BIOL1262 Advisories

Lectures in this course proceed ONLY with

students accommodated in the seats provided
Strictly NO STANDING OR SITTING IS
ALLOWED IN THE PASSAGES/WALKWAYS of
the lecture theatre
If you cannot find a seat then attend the M12
lecture (@ 5:00 6:00 pm)
In addition there is to be NO saving of seats for
latecomers
 BIOL1262 Course Organisation
Lectures:
Mr. Frederick Boyd (weeks 1 & 2)
Dr. Jane Cohen (weeks 3 & 4)
Dr. Philip Rose (weeks 5 & 6)
Labs & Tutorials:
Lecturers change every two weeks
Teaching Assistants all six weeks of the course
Group assignments for semester 2 remain the same
as for semester 1.
Timetable:
BIOL1262 & 1263 follow the SAME timetable as
BIOL1017 & 1018 respectively
Taxonomy & Life Cycles

Lecture 1
 Taxonomy
earliest forms based on a system of the need
and use of plants by humans (& animals)
early humans often categorised plants into:
1. Growth form
2. Life cycles
3. Articles of diet
4. Medicinal
5. Economic / Social
6. Reproductive features
 Terms associated with Taxonomy

Taxonomy:
The major component of systematics
that includes four aspects:
1. Description
2. Identification
3. Nomenclature
4. Classification
 Terms associated with Taxonomy
1. Description:
assignment of features referred to as characters to
each group (or taxon)of organisms being classified.

Character Character State(s)

Petal colour yellow, red, blue, pink
Leaf texture pubescent (hairy) or glabrous
Bark texture Rough or smooth
Elliptical, lanceolate, ovate,
Leaf shape
obovate
 Terms associated with Taxonomy
2. Identification
Associating an unknown taxon with a known one in order
to describe it, OR
Identification of a the unknown as new to science,
therefore it is then described and named by the researcher

Of the many taxonomic keys, the dichomotomous

taxonomic key is the most widely used when describing and
classifying specimens
Also inferred are...
 Steps in making a taxonomic keys
1. All steps of the taxonomic key must be dichotomous
throughout
There are a series of lead statements, each containing a
pair of similar but opposing characters

2. The couplet must be contrasting so that one fits the

situation at hand while the other does not:
1a. Leaves opposite.........go to 3
1b. Leaves alternate.........go to 2, etc., etc.
3.The key should have enough steps to identify each
member of the group
4.The number of steps in the key is one less than the
number of specimens.
 Terms associated with Taxonomy
3. Nomenclature
The formal naming of taxa according to some standardised
system
For the green algae and plants (Viridiplantae), the rules
and regulations for naming taxa are formulated by a groups
of botanists who produce the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature
These formal names, aka the scientific names, are by
convention written in Latin
Each organism has only one scientific name which is a
binomial, e.g. the tree from which we derive bay rum:
Genus name: Pimenta (Starts with upper case)
Species name: racemosa (starts with lower case)
Please note that the word species is the same spelling whether
in the singular or plural
 Nomenclature special note on the
species taxon

Please note that the word species is the

same spelling whether in the singular or
plural:
One species (please NEVER say or write 1
specie!)
> 1 species
 Nomenclature
There is a prescribed convention for writing
these names
Both the generic and specific names are printed in
italics
When hand-written, each name is underlined
with ITS OWN separate SINGLE, STRAIGHT line
The generic name is capitalised while the specific
epithet is all lower case
These names may differ significantly from the
name by which the organism is commonly called
 Nomenclature - example
E.g. the scientific name for nutmeg:
Printed as: Myristica fragrans
Hand-written as: Myristica fragrans
If you underline the title of a drawing, take care
that the name of the organism is NEVER double-
underlined! (Myristica fragrans)
These conventions facilitate the ease and accuracy
of scientific communication
The common names Guinep and Ackee mean
different things within the single region of the
Caribbean!
 Terms associated with Taxonomy
4. Classification:
general term referring to placing organisms into definite categories
(rank) to achieve some type of orderly study of the entities.
Cataloguing and expressing relationships between life forms
Each rank is hierarchical (i.e. inclusive of other ranks beneath it):

Kingdom
- Phylum (aka. Division)
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
 Terms associated with Taxonomy
Major Taxonomic Ranks Taxa

