2

3
b) 1 using =
3 (1+)
Let =
3 3
1
= 2
1 (
1 + ) 1 ( 1 + 2) = 2
3 3 1
3 1 =
= 2 2
1 12 + 2 = 2
3
= 2
= 2[tan1 ]13 1 1
When = 3 , =
3 3

= 2( ) When = 3, = 3
3 6

=
3
Example 4
a) Find the derivative of ( ) = 1 1 2
() = + =
1 = 1
( ) = (1)(cos 1 ) + ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 = cos 1
1
= cos 1 + =
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 1
= cos 1
(1 2 ) = (2)(1 2 )2
2

=
1 2
b) Hence, find 1

( cos 1 1 2 ) = cos 1

cos 1 = ( cos 1 1 2 )

cos 1 = ( cos 1 1 2 )
= cos 1 1 2 +

Projectile Motion
PROJECTILE MOTION
OVERVIEW
In this section we will investigate the motion of a particle that is projected in any direction
and subject only to gravitational acceleration.
Note: In Extension 1 Mathematics, any effect of air resistance is ignored.
The motion is considered entirely in the vertical plane containing the direction of the
initial velocity. The angle of projection (angle of elevation) is the angle at which the
particle is projected, measured with respect to the horizontal axis.
The Horizontal range [r] on the horizontal plane is the distance between the point of
projection and the point where the particle meets the horizontal plane through the
point of projection.
The maximum height (h), also known as the apex of the projectile, is the maximum
height the projectile have during its trajectory.
Note: Under Gravity, any particle fired at an angle to the horizontal (where 0 < < ) will
travel in a parabolic path (trajectory).
The point of projection I chosen as the Origin, the initial velocity of the projectile is
V/u
The moving particle is affected only by the acceleration due to gravity, which has a
magnitude 2 directed vertically down.
In most projectile motion questions the value of g is given to be
10 2
As the angle of projection is , from the diagram we find that u has two
components:
cos (Horizontal velocity component)
sin (vertical velocity component)
Thus = 0 & = -g defines the motion in the horizontal and vertical directions
respectively.
Projectile Diagram:
http://1millionmo
nkeystyping.files.w
ordpress.com/201
3/11/projectile-
motion1.jpg

Projectile Motion
DRAWING VECTOR DIAGRAMS
Note: Firstly draw a vector diagram to determine the horizontal and vertical velocity
components of the projectile. This process must be done in any projectile question as the
components are required to derive the 6 equations of motion.
DERIVING HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT COMPONENTS: (USING INTEGRAT ION)
= 0 (integrate with respect to t)

=
= 0 =
=
= (integrate with respect to t)
= +
= 0 = 0
=0
=
DERIVING VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT COMPONENT S: (USING INTEGRATIO N)
= (Integrate with respect to t to get verticle velocity component)

= +
= 0 =
=
= + (Integrate with respect to t to get vertical displacement component)
2
= + +
2
= 0 = 0
= 0

= +


Projectile Motion
THE 6 GENERAL EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion
= =
= = +
2
= = +
2
Note: In HSC or in any other Exam, if youre presented with a projectile motion question,
youll be required to prove the above equations if not stated.
DERIVATION OF TIME O F FLIGHT

The time of flight is the time the projectile is in the air for.
= 0
DERIVATION OF RANGE
The range is the total distance the projectile travels for before it lands.
= =
DERIVATION OF TIME TAKEN TO REACH MAXIMUM HEIGHT
= 0
DERIVATION OF MAXIMUM HEIGHT
2
= +
2

Projectile Motion
FINDING THE CARTESIAN EQUATION
2
: = = +
2
Note: In HSC or in any other Exam, if youre presented with a projectile motion question,
youll be required to prove the above equations if not stated.
DIRECTION OF MOTION
The direction of motion depends on the velocity of the projectile, or the gradient of the
Cartesian equation.
To find v and , use trigonometry. (Basic SOHCAHTOA Rules)

In most scenarios, we assume that upwards is positive. Thus, if the arrow of vy is
pointing downwards, it needs a negative sign.
FINDING SLANTED PLAT FORM LENGTH (HARDER PROJECTILE MOTION EXAM

QUESTIONS)
Finding Length of OR:

. (, )

. =
. = +
. =
. =

Projectile Motion
PAST EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
CSSA 2004 TRIAL HSC EXAM QUESTION 7(B)
SOLUTION 7(B):

Projectile Motion
HSC 2012 QUESTION 14(B)
Common projectile motion exam questions will ask the student to prove a certain equation,
as shown in the above question in part (i) and in part (ii).

