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COURSE NUMBER: ARnov2015.2
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The sustainable-design movement is evolving impact. It will also offer designers insight on The Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF) at
from checking boxes in credit templates to how to increase sustainable performance on the University of Washington released a
holistic design. And in the search for holistic their projects through optimization of concrete U.S.-specific PCR for ready mixed concrete
sustainable solutions, designers are seeking new applications in sustainable building. And to in November 2012, which was revised in
insight through life cycle analysis and building support this, the cement and concrete industry December 2013.1 In February 2013, the World
modeling to evaluate a projects impacts over is developing detailed information to inform Business Council for Sustainable Development
its entire life. Certain attributes of sustainable designers about the environmental impacts of (WBCSD) also announced the development of a
buildings become increasingly important, such as: their product choices. PCR for unreinforced concrete.2
Energy EMBRACING TRANSPARENCY Other concrete-related industry PCRs that have
Durability and resilience been published recently include:
The cement and concrete industry has
Reduced material manufacturing impacts embraced environmental transparency for some Slag Cement, published in August 20143,
Operational impact improvements time, publishing its first industry-average LCA Portland, blended hydraulic, masonry,
in 2000. Since then, the concrete industry has mortar, and plastic (stucco) cements,
ComfortHVAC, noise, emissions
advanced its self-evaluation of environmental published in September 20144, and
This article will update readers on steps the hot spots in its processes, and graduated to Manufactured Concrete and Concrete
cement and concrete industries are taking developing product category rules (PCR) and Masonry Products, published by ASTM
to evaluate and reduce their environmental environmental product declarations (EPDs). in December 20145.
CONTINUING EDUCATION
An industry-average environmental product smaller quantities of clay, iron ore and sand (as wastes that have high energy content. Cement
declaration for ready mixed concrete was sources of alumina, iron and silica, respectively). kilns are one of the few options where these
published by the National Ready-Mixed Concrete Increasingly, alternative sources from industry wastes can be safely and efficiently disposed,
Association (NRMCA) in October 2014. NRMCAs by-products (steel mill slag and scale, foundry because of the high temperature in the kiln and
Industry-Wide Environmental Product Declaration sands, or bottom ash from coal fired power the length of time exposed to this level of heat.
(EPD) and Benchmark Report6 discloses average plants) can provide the essential elements for The EPA has designated thermal destruction
environmental impacts for concrete. These data cement production. by energy recovery in cement kilns as the Best
are for concretes of varying strengths, uses, and Demonstrated Available Technology (BDAT) for
The materials are heated to temperatures
mixture proportions. Several companies have also treatment of these wastes.
around 2700 degrees Fahrenheit (1500 degrees
published EPDs for individual concrete-related
Celsius) to chemically transform the raw
products. Similarly, the U.S. cement industry
materials into clinker as it passes through the ENERGY RECOVERY FROM WASTE
expects to publish an industry average EPD for
rotary kiln. After the clinker has cooled, it is
the most commonly used kinds of cement at the
very finely ground with gypsum, limestone, and
start of 2016.
minute amounts of other constituents to form
FUNDAMENTAL CONCRETE COMPONENTS portland cement.
Figure 2Whole steel belted tires feed into a cement kiln for energy
recovery and solid waste reduction.
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) from concrete production and can be used to MIX DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
such as fly ash, slag, and silica fume are industrial replace a portion of new aggregate in concrete,
With cement contributing a significant portion of
by-products which offer both environmental and particularly the coarse portion. In a 2008 report, concretes environmental impact, a common specifica-
performance benefits for concrete production. Federal Highway Administration noted that tion strategy is to reduce the cement content of a mix
Fly ash is a residual from the combustion of eleven states currently use recycled concrete design to the lowest possible level. This is often done in
pulverized coal in electric power generating aggregate in new concrete.9 These states report conjunction with increased percentages of supplemental
cementitious materials, with the caveat that this can
plants. Slag cement is created from iron blast- that concrete containing recycled aggregate can result in positive or negative performance consequences
furnace slag, a by-product of the steel-making perform equal to concrete containing natural with the recognition that cement provides the primary
industry. Silica fume is a waste created from aggregates. Applications such as foundation engineering and durability properties of concrete.
the electric arc furnace used in the production slabs and insulated concrete form walls are also Contrary to the strategy above, high percentage
of silicon or ferrosilicon alloy. In their 2014 well suited for recycled aggregate incorporation. cement mix designs can be a solution for a lower carbon
Industry Wide EPD for Concrete, the ready mixed footprint in some applications. The use of high strength
To conserve natural resources, the use of concrete for certain design elements can result in a
concrete industry reported that 95% of their
marginal aggregates in concrete is becoming significant reduction of cross section, may eliminate the
plants use SCMs in their concrete products. need for multiple elements or may provide significantly
more common. Some natural aggregates may
longer service life.