- Kingdom Viridiplantae
- Phylum (aka. Division) Magnoliophyta
- Class Liliopsida
- Order Arecales
- Family Arecaceae
- Genus (pl. genera) Cocos
- Species (pl. species) Cocus nucifera
 Terms associated with Taxonomy
3. Phylogeny:
The evolutionary history of a group of organisms
Expressed in a hierarchical tree of life or
phylogenetic tree (aka cladogram)
The evolutionary history (i.e. Changes in the genetic
make-up of populations) may be described in terms
of the change(s) from the ancestral condition
towards derived condition.
4. Systematics:
Process of classifying living organisms according to
their phylogeny
 Systematics: modern taxonomy
Systematic approach cf. phenotypical
(phenetic) approach.
Scientists rely principally on evidence of the
evolutionary history of organism from sources
such as:
1. Paleontology
2. Comparative anatomy
3. Comparative embryology
4. Comparative biochemistry
5. Molecular genetics
6. Geographic distribution of organisms in question
 Progress of Taxonomic Systems
Scientist(s) Approach
Linnaeus, 1735 Animalia, Vegetabilia (2 Kingdoms)
Haeckel, 1866 Protista, Plantae, Animalia. (3 Kingdoms)
Chatton, 1937 Prokaryota, Eukaryota (2 Kingdoms)
Monera (prokaryotes), Protoctista, Plantae,
Copeland, 1956
Animalia (4 Kingdoms)
Monera (prokaryotes), Fungi, Protista, Plantae,
Whittaker, 1969
Animalia (5 Kingdoms)
Woese et al., Eubacteria, Archaea, Protista, Fungi, Plantae,
1977 Animalia (6 Kingdoms)
Woese and Fox,
1999
Eubacteria, Archaea, & Eukaryotes (3 Domains)
 How is life classified?
The Three-Domain Model
(Woese, 1999)

c. 1977
Life Cycles / Histories
 Life Cycles
The series of changes in the growth and development of
an organism from its beginning as an independent life
form to its mature state in which offspring are produced.
Life cycles are governed by reproduction and reproduction
can occur in two ways:
1. Asexual reproduction:

2. Sexual reproduction:
 Asexual Reproduction in Algae
1. Some unicellular forms of algae like Micrasterias
reproduce by eukaryotic binary fission (mitosis).
The parent cell divides (longitudinally or transversely)
into two similar parts. These two cells develop as
organisms and are similar to the parent cell:
 Binary fission in green algae

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uc9ppqqCMmI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0P7RQV51XvU

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VtuBmXl0ttM
 Asexual Reproduction in Algae
2. Some multicellualr forms of algae like Scenedesmus
and Volvox reproduce repeatedly by mitosis (multiple
fission).
 Autocolony Formation
Daughter colonies form
within the parent colony
e.g. Volvox sp.
These are produced
inside the hollow internal
space of the parent
colony.
New daughter colonies
form from certain cells
(initials) in the surface of
the colony
Eventually, the parent
colony will rupture and
release the mature
daughter colonies.
 Asexual Reproduction in Algae
3. Some algae use the process of
fragmentation
In filamentous algae (e.g. Spirogyra)
and thalloid Ulva, the parent body
breaks up into two or more fragments
that grow into new organisms
 Asexual Reproduction in Algae
4. Sporulation - formation of spores
(zoospores) in normal vegetative cells
or specialized cells known as sporangia.
The spores swim away from the parent,
settle down and develop directly into
new filaments.
e.g. Chlamydomonas, Chlorella and Ulothrix
Sporulation in
Ulothrix sp.
 Sexual reproduction in the algae

Although most algae reproduce asexually

under normal circumstances,
environmental disturbances may initiate
sexual reproduction.