Projectile Motion
SOLUTION 14(B):

Simple Harmonic Motion
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
INTRODUCTION
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is a form of oscillatory motion i.e. motion where a particle
moves back and forth about a centre or equilibrium indefinitely.
An object is in SHM if the acceleration of the particle is proportional to its displacement but
in the opposite direction
Simple Harmonic Motion about the origin is characterised by the equation:
= 2
Proof
a) Show that = ( + ) satisfies the equation = 2
= cos( + )
= sin( + )
= 2 cos( + )
= 2
b) Show that = ( + ) satisfies the equation = 2
= sin( + )
= cos( + )
= 2 sin( + )
= 2
There are, in fact, three general solutions
The cosine function: = cos( + )
The sine function: = sin( + )
A combination of the two: = sin + cos
The third can be changed to one of the first two using the auxiliary angle method
The displacement-time equation of a particle moving in SHM with the centre at the
origin is:
= cos( + ) = sin( + )
where , are positive constants and is a positive or negative constant.

Example
A particle moves with its motion given by the equation = 3 (2 + 2 ) where 0.

a) Show that the motion of the particle is SHM

= 3 sin (2 + )
2

= 6 cos (2 + )
2

= 12 sin (2 + )
2
= 4
This satisfies the differential equation = 2 with = 2,
Hence, the particle is in simple harmonic motion.
b) Find the velocity of the particle and hence find when and where the particle is first at
rest.

= 6 cos (2 + )
2
When = 0

0 = 6 cos (2 + )
2

0 = cos (2 + )
c)
2
Using the general solution,
d)

2 + = 2 where
2 2
2 = 2 = 2
1
= = ( )
2
Hence the smallest non-negative is that given by the first equation when = 0, i.e. =
0.

When = 0, = 3 sin (2 0 + 2 ) = 3
The particle is first at rest at = 0 at = 3

c) Find the acceleration of the particle and hence find when and where acceleration of the
particle is first 0

= 12 sin (2 + )
2
When = 0

0 = 12 sin (2 + )
2

0 = sin (2 + )
2
Using the general solution,

2 + = , where
2

2 =
2

=
2 4

Hence, the smallest non-negative occurs when = 1, i.e. = 4

When = 4 , = 3 sin ( 2 + 2 ) = 0

The acceleration of the particle is first 0 at = seconds and at = 0
4
Example 2
The motion of a particle is described by = , where is the displacement after

seconds. Prove that the motion is Simple Harmonic
= cos sin
= sin cos
= cos ( sin )
= cos + sin
= (cos sin )
=
This satisfies the equation = 2 where = 1
Hence, the motion is simple harmonic

AMPLITUDE, PERIOD AN D PHASE
In the displacement-time equations = cos( + ) and = sin ( + ), we can determine:
Amplitude (maximum distance from centre of oscillation):
2
Period (time taken to complete an oscillation):
Initial Phase (representing where in oscillation the motion starts):
Example
For each of the following equations, state the amplitude, period, and phase
a) = 3 cos( )
=3
2
=
1
= 2
Initial phase =
1
b) = 2 sin (2 + 4 )
1
=
2
2
=
2
=

Initial phase =
4

c) = 2 cos (2 + )
=2
2
=
1
2
= 4
Initial phase =
d) = 5 sin(2 + 1)
=5
2
=
2
=
Initial phase = 1

Example 2
A particle oscillates in simple harmonic motion given by the equation

= 2 sin ( + )
2 6
a) Find the amplitude of the motion.
=2
b) Find , the period of oscillation.
2
=

2
=
1
2
= 4
c) Find the initial phase of the motion.