The intelligent use of SCMs can reduce the react to the alkalinity of the cement paste,
Consider this simplified example of a forty story
environmental footprint and contribute contain organic impurities or other chemicals building with a floor plate supported by with sixteen
beneficially to the fresh and hardened proper- which can be detrimental to durable concrete. columns (15' floor to floor height) per floor. Utilizing a
ties of concrete. It is important to consider the Judicious mix design can accommodate some 4,000 psi mix design (with 440 lbs of cement /cu. yard)
impact on the properties of the concrete when reactive aggregates with careful selection of requires columns with a cross sectional dimension of 36"
x 36". Raising the cement content to 856 lbs /cu. yard
determining the optimum amount of SCMs cementitious materials (cements and SCMs)
yields a compressive strength of 9,000 psi. The column
in a concrete mixture, which can affect water and appropriate testing. cross sectional area is reduced to 24" x 24".
demand, curing times, durability, aesthetics,
Alternative aggregates are also available from
and other factors. Typical SCM proportions 4,000 psi 9,000 psi
industrial by-products, such as blast furnace slag Concrete Concrete
range from 15 to 40% of a mix design (by
aggregate, simultaneously reducing use of virgin
mass) and their use is also influenced by the Total Cementitious Materials 550 865
resources and land-filled waste materials. Blast in lbs per cu. yd.
local availability of these materials.
furnace slag is a lightweight aggregate derived Supplementary Cementitious 110 40 (silica
Aggregate from industrial waste with a century long history in lbs. per cu. yd. (flyash) fume)
of beneficial use in the concrete industry.
Aggregates, constituting 60 to 75% of Portland cement in 440 825
concrete by volume, are customarily sand, Water lb per cu. yd.
gravel, or crushed stone which are typically Column cross section 36 by 36. 24 by 24
Water is essential to the hydration of cement in in inches.
locally sourced, naturally occurring, with low
concrete. Almost any water suitable for drinking
embodied energy. A typical sand or aggregate Concrete per column (15 ft) 5.00 2.22
is acceptable for use in concrete. To improve in yd.
quarry is considered relatively shallow and
water conservation, recently approved practices
small in scale, closely contained and monitored Portland cement per column 2200 lbs 1833 lbs
in concrete production include replacing in lbs.
compared to most mining operations. When
of some of the potable water with water
closed, aggregate quarries are often converted Volume of cement reduction 16%
reclaimed from previous concrete production,
to their natural state, or into recreational areas, Volume aggregate reduction 55%
industrial processes and other water sources
or agricultural uses.
typically not used for human consumption.
This results in a 16% net reduction for cement and a
Admixtures 55% reduction for aggregates, lowering the greenhouse
gas footprint for these elements as well as providing an
Chemical admixtures enhance the plastic increase in net rentable floor area of 3120 s.f.
and hardened properties of the concrete.
Admixtures typically do not significantly affect
the environment impact because they are
used in such small quantities. Dosage rates CHARACTERISTICS OF SUSTAINABLE
are typically in the range of 0.005 to 0.2% of BUILDINGS
the concrete mass. They are primarily used to As weve become more knowledgeable and
provide air entrainment, control set times, and experienced in sustainability, weve come to
improve workability in fresh concrete. When expect more from our buildings and the products
Figure 4Part of the 6 million tons of recycled concrete generated
used in concrete for improved hardened prop- from which they are constructed. Concrete has
from runways, taxiways and structures at Denvers Stapleton erties, they can increase compressive strength, certain inherent properties that aid in creating
Airportimage courtesy of RMCI reduce shrinkage, and lower permeability. This more-sustainable buildings such as:
can result in greater durability and longevity
Recycled concrete from demolished buildings with a corresponding conservation of material Durability and resiliency
and pavements and reclaimed aggregate resources and related environmental impacts. Heat island mitigation
CONTINUING EDUCATION
In determining the real value of a building, one 3. According to the EPA, 2013 cement plant greenhouse gas emissions were what percentage of the nations
must consider both the impacts over the entire total emissions?