Usually some disturbance / instability in

the environment initiates sexual
reproduction
 Sexual Reproductive Cycles
Sexual reproduction is manifested through three
types of life cycles.
These are distinguished by when meiosis takes place
within the life cycle:
1. Zygotic meiosis
mainly in freshwater Chlorophyta
2. Conjugation
found only in freshwater Chlorophyta
a different type of conjugation is also in the Ciliates
3. Gametic meiosis
in mainly marine Chlorophyta & Phaeophyta
4. Sporic meiosis
involves an alternation of generations
marine Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta & Rhodophyta.
 Zygotic meiosis
Mature, dominant adult organism is a haploid
individual which produces gametes by mitosis
These haploid gametes combine to form a diploid
zygote.
Zygote divides immediately by meiosis to form 4
haploid cells.
The zygote may develop into a zygospore to ride
out unfavourable environmental conditions, then
divide into the haploid cells when normal
conditions return
 Zygotic meiosis
aka. the haplontic or haploid life cycle
the dominant adult individual in the life cycle is
haploid (n), i.e. the gametophyte
Since the zygote undergoes meiosis = zygotic
meiosis.
e.g. Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Spirogyra
 Zygotic meiosis

n n
mitosis

2n

Raven, Evert & Eichhorn, 2005

 Zygotic meiosis life cycle of Chlamydomonas

Haploid cells
Zygote divides immediately by
meiosis to form 4 haploid cells.
Each haploid cell
divides by mitosis
producing a
multicellular haploid
individual.

ZYGOTIC MEIOSIS

Haploid individual
produces gametes.
2 haploid cells combine to give
a diploid zygote

http://kentsimmons.uwinnipeg.ca/2152/lb3pg1.htm
 Sexual reproduction in the algae

Conjugation:
Some of the simplest forms of algae
like Spirogyra reproduce by the
conjugation method of sexual
reproduction.
 Conjugation
in Spirogyra

a. Formation of conjugation tubes between two adjacent filaments.

b. Cytoplasmic contents of each cell form a compact mass (an isogamete).
which migrate from one filament to the other through the conjugation
tubes
c. The two isogametes unite to form a zygote which undergoes meiosis to
form four haploid cells. One haploid cell will form a new filament by
mitosis.
 Gametic meiosis
Mature, dominant adult is a diploid individual
Diploid individual undergoes meiosis giving haploid
gametes.
Each pair of haploid gametes combine to form a
diploid zygote.
Zygote develops into the diploid individual.
Since gametes are produced by meiosis = gametic
meiosis.
aka. the diplontic diploid life cycle
the dominant adult individual in the life cycle is diploid (2n).

e.g. Sargassum, Fucus

 Gametic meiosis
Raven, Evert & Eichhorn, 2005

n n n

2n
 Sporic meiosis
Mature adult may exist either as a haploid gametophyte or
as a diploid sporophyte
The gametophyte produces the gametes
2 haploid gametes combine to form a diploid zygote.
Zygote divides to produce a sporophyte
an autotroph which produces spores
The sporophyte produces haploid spores within
sporogenous tissue via meiosis.
since meiosis gives rise to spores = sporic meiosis.
The spores then develop by mitosis into multicellular
haploid individuals (new gametophytes)
aka. the haplodiplontic cycle or the Haploid-Diploid life
cycle:
There are two types of generations, the one haploid and
the other diploid, within the life cycle of the species.
Sporic meiosis
Raven, Evert & Eichhorn, 2005

n n

2n
 Sporic meiosis & Alternation of
Generations (a-o-g)
1. Isomorphic alternation of generations
In many marine Chlorophyta a few Phaeophyta that
reproduce via sporic meiosis, the sporophyte and
gametophyte individuals are appear the same in
external appearance
Chlorophyta: Ulva
Phaeophyta: Dictyota
2. Heteromorphic alternation of generations
In the Rhodophyta and Phaeophyta the sporophyte
and gametophyte are notably different from one
another
Rhodophyta: Polysiphonia
Phaeophyta: Laminaria, Macrocystis
 Isomorphic a-o-g in Ulva Spores give rise to
gametophytes via mitosis,
that produce haploid
gametes.

Sporophyte undergoes n
meiosis giving haploid
spores

2 haploid gametes combine to

2n form a diploid zygote

Zygote divides giving a

sporophyte
http://legacy.lclark.edu/~seavey/bio210/images%20for%20210/ulva_life_cycle.jpg
 Terminology - revision
Gametophyte
haploid stage of an autotroph that develops from a spore and produces
gametes by mitosis
Gametangium
a case where gametes are produced and stored, produced by the
gametophyte
Gamete
collective term for sperm and egg (sex cells)
Sporophyte
diploid stage of autotroph that grows from the zygote and produces
spores by meiosis
Sporangium
the case holding spores, produced by the sporophyte
Spore
haploid, single cell produced by meiosis