The initial phase of the motion is the constant = 6.
d) Hence, sketch the graph of the displacement-time function.
Sketching the graph, we know that the initial displacement of the particle is 1 and so we
construct the sine curve from there, with period 4 and amplitude 2:

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY & ACCELERATION
By examining the following equations, we can make some generalizations about SHM.
= sin = 2 sin
= cos
Proof
a) What is the velocity of the particle when = 0?
When = 0, =
When = ,
= cos
=
b) What are the maximum and minimum values for ?
Since 1 cos 1,
c) What is the acceleration of the particle when = 0?
Using the fact that = 2
When = 0, = 0
d) What is the displacement of the particle when = 0?

When = 0, = + 2

When = + 2

= sin [ ( + )]
2
=
e) What is the acceleration of the particle when = 0?
When = 0, =
= 2 ()
= 2
f) What are the maximum and minimum values of ?
Since 1 sin 1, 2 2
We can summarise (and generalise) this in the following table for simple harmonic motion:
Displacement Velocity Acceleration

Min/Max Zero Max/Min
Zero Min/Max Zero

Example
A particle moves with its motion given by the equation
= 2 sin 3
Where 0
a) Show that the motion of the particle is SHM
= 6 cos 3
= 18 sin 3
= 9
b) State the amplitude and the period of motion
The amplitude is 2
2 2
= =
3
c) Find the first two times at which the particle is stationary and the displacement at these
times.
The particle is stationary when = 0, i.e.

0 = 6 cos 3

3 = + ( )
2

= +
3 6
The first two times are at = 0, 1:

= ,
6 2

When = 6 , = 2 sin ( 2 ) = 2
3
When = 2 , = 2 sin ( 2 ) = 2

The particle is stationary at = at = 2, and again at = at = 2
6 2
d) Find the first two times at which the particle has maximum speed and, the acceleration,
velocity and displacement at these times
The particle will have minimum/maximum velocity (i.e. maximum speed) when
acceleration is
When = 0:
0 = 18 sin 3
3 = ( )

=
3
The first two times are at = 0,1:

= 0,
3

When = 0, When = 3 ,
= 0, = 6, = 0 = 0, = 6, = 0

Example 2
The motion of a particle is given by the equation:
= sin + cos
a) Find the velocity of the particle in terms of time.
= cos sin
b) Find the value of , , given that the period of motion is and initially the particle has a
displacement of 4 and a velocity of 6.
2
=

2
=

=2
When = 0, = 4:
4 = sin(2 0) + cos(2 0)
4=
When = 0, = 6:
6 = 2 cos(2 0) 2 sin(2 0)
6 = 2
= 3
Hence, = 3, = 4, = 2
c) When does the particle first reach origin? Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places
= 3 sin 2 + 4 cos 2
When = 0
0 = 3 sin 2 + 4 cos 2
3 sin 2 = 4 cos 2
sin 2 4
=
cos 2 3
4
tan 2 =
3
4
2 = tan1
3
1 4
= tan1
2 3
0.464
d) Find the amplitude of the particle by using the auxiliary angle method.
let 4 cos 3 sin 2 = cos(2 + ) , > 0
4 cos 3 sin 2 = cos 2 cos sin 2 sin
Equating coefficients,
cos = 4
sin = 3
2 cos 2 + 2 sin2 = 42 + 32
2 = 25
=5
Hence, the amplitude is 5
MOTION ABOUT AN ARBITRARY CENTRE
Often the equilibrium of a particle is not the origin. In this case, the displacement-time
graph is just the normal SHM graph shifted vertically by some constant.
Simple Harmonic Motion about the origin is characterised by the equation:
= 2 ( )
There are, in fact, three general solutions
The cosine function: = cos( + ) +
The sine function: = sin( + ) +
A combination of the two: = sin + cos +
The displacement-time equation of a particle moving in SHM with the centre at the
origin is:
= cos( + ) + = sin( + ) +
where , are positive constants and is a positive or negative constant.