life cycle of the project. Extracting optimal a. .36% b. 1.1%
value from any material invested in a building c. 5% d. 10%
demands durable products, design details
and construction practices. Determining the 4. What percentage of alternative fuels do cement plants use for their energy?
impacts of material production is becoming a. 5 to 10% b. 10 to 20%
more common as manufacturers publish data c. 20 to 70% d. 70 to 100%
through EPDs. A key factor in building reuse
and adaptability is the durability of the original 5. True or false: Fly ash is a by-product of steel manufacturing.
structure and components. Structures require a. True b. False
different types of durability depending on the
intended use, environmental exposure and 6. What federal agency recognizes the durability of concrete by promoting concrete safe rooms for providing
desired engineering properties. occupant protection from natural disasters?
a. Public Health Service b. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Concrete components provide a long service
c. U.S. Fire Administration d. Transportation Security Administration
life due to their durable and low-maintenance
surfaces. Concrete can resist weathering action, 7. What is the solar reflectance value (SRI) of new concrete without added pigments?
chemical attack, moisture and abrasion while a. >19 b. >29
maintaining desired engineering properties. c. >32 d. >78
These characteristics of concrete make it sus-
tainable in multiple ways: it avoids contributing 8. How does one take into account the thermal mass benefits when modeling energy performance of a building?
solid waste to landfills, it reduces the depletion a. Account for hourly heat transfer on an annual basis b. Account for hourly heat transfer on an hourly basis
of natural resources, and the generation of c. Account for annual heat transfer on an annual basis d. Account for annual heat transfer on an hourly basis
air, water and solid waste from replacement
materials. When properly designed, concrete 9. What component of concrete is the greatest by mass?
structures can be reused or repurposed several a. Aggregate b. Cement
times in the future. c. Water d. Admixtures
10. Increased outdoor temperatures due to the urban heat island effect, have been linked to what?
a. Greater air-conditioning loads b. Reduced outdoor air quality
c. Increased cases of asthma d. All of the above
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HEAT ISLAND MITIGATION New concrete without added pigments has an stormwater facilities such as expansive detention
SRI value greater than 29, the threshold value basins. Reducing the size of stormwater facilities
Studies have shown that urban environments
required for hardscape in most green building can often result in more buildable land area
are 2C to 4C (3F to 8F) warmer than
standards and rating systems.11 particularly important on tighter, more densely
adjacent areas, and this phenomenon is called
developed sites.
the urban heat-island effect. This temperature Reflectance values can decrease over time as
difference is attributed to the replacement the pavement collects dirt and the cement paste Pervious concrete is a porous or no-fines concrete
of natural vegetation with buildings and at the surface is abraded. Pressure washing of that has interconnected voids. Water percolates
pavements. Replacing dark roofing and paving the surface can restore much of the original through these voids into the soil beneath the
materials with more reflective choices reduces reflectance. concrete system. If the absorptive capability of
heat island impacts. Concrete is an obvious the soil is inadequate to effectively handle the
material choice for reducing the urban heat STORMWATER MANAGEMENT anticipated runoff during a given period, the
island effect. Concrete plays a significant role in conventional pervious concrete is placed over engineered gran-
surface water management by providing ular base material, sized to provide temporary
conveyance and treatment infrastructure that is storage until the soil can absorb the runoff. For
durable and impermeable. With the advent of impervious soils, the storage layer of a pervious
sustainable design, there is considerable interest paving system can function as a detention basin,
in replicating pre-development hydrologic site slowing the rate of discharge into a storm sewer
characteristics and concrete continues to offer system while enabling parking. Pervious concrete
solutions for design professionals and building technology enables more efficient land use by
owners. Since the primary cause of stormwater eliminating the need for retention ponds, swales,
runoff is an increased impervious surface, and other stormwater management devices.
sustainable site design seeks to minimize After several decades of in-place pervious pave-
impervious surfaces as a first step. The second ments, well developed maintenance practices are
step is to manage the stormwater and minimize available to address potential clogging and snow
off-site discharge. This generally requires removal issues.
Figure 8Infrared imaging reveals a 29 degree surface temperature
differential between concrete (foreground) and asphalt paving. Photo creating conveyance and storage features that In pervious concrete applications, carefully
courtesy of Larry Schofield, ACPA initially store and allow for infiltration and controlled amounts of water and cementitious
absorption of stormwater. This has resulted materials are used to create a paste that forms
Albedo is the ratio of the amount of solar in strategies that emphasize conservation and a thick coating around similarly sized aggregate
radiation reflected from a material to the integration of on-site natural features with particles. A pervious concrete mixture contains
amount that shines on the material. Surfaces small-scale hydrologic controls. little or no sand, creating a substantial void
with lower albedos absorb more solar radiation. Collectively, these strategies are known as content (typically between 15 and 25%). Using
The absorbed radiation is converted into heat Low Impact Development (LID). In addition to sufficient paste to coat and bind the aggregate
and the surface gets hotter. Where paved sur- providing a more natural solution to stormwater particles together creates a system of highly
faces are required, using materials with higher management, low impact development permeable, interconnected voids that drains
albedos will reduce the heat island effect strategies can reduce flooding and the need for quickly. Water flow rates through pervious
consequently saving energy by reducing the large (and frequently expensive) conventional concrete are commonly measured at 0.34 cm/s
demand for air conditioning. Research by NASA (480 in./ft2/hr.), which is 200 L/m2/min (5 gal/ ft2/
in the late 1990s revealed that the metropolitan min), although they can be much higher.
area of Atlanta was up to 8 degrees F warmer
Permeable interlocking concrete pavers and
in the summer than the surrounding rural area,
grid paver systems are constructed with special
increasing cooling energy consumption for
interlocking pavers that provide spaces between
residents by up to 18%, increasing air pollution
adjacent units. These spaces are typically filled
and changing local weather patterns.12
with crushed granular material to allow water
Concrete constructed using ordinary portland to infiltrate into the base of the pavement. The
cement generally has a reflectance of approx- base course is designed to accept water so
imately 0.35, although it can vary. Measured that it can be quickly diverted from the surface
values are reported in the range of 0.30 to and provide a storage area that allows water
0.5. For concrete made with white portland to slowly percolate into the ground or to be
cement, values are reported in the range of controlled by other storm water management
0.7 to 0.8. The Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) is techniques.
used to determine the effect of the reflectance
Concrete pavers are made with dense concrete
and emittance on the surface temperature.
mixtures, come in a variety of shapes and can
SRI values vary from 100 for a standard white
be colored or textured. As a result of their
surface to zero for a standard black surface. The inter-connected voids of pervious concrete paving have flow physical characteristics, pavers are durable in a
rates that exceed 400 inches of rain per hour.
CONTINUING EDUCATION
LOCAL AVAILABILITY
Figure 10Thermal. mass walls enabled civilizations to thrive in
Concrete, and its constituent materials, are
extreme climates centuries before mechanical climate control.
typically sourced locally. For example, ready-mix
environments and energy efficient strategies, and precast concrete plants generally use
buildings constructed of cast-in-place, tilt-up aggregates that are extracted within 50 miles of
or precast concrete, insulating concrete forms the plant. Cement and supplementary cementi-
(ICF) and masonry possess thermal mass that tious materials used for buildings are also often
helps moderate indoor temperature extremes manufactured within 500 miles of a job site.
and reduces peak heating and cooling loads. Reinforcing steel is usually manufactured within
This means concrete components have enough 500 miles of a job site, and is typically made
heat-storage capacity to moderate daily from recycled materials from the same region.
temperature swings.