Example
The equation of motion of a particle is
= cos 2
a) Show that the particle is undergoing simple harmonic motion.
= cos 2
= sin
= cos
Since + 2 = cos
= ( + 2)
Which is of the form = 2 ( ), where = 1, = 2
Hence, the motion is simple harmonic
b) State the centre of motion, period, and amplitude
The centre of motion is = 2
The period is 2
The amplitude is 1
c) Sketch the displacement time graph of the motion of the particle.
0 3
2
2 2
1

Example 2
A particle is undergoing simple harmonic motion about the point = 7. The motion of the
particle has a period of 2 and initially travelling with velocity of 2 at the origin. Suppose
that the displacement of the particle at time is given by
= sin + cos +
a) Find the values of , , and
Since the centre of motion is = 7, = 7
2
=

2
=
2
=1
= sin + cos + 7
When = 0, = 0
0 = sin 0 + cos 0 + 7
+7 =0
= 7
= sin 7 cos + 7
= cos + 7 sin
When = 0, = 2
2 = cos 0 + 7 sin 0
=2
Hence, = 2, = 7, = 1, = 7
b) Using the auxiliary angle method, show that = 53 ( 1 ) + 7

7
2
= 2 sin 7 cos + 7
Let 2 sin 7 cos = sin( ) , > 0

2 sin 7 cos = sin cos cos sin
Equating coefficients,
cos = 2
sin = 7
2 cos 2 + 2 sin2 = 22 + 72

2 = 53
= 53, > 0
7
tan =
2

Since sin , cos , tan > 0, 0 2
7
= tan1
2
7
2 sin 7 cos = 53 sin ( tan1 )
2
1
7
= 53 sin ( tan )+7
2
c) Hence, find when the particle first reaches maximum speed
The particle reaches maximum speed when it is at its centre of motion, ie: when = 7
7
7 = 53 sin ( tan1 ) + 7
2
1
7
sin ( tan )=0
2
7
tan1 = ,
2
Taking the first positive solution,
7
tan1 =0
2
7
= tan1
2
7
The particle first reaches maximum speed after tan1 2 seconds

EXPRESSIONS FOR ACCELERATIONS
For different questions, we may need different ways of express accelerations for equations
given.
2
= =
2
1 2
= [ ]
2
Proof
a) Using the chain rule, show that =

=

=

=

b) Show that = (2 2 )
1
1 2
= ( )
2
1
= 2
2
=
=
c) Hence, prove that = (2 2 )

1

=

1 2
= ( )
2
1 2
= ( )
2

VELOCITY AS A FUNCTION OF DISPLACEMENT
The velocity of a particle undergoing SHM such that = 2 is given by
2 = 2 (2 2 )
Proof
a) Using the fact that = (2 2 ), show that 2 = 2 2 + , where is a constant

1
1 2
( ) = 2
2
1
( 2 ) = 2
2
1
( 2 ) = 2
2
1 2 2 2
= +
2 2
2 = 2 2 + ,
b) By evaluating the constant, show that 2 = 2 (2 2 ), where is the amplitude
We know that when the particle is at the extremes, it is at rest
Hence, when = , = 0
0 = 2 ()2 +
0 = 2 2 +
= 2 2
2 = 2 2 + 2 2
= 2 ( 2 2 )
c) Suppose that the displacement of the particle is given by = ( + ). Using a ddifernt

method from above, show that 2 = 2 (2 2 )
= cos( + )
= [ sin( + )]
= sin( + )
2 = 2 2 sin2 ( + )
= 2 2 [1 cos 2 ( + )]
From = cos( + )

cos( + ) =

2
cos 2 ( + ) = 2

2
2 = 2 2 (1 )
2
= 2 ( 2 2 )
d) What would be the velocity-displacement equation of a particle with centre of motion =

?
2 = 2 [ 2 ( )2 ]

Example 1
The equation of motion of a particle is given by, where is the displacement of the particle
from the origin in metres
a) Find an expression for 2 in terms of given that the particle is at rest when = 3
=
1 2
( ) =
2
1
( 2 ) =
2
1 2 1
= 2 +
2 2
When = 3, = 0
9
0 = +
2
9
=
2
1 2 1 9
= 2 +
2 2 2
2 = 2 + 9
b) Hence, find the velocity of the particle when it is at the origin.
When = 0
2 = 0 + 9
= 3
The velocity of the particle is 3 m/s
c) Find the amplitude of the motion
2 = 9 2
= 1( 32 2 )
Which is of the form 2 = 2 (2 2 ), where = 1, = 3