According to the National Ready Mixed
Figure 9Polished concrete provides subtle sophistication in a The thermal-mass advantages of concrete Concrete Association, the average distance
classroom setting. Image courtesy of Dancerconcrete.com, Fort should be utilized when designing for passive between the batch plant and the project site
Wayne, IN
thermal strategies or minimizing energy use in a is 14.2 miles. Most precast concrete plants are
building. In many climates, these buildings have within 200 miles of the project site. Reduced
quality when they off-gas from new products. In lower energy consumption than non-massive shipping distances associated with local
addition, VOCs combine with other chemicals in buildings with walls of similar thermal resis- building materials minimize fuel requirements
the air to form ground-level ozone. Complaints tance. When buildings are properly designed and the associated energy and emissions from
due to poor indoor air quality routinely include and optimized, incorporating thermal mass can transportation and handling. Locally produced
eye, nose, and throat irritation, dizziness and lead to a reduction in heating, ventilating, and materials contribute to the local economy and
increased incidence of asthma. air-conditioning equipment capacity. Reduced reduce imports of materials that may have been
equipment capacity can represent both energy produced in countries with much less stringent
Decorative concrete finishes can be integral and capital equipment cost savings. environmental regulations than in the U.S.
to the interior or exterior surface of concrete
walls and the walking surface of concrete slabs. The ASHRAE Standard 90.1Energy Standard SOUND ATTENUATION
Exterior decorative finishes eliminate the need for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
for additional maintenance and replacement of Buildings, the International Energy Conservation Recent research has revealed that densely
short lived coatings. Interior decorative finishes Code and most other energy codes recognize populated urban environments have the
eliminate the need for gypsum wallboard and the benefits for thermal mass and require less lowest carbon footprint per capita, with a
also provide a durable inside surface. insulation for mass walls. It is important when significant influence from reducing automobile
modeling energy performance of a building to usage. However, high density also puts
THERMAL MASS take into account the thermal mass benefits. habitants close to noisy infrastructure and
Computer programs such as DOE-2 and neighbors. Concrete provide the necessary
Centuries before the introduction of air con-
EnergyPlus can take into account hourly heat mass to dampen sound from one space to
ditioning, the integration of thermal mass and
transfer on an annual basis, which allows for the other. Assemblies with higher Sound
convection strategies enabled builders to create
more accurate determination of energy loss in Transmission Class values offer greater the
structures that worked with nature to keep
buildings with mass walls and roofs. sound attenuation. Concrete block or cast
occupants more comfortable. Fundamental for
concrete partitions can be used to separate
passive solar design but effective in most all
CONTINUING EDUCATION
REFERENCES
1 Carbon Leadership Forum (CLF). 2013. Product 6 Bushi, L. and G. Finlayson. 2014. NRMCA Member 11 Kiesling, Ernst W., and Carter, Russell (1997),
Category Rules (PCR) for ISO 14025 Type III National and Regional Life Cycle Assessment Benchmark Investigation of Wind Projectile Resistance of Insulating
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) of Concrete, (Industry Average) Report. Prepared for the National Concrete Form Homes, 2nd ed., RP122.02, Portland
Revised Version 1.1, December 4, 2013: CLF. Ready-Mix Concrete Association (NRMCA): Athena Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, 2005, 17 pages.
2 World Business Council on Sustainable Development Sustainable Materials Institute. 12 NASA websitehttp://science.nasa.gov/science-news/
(WBCSD). 2013. UN CPC 375 Concrete Product Category 7 Blumenthal, M., The Use of Scrap Tires in Rotary science-at-nasa/1999/essd26apr99_1
Rules, version 1.0: WBCSD. Cement Kilns, Scrap Tire management Council, 13 Fast Factswww.sustainableconcrete.org, 2013
3 ASTM International. 2014. Product Category Rules for Washington DC, 1996
Slag Cement, August 2014, West Conshohocken, PA: 8 Rubber Manufacturers Association, 2013 Scrap Tire
ASTM International. Management Summary, Nov 2014, http://www.rma.org/
4 ASTM International. 2014. Product Category Rules download/scrap-tires/market-reports/US_STMarket2013.pdf
for Portland, Blended Hydraulic, Masonry, Mortar, 9 FHWA, Recycled Concrete Aggregate, Federal Highway
and Plastic (Stucco) Cements, September 2014, West Administration National Review, Federal Highway
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. Administration, Washington, D.C., USA, 2008.
5 ASTM International. 2014. Product Category Rules 10 FEMA, Design and Construction Guidance for
for Manufactured Concrete and Concrete Masonry Community Safe Rooms, 2nd edition, FEMA 361, Federal
Products, December 2014, West Conshohocken, PA: Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.,
ASTM International. USA, 2008, 374 pages.