d) Find (), given that the particle is initially 3 metres from the origin
Let the equation of motion of the particle be of the form
() = cos( + )
From the above, = 1, = 3
() = 3 cos( + )
When = 0, = 3
3 = 3 cos(0 + )
cos = 1
=
() = 3 cos( + )
Example 2
The motion of a particle undergoing SHM is given by the equation
= ( 2)
It is known that the amplitude of motion is 5
a) Find 2 in terms of
The above equation is of the form = 2 ( ) where = 1, = 2
Also, = 5
2 = 12 [ 52 ( 2)2 ]
= 25 ( 2 4 + 4)
= 21 + 4 2
b) Find the velocity of the particle when it is at the origin.
When = 0
2 = 21 + 4(0) 02
= 21 + 0
= 21
= 21
The velocity of the particle is 21m/s at the origin

c) Find the velocity of the particle when = 1
When = 1
+ 2 = 1
=1
When = 1
2 = 21 + 4(1) 12
= 21 + 4 1
= 24
= 24
= 26
Hence, the velocity of the particle is 26m/s when = 1
Example 3
A ball is oscillating up and down in SHM on a spring attached to a wall at one end with a
period of 4 seconds. Initially the ball is at rest with a displacement of 20cm from the wall.
2 seconds later, the displacement of the ball is only 10cm.
a) Write down the general displacement-time equation for motion about an arbitrary centre
= cos( + ) +
b) Find the value of
2
=

2
=

2
=
4

=
2
c) Find

= sin ( + )
2 2

d) Hence, find the initial phase
When = 0, = 0

0 = sin
2
sin = 0
= 0,
Since the ball is at rest initially, 20cm must be either the maximum or minimum distance
from the wall. Since the ball is only 10cm from the wall after 2 seconds, it must be the
maximum
Hence, = 0
e) Find the amplitude and period of motion
When = 0, = 20
20 = cos(0) + k
= +
When = 2, = 10

10 = cos ( 2) + k
2
= cos +
= +
Adding the two equations
30 = 2
= 15
Substituting into + = 20
+ 15 = 20
=5
f) Find the displacement after 1 second

= 5 cos ( ) + 15
2
When = 1

= 5 cos ( ) + 15
2
= 0 + 15
= 15
The ball is 15cm from the wall

Example 4
The rise and fall of the tide in a harbour can be approximated to be SHM. It is known that
high tide occurs at 2:00am, and low tide occurs at 3:00pm. At high tide, the depth of the
water is 15m, and at low tide, it is 9m
a) Show that the height of the tide hours after 2:00am is given by

= 3 cos ( ) + 12
13
Let = cos( + ) +
The time between the maximum and minimum height is 13 hours, and hence the period
is 26 hours
2
=

2
=
26

=
13
Taking the average of the high and low tide, the centre of motion must be 12m
Hence, the amplitude is 3m
Since at = 0 the tide is maximum, the phase will be 0 using a cos graph

Note that using a sine graph, the phase will be 2

Hence, = 3 cos ( ) + 12
13
b) Find the height of the tide at 8pm correct to the nearest centimetre
8pm is 18 hours after 2am. When = 18
18
= 3 cos ( ) + 12
13
= 10.94
The tide will be 10.94m high

Example 5
A boat requires a depth of 10m in a channel to be able to pass through it safely. It is known
that the depth of the water follows simple harmonic motion. On the day the ship was to sail
out, low tide occurred at 0:00am and had a depth of 6m while high tide was to occur 6.5
hours later with a depth of 12m. Boats are only allowed access through the channel between
midday and 6pm.
a) Find the equation of motion for the depth of the water
Since there are 6.5 hours between low tide and high tide, then there are 13 hours
between consecutive low tides, hence the period of motion is 13 hours
2
=

2
=
13
Since the average height of the tides is 9m, this is the centre of motion
2
= 3 cos ( + ) + 9
13
Let 0:00am be = 0
When = 0, = 6
6 = 3 cos + 9
3 cos = 3
cos = 1
=
2
= 3 cos ( + ) + 9
13

b) Find the times between 9am and 9pm when the depth of the water is 10m, giving your
answer correct to the nearest minute
When = 10
2
10 = 3 cos ( + ) + 9
13
2
3 cos ( + ) = 1
13
2 1
cos ( + ) =
13 3
2 1
+ = 2 cos 1 ,
13 3
2 1
= (2 1) cos 1
13 3
13(2 1) 13 1
= cos1
2 2 3
Between 9am and 9pm, 9 21
When = 0:
= 6.5 2.547
Which are both outside the boundary
When = 1:
= 6.5 2.547
= 3.953 9.047
Only the latter time is within the bounds, and corresponds to 9:03.
When = 2:
= 19.5 2.547
= 16.953 22.047
Only the first of these two times, corresponding to 16:57, is within bounds.
Hence, the two times between 9am and 9pm at which the height is 10m are 9:03am and
4:57pm
c) Hence find the period of time in which the boat can pass through the channel
Since the first high tide occurs at 06:30 and the second low tide occurs at 13:00, we see
that at 9:03am the tide is falling below 10m. Hence, the ship cannot sail out after
9:03am
Since the next high tide occurs at 7pm, at 4:57pm, the tide is coming in, so the water
level is above 10m
Since the boat can only sail between 12pm and 6pm, the boat can only pass through the
channel from 4:57pm to 6:00pm

3U Maths

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

3U Maths

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Epping Boys High School

Vinodh Thanabalasingham, Lawrence Feng,

Permutations and Combinations 55

Angle Between Two Lines 71

Further Applications of Calculus 114

Related Rates of Change 116

Inverse Functions and the Inverse Trigonometric Functons 125

Projectile Motion 152

Simple Harmonic Motion 159

MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 2 OF 179

A polynomial is an algebraic expression of the form:

The above expression is known as the polynomial ().

Polynomials are continuous and differentiable at every point.

The exponents of a polynomial are non-negative integers.

Coefficients are real numbers

Term Symbol Definition Significance

Leading Coefficient Constant in front of highest Determines the

MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 3 OF 179

Some polynomials have special names:

Degree () Polynomial () Special Name

ROOTS & ZEROES

The equation ( ) = 0 is known as a polynomial equation of degree where is the degree

A polynomial has zeroes and a polynomial equation has roots.

2( + 1)( 4)( + 3) = (2 + 2)( 2 12)

Since all the powers are non-negative integers, it is a polynomial

It is a polynomial of degree 3, with leading coefficient 2 and constant term 24

MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 4 OF 179

It is not a polynomial because 5 is not a non-negative integer power

It is a polynomial of degree 0, with leading coefficient 0 and constant term 0

Consider the polynomial () = 3 + 2 2 2 write down the roots of P(x)

SUMMARY OF ODD AND EVEN DEGREE FUNCTIONS

Even Same Direction 0

BEHAVIOUR FOR LARGE | |

For large values of | |, the leading term dominates the function

MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 5 OF 179

Cuts the x axis

Bounces of the x-axis

Point of inflection at root.

CURVE SKETCHING METHOD

A basic method for sketching polynomial functions:

STEP 2: Determine the zeroes of the polynomial

STEP 4: Determine the y-intercept by evaluating (0).

STEP 5: Sketch the curve using the above information

MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 6 OF 179

Graph the curve = 3 ( 1)( 3)2

STEP 1: Determine the general shape of the graph

The leading coefficient is positive, and the degree is even

STEP 2: Determine the zeroes of the polynomial

STEP 3: Determine the nature of the zeroes

There is a triple root at = 0, so it is cubic in shape.

There is a double root at = 3, so it is parabolic in shape

STEP 4: Determine the y-intercept by evaluating (0).

(0, 0) is the -intercept

STEP 5: Sketch the curve

MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 7 OF 179

POLYNOMIAL LONG DIVISION

If we are asked to divide a number by another number we can write it as =

3489 = 317 11 + 2, i.e. the = 317 and = 2

Likewise if we are asked to divide a polynomial ( ) by a polynomial ( ), we can write this

NOTE: If there is a term missing, use 0x n

MATHEMATICS EXTENSION 1 | PAGE 8 OF 179

Use the division algorithm to divide 3 3 + 4 2 + 8 + 9 by + 1

2 This polynomial is known as the remainder

Thus we can interpret